Inland Water

Ecology of India

Editor
Dr. Shashikanth H. Majagi

2013

Daya Publishing House

A Division of

Astral International Pvt. Ltd.

New Delhi 110 002

270

2013, EDITOR
Publishers note:
Every possible effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in
this book is accurate at the time of going to press, and the publisher and author cannot
accept responsibility for any errors or omissions, however caused. No responsibility for
loss or damage occasioned to any person acting, or refraining from action, as a result of
the material in this publication can be accepted by the editor, the publisher or the
author. The Publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in the
book. The contents of this work are intended to further general scientific research,
understanding and discussion only. Readers should consult with a specialist where
appropriate.
Every effort has been made to trace the owners of copyright material used in this
book, if any. The author and the publisher will be grateful for any omission brought to
their notice for acknowledgement in the future editions of the book.
All Rights reserved under International Copyright Conventions. No part of this
publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without
the prior written consent of the publisher and the copyright owner.

Cataloging in Publication DataDK

Courtesy: D.K. Agencies (P) Ltd. <docinfo@dkagencies.com>
Inland water ecology of India / editor, Shashikanth H.
Majagi.
p. cm.
Contributed articles.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 9788170358169 (Hardbound)
ISBN 9789351300700 (International edition)
1. Freshwater ecologyIndia.
DDC 577.60954

Published by

I. Majagi, Shashikanth H.

23

Daya Publishing House

A Division of
Astral International Pvt. Ltd.
ISO 9001:2008 Certified Company
81, Darya Ganj, Near Hindi Park,
Delhi Medical Association Road,
New Delhi - 110 002
Phone: 011-4354 9197, 2327 8134
Fax: +91-11-2324 3060
E-mail: info@astralint.com
Website: www.astralint.com

Laser Typesetting, Classic Computer Services, Delhi - 110 035 and Printed at :
Salasar Imaging Systems, Delhi - 110 035

PRINTED IN INDIA

168

Chapter 15

Hydrobiological Status of the

Ralakunta Pond in Raichur
District, Karnataka
R.J. Banagar1, S.R. Banagar2 and S.J. Patil2*
Department of Zoology, L.V.D. College,
Raichur 584 103, Karnataka
2
National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology (NIANP),
Adugodi, Bangalore 560 030, Karnataka
1

ABSTRACT
Present work was pertaining to studies conducted at one permanent
standing water body near Raichur city viz., Ralakunta pond in Yapaladini
village. The period of study was undertaken for one year from September
2006 to August 2007. This study is intended to monitor the water quality
of Ralakunta pond, Raichur district, Karnataka and also helpful for using
this water for making fisheries activity as well as agricultural purpose. The
present investigation encompassed collection of data pertaining to various
aspects such as meteorological condition, physicochemical parameter,
primary productivity and phytoplankton, molluscans, composition of
water body of Ralakunta pond. The hydrobiological investigations were
limited primarily in the Ralakunta pond with a view to understand the
ecobiology of water bodies in details since this water body is known to be

* Corresponding author: E-mail: shajapatil@gmail.com

Hydrobiological Status of the Ralakunta Pond in Raichur District

169

utilized for fisheries activity and at the same time and dumping sink of for
the agricultural waste. However, this pond is mesotrophic. And present
studies of various physicochemical parameters of Ralakunta pond were
made to establish which of one is safe for fisheries.
Keywords: Hydrobiology, Phytoplankton,
parameters, Molluscans, Pond

Physico-chemical

Introduction
Water is the important component for the survival of the
organisms. The water is an inexhaustible gift of the nature and is the
most precious resource on the nature. According to Kudesia and
Kudesia (1998) about 97 per cent of earths water is found in ocean
2 per cent is frozen as ice in pole and remaining 1 per cent is available
to us in the form of fresh water in rivers, streams, lakes and ground
water and which is used for human beings for their daily needs,
irrigation and industries.
Differentiated character of the land use in the surroundings of
a water body may have a very significant and often decisive impact
on the structure of a variety of aquatic organisms (Miller et al., 1997;
George and Winfield, 2000). The changes within the catchment area
with regard to eutrophication may cause the impoverishment of the
natural communities of freshwater reservoirs (Tallberg et al., 1997;
Jeppesen et al., 2002). This process of eutrophication highly depends
on the amount of nutrient loading from the lakes surroundings
(Ryding and Rast, 1989). It is not only the effect of the type of the
land use that structures the freshwater communities but also the
morphometric features of a particular lake may play an important
role. Lakes, which are inland bodies of freshwater, differ in size and
depth and especially in the shape of their banks. The division of a
lake into various bays, of different sizes and depths, may also
contribute to a great differentiation of the communities of aquatic
organisms, especially in respect to the taxonomical structure,
abundance, and the occurrence of dominating and also specific,
distinct species. The physicochemical parameters, which may be
different depending on the type of water body and its depth or may
vary between particular basins, may also modify freshwater life
(Lampert and Sommer, 2001).

170

Therefore, the continuous and periodical monitoring of water

quality is necessary so that appropriate preventive and remedial
measures can be undertaken. The present study was done to evaluate
various physicochemical parameters of the three important
freshwater ponds. These water bodies recharge the groundwater
and also harbour numerous aquatic lives. The physicochemical
characteristics of an aquatic body not only reflect the type and
diversity of aquatic biota but also the water quality and pollution.
On the other hand, though the Ralakunta pond has not much
polluted and at present it is being mesotrophic and ageing towards
eutrophication. Hence, measures should be taken to minimize the
pollution by preventing washing cloths, bathing of cattles, dumping
of agricultural waste and other human activities, so that the purity
of this pond can be maintained.

Materials and Methods

Study Area (Figure 15.1)
A perennial pond was selected; it is situated in the Raichur
district from 21 km away known as Ralakunta pond near Yapaladini
village near hilly regions southern boundaries are flanked by roads.
The water body is differing in size, shape depth, aquatic vegetation,
in the degree of population and physicochemical factors. The

Figure 15.1: Ralakunta Pond Located at Yapaladini Village in

Raichur District, Karnataka, India

Hydrobiological Status of the Ralakunta Pond in Raichur District

171

Ralakunta pond is less polluted and has become mesotrophic. The

area of the pond is 0.302 sq. km, mean depth is 5.4 m and 200 families
were living around the pond. The pond water is used for washing
clothes, bathing the cattles and construction purpose. During rainy
season the pond overflows and emits noxious smell. It also receives
domestic effluents from Yapaladini village; surface run off from
agricultural field and rice mill wastes comes from western region.
The pond water is not utilized for any other purpose but fish
capturing done by fishermen. Cooperative society limited for the
fishery activity. Since, from 32 years the various features Nandy
drainage of sewage into the pond fishery exploitation and human
utilization of the pond for various purposes attracted our attention
to understand the details of hydrobiological status and
anthropegenic interference on this pond.

Meterology
The information regarding various climatic factors such as total
rainfall, atmospheric temperature, humidity, obtained from
meteorological centre, Raichur for the period from September 2006
to August 2007. However present study only rainfall data have been
referred.
Ralakunta pond comes under Yapaladini village of Raichur
district lies in the northern plain of Karnataka state, India, covers an
area 05,232 sq. kms, and lies between 1610 to 1750 latitude and
7680 to 7850 longitude located at an altitude of 347 meter above
mean sea level. The population of this village is as per 2002 census
is 15,000 and density population is 05 person/km 2.

Collection of Samples
Water samples were collected from selected habitats for twelve
months from September 2006 to August 2007. Samples were collected
fortnightly and periodically every month during morning hrs
between 9.00 and 11.00 A.M. 50 litres of surface water was filtered
through standard plankton net. The collected plankton samples were
transferred to polyethylene bottles and preserved with 5 per cent
formalin.

Biological Analysis
Plankters were studied under microscope and identified with
the help of standard references (Adoni et al., 1985; Agarker et al.,

172

1994). Quantitative analysis was made using a plankton-counting

cell (Sedgwick rafter). Phytoplankton species richness, diversity and
evenness were carried out using the method of Ludwig and Reynolds
(1988) and Ismael and Dorgham, (2003).

Physico-chemical Analysis
Temperature (air and surface water) was recorded on the spot
using Centigrade thermometer. The pH of the water samples was
measured by using the gun pH meter on the spot. Physicochemical
analysis (free carbon dioxide, dissolved oxygen, total alkalinity,
chlorides, total dissolved solids, nitrates, phosphates, total hardness,
biological oxygen demand, calcium, magnesium, sulphates and
silicates) of the sample was done according to standard methods
(APHA, 1975).

Results and Discussion

The present study can be divided into 3 distinct seasons such
as summer (FebruaryMay), south west (JuneSeptember) and north
east (OctoberJanuary).

Physico-chemical Analysis (Table 15.1)

Total Rainfall
The data pertaining to the rainfall during different seasons are
presented in Table 15.2. Rainfall was highest during south east
monsoon (JuneSeptember) 323.3 to 210.5mm and lowest during
summer (FebruaryMay) 0 to 122.0mm and modest during north
east monsoon (OctoberJanuary) 26.4mm only.
Atmospheric Temperature
The atmospheric temperature varied between 29.7C to 45.7C.
During north east monsoon season of 2006-07 the atmospheric
temperature was 22.7C to 29.8C, while the atmosphere temperature
during south west monsoon of 2006-07 ranged between 29.0C to
45.0C.
Water Temperature
During north east monsoon of 2006-07 the water temperature
at (I-VII) 20.6 C24.8 C. While water temperature during south west
monsoon season of 2006-07 ranged between 18.7 C to 40.0 C at (IVII).

16.04

3.85

0.183

Magnesium

Sulphate

Silicates

0.286

3.90

85.63

41.77

138.50

85.66

0.29

0.71

0.404

129.2

222.0

0.526

4.11

66.93

83.59

124.50

84.83

0.32

0.68

0.308

350.0

185.3

7.02

4.96

8.84

0.383

5.48

62.37

137.03

185.83

73.05

0.36

1.28

0.439

127.3

217.6

10.52

6.73

8.68

24.71

27.55

210.3

0.413

4.21

34.67

106.37

122.66

75.16

0.39

0.96

0.396

375.3

195.3

7.18

5.56

8.16

20.76

28.53

26.4

0.252

3.82

34.12

58.37

153.66

77.00

0.58

1.03

0.378

392.5

175.3

6.46

7.26

8.78

22.52

30.28

20.8

0.290

5.35

26.12

55.45

165.16

76.16

0.62

0.82

0.515

256.7

134.3

40.19

7.75

9.12

24.54

25.60

0.0

Ralakunta Pond

0.357

4.38

33.33

68.37

173.33

75.83

0.38

0.78

0.572

237.8

180.3

8.88

12.01

8.68

25.48

22.65

0.0

0.274

2.91

28.89

59.09

114.50

76.33

0.38

0.92

0.693

213.5

240.3

6.70

7.07

8.72

18.80

29.30

0.0

0.582

3.71

36.16

40.23

92.66

77.66

0.42

0.86

0.329

196.5

183.3

7.22

7.01

8.77

25.53

42.10

0.0

0.427

2.74

32.67

36.18

124.33

80.66

0.44

1.57

0.422

244.

184.2

10.53

6.02

9.00

38.40

40.28

68.3

0.218

2.98

14.37

36.65

162.66

83.00

0.38

1.24

0.353

145.3

240.8

9.38

6.02

8.69

38.45

45.21

122.3

J: June, J: July, A: August, S: September, O: October, N: November, D: December, J: January, F: February, M: March, A: April, M: May

45.45

Calcium

0.36

Phosphate

84.50

1.21

Nitrate

150.16

0.406

TDS

BOD

135.8

Chlorides

Total Hardness

177.8

Total Alkalinity

8.10

8.05

6.01

10.36

Free CO2

8.08

8.91

Dissolved O2

pH

32.62

35.46

37.58

39.61

28.64

Air Temperature

Water Temperature 34.75

90.8

88.3

323.4

Rainfall

Parameters

Hydrobiological Status of the Ralakunta Pond in Raichur District

173

174
Table 15.2: Monthly Fluctuation of Phytoplankton (gC/m 3/hr) of
Ralakunta Pond
Month/Year

Myxophyceae

Chlorophyceae

Bacillariophy- Euglenophyceae
ceae

Sept. 06

3286

1092

868

652

Oct.

2896

872

285

578

Nov.

2695

1033

286

602

Dec.

6068

1286

3882

218

Jan. 07

32522

1208

3627

435

Feb.

1280

1320

1080

489

March

2836

1312

1320

602

April

4152

1631

1080

658

May

2731

1208

1060

620

June

3020

1296

1183

586

July

4020

1308

1011

611

August

3096

1136

986

653

Average

5716.83

1225.16

1389.00

558.66

pH
The monthly variation in the hydrogen ion concern in Ralakunta
pond of different seasons are presented in Table 15.1, during north
east season 2006-07 at different station (IVI) varies 8.1 to 9.1 while
south west of same year 8.09.0 in summer it ranges 8.6 to 9.00.
Free Carbon Dioxide
The free CO2 of Ralkunta pond for different season are present
in Table 15.1, during north east monsoon season 2006-07 at different
station (I-VI) CO2 fluctuated between 5.6 mg/l to 7.8 mg/l while
during south west monsoon seasons of same year 6.0 mg/l to 12.00
mg/l.
Dissolved Oxygen
The dissolved oxygen of Ralkunta pond for the different seasons
are present in Table 15.1, during north east monsoon season of 200607 at different station (IVI) DO 2 fluctuated between 6.4 mg/l to 10.8
mg/l while during south west monsoon season 2006-07 at different
station (I-VI) 7.1 mg/l to 10.5 mg/l.

Hydrobiological Status of the Ralakunta Pond in Raichur District

175

Total Alkalinity
The Total Alkalinity content of water samples was observed
during different month are presented in Table 15.1, during summer
month 2006-07, 240.3 mg/l at different station (I-VI), while during
North-East monsoon of 2006-07 of the Total Alkalinity at different
station (IVI) varies 134.0 to 217.0 mg/l but same year during south
west monsoon season 177.2 to 248.0 mg/l.
Chlorides
The chloride contents of Ralakunta pond during different
months from September 2006 to August 2007 are presented in the
Table 15.1, the chloride content during summer month of 2007 varied
between 145.0 mg/l to 293 mg/l, while, north east season 2006-07 at
different station (I-VI) chloride varies 127.0 mg/l to 375.0 mg/l and
during south west monsoon season 129.0 mg/l to 237.0 mg/l.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
Fluctuations of total dissolved solids during different months
are presented in Table 15.1, the total dissolved solids of Ralakunta
pond during summer months of 2007 is 0.332 to 0.697 mg/l while
during north east monsoon season of 2006-07 at different stations
the TDS value ranged between 0.375 mg/l to 0.44 mg/l while south
west monsoon season the TDS value ranged between 0.3011 mg/l to
0.697 mg/l.
Nitrate
The fluctuation of nitrates in Ralakanta pond are depicted in
Table 15.1, the summer season of 2007 the recorded values ranging
between 0.85 mg/l to 1.22 mg/l, while during north east monsoon
season of 2006-07 the nitrate values ranges 0.79 mg/l to 1.28 mg/l at
the same year of south west monsoon season of 2006-07 the nitrate
is 0.68 mg/l to 1.50 mg/l at different station (I-VI).
Phosphate
The concentration of phosphate phosphorus during different
months from September 2006 to August 2007 are presented in Table
15.1, the phosphate content during summer 2007 months varies
0.42 mg/l to 0.44 mg/l while the during north east monsoon season
of 2006-07, 0.37 mg/l to 0.62 mg/l at the same year south west
monsoon season phosphate phosphorus varies between 0.29 mg/l
to 0.44 mg/l.

176

Total Hardness
The fluctuation of total hardness concentration during months
are presented in Table 15.1, during summer monsoon 2007 72.3 to
81.02 mg/l while north east monsoon of 2006-7, 72.30 mg/l to 74.50
mg/l at different station fluctuates. During south west monsoon of
same year the hardness of 72.08 mg/l to 88.07 mg/l at different
station (I-VII).
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
The seasonal variation of BOD values of Ralakunta pond
during different monsoon are presented in Table 15.1, during summer
month of 2007 BOD values ranges between 095 mg/l to 1.65 mg/l at
different strain white, north east monsoon season of 2006-07. The
BOD is 125 mg/l to 186 mg/l during same year south west monsoon
season BOD is 095 mg/l to 176 mg/l.
Calcium
The details of the observation of calcium content during different
period are given below in Table 15.1, during summer month of 2007,
the calcium contents varied between 32.94 mg/l to 38.54 mg/l, while
the during south west monsoon of 2006-07, 55.72 mg/l, 136.15 mg/
l during north east monsoon of 2006-07. The range of calcium content
was between 32.94 mg/l to 82.56 mg/l.
Magnesium
The magnesium content of water sample was observed during
different are shown in Table 15.1, during summer month of 2007.
The magnesium concentration 27.39 mg/l to 35.01 mg/l, while north
east monsoon season of 2006-07, 23.72 mg/l to 63.22 at different
station (I-VI) while south west monsoon season 13.23 mg/l to 84.79
mg/l at different statement.
Sulphate
The periodic fluctuation in the available sulphate content of
the water sample are presented in Table 15.1, during the summer
month of 2007 the sulphate concentration is 2.58 mg/l to 3.30 mg/l
at different station while during north east monsoon season of 200607. The sulphate concentration is 3.29 to 4.9 mg/l while south west
monsoon season of same year 2.88 to 3.10 mg/l.

Hydrobiological Status of the Ralakunta Pond in Raichur District

177

Silicates
The silicate content of the water sample was observed during
different month at different stations are presented in Table 15.1
during summer of 2007. The silicates varied between 0.219 mg/l to
0.585 mg/l at different station, while north east monsoon of 200607.
Table 15.3: Study of Phytoplankton and
Their Level of Presence in Ralakunta Pond
Phytoplankton

Pond

Myxophyceae
Microcystis aeruginosa

++

M. puvarias Var incerta

+++

Anabaena sp.

++

Osallatona prolifica

Spirulina sp.

++

Chlorophyceae
S. dimosphus

+++

S. armatus

++

Sprogyra sp.

++

Schreoederia indica

++

Pandorina sp.

Bacillariophyceae
Navicula sp.

+++

Syndraulna

++

Syendra sp.

Fragelaria sp.

++

Euglenophyceae
Euglena minuta

++

E. elastica

+++

E. acus

++

E. graalis

+++

T. robusta

: Absent; +++: Dominant (500 cells/l); ++: Common (300 cells/l);

+: Rare (25 cells/l)

178

The fluctuation of physico-chemical characteristics and

phytoplankton density of water at Ralakunta pond were depicted
in Tables 15.115.3. The phytoplankton predicted in Tables 15.2
and 15.3 in different months during summer month the
phytoplankton 0.1289 gC/m3/hrs to 4152 gC/m3/hr, while in south
west monsoon season 2836 gC/m3/hr to 3096 gC/m3/hr and while
in north east monsoon season 0.2695 gC/m3/hr to 6068 gC/m3/hr
were measured the density.

Distribution of Phytoplankton
Physicochemical factors of the environment play an important
role in phytoplankton productivity in water bodies. On the basis of
nutrient status, lakes, ponds, tanks and other water bodies have
been classified as eutrophic, oligotrophic and mesotrophic. The
different groups of algae have different requirements of nutrients.
The highest average (5716.83) species of Myxophyceae and the
lowest average (558.66) species Euglenophyceae as presented in
Table 15.2.
Myxophyceae
Members of myxophyceae are ubiquitous in natural waters and
many times they form permanent or temporary blooms, particularly
in eutrophic water bodies. In the present study, the Ralakunta pond
is being a mesotrophic pond. It has been observed that,
phytoplanktons and physicochemical factors are differing in ponds
to ponds. The impact of these physicochemical factors is directly
responsible for distribution and periodicity of phytoplankton of the
pond. The distribution and periodicity of phytoplankton have been
studied by several workers. Among those are Munawar (1970), Singh
and Nayak (1990) and Bajpai and Agarker, (1997). They emphasize
many factors in this regard. Those include sunshine, temperature,
pH, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, alkalinity, nitrates, phosphates
and organic matter. Amongst these nitrates, phosphates and organic
matter have often been reported to be most significant in their
distribution.
Chlorophyceae
It has been observed through the literature that, the correlation
between physicochemical factors and occurrence of this group by
various workers contradictory and vague. This is because the

Hydrobiological Status of the Ralakunta Pond in Raichur District

179

Chlorophyceae members may adopt any type of environment.

Seenayya (1971), Munawar (1970) and Singh (1960), according to
them, the periodicity of chloroccocales have attributed to their mode
of nutrition.
Zafar (1967), states that chlorococcales are more in waters low
calcium and high potassium. Philipose (1967), considered that
certain chlorococcales can thrive well in water that are rich in nitrates
than phosphate. Gonzalves and Joshi (1946) and Zafar (1964)
attributed the high percentages of chlorococcales to high values of
dissolved oxygen. Ven Den Hoeck et al. (1995) reported that higher
Chlorophyceae are a large and important group of freshwater algae.
About 2650 species of Chlorophyceae have been described from the
different parts of the world and 350 genera have so far been
authenticated.
Bacillariophyceae
Ecology of freshwater diatoms has attracted many workers. The
classical contributions were made by West and West (1912) and
Patrick (1948). Indian waters have been studied with this point of
view by Singh (1960), Zafar (1964), Singh and Nayak (1990) and
Bajpai and Agarker (1997) and other workers. The factors often
emphasized in this connection are nitrate, phosphate, silicate,
calcium sulphate, oxidazable organic matter, pH and the basic ratio.
A few of these do appear to play a significant role in the distribution
of diatoms in the present study.
Euglenophyceae
Several workers have discussed on the distribution of
euglenophyceae in various types of freshwater environment. Most
important contribution were made by Singh (1960), Munawar (1970),
Singh and Nayak (1990) and Bajpai and Agarker (1997).
Singh (1960) and Munawar (1970), have attributed the high
percentage of euglenophyceae to the high concentration of free carbon
dioxide. Rao (1953) and Zafar (1959b), have noted high C/N ratio of
water as a favorable factor for the development of euglenineae in
general. Seenayya (1971), described that dissolved oxygen is high
during the bloom period because of their active photosynthesis.
Further, it states that temperature above 25 C is favorable for the
growth of euglenophyceae. Bharati and Hegde (1984), observed that
the high pH favored the growth of euglenophyceae.

180

References
Adoni, A., Joshi, D.G., Gosh, K., Chourasia, S.K., Vaishya, A.K., Yadav,
Manoj and Verma, H.G., 1985. Workbook on Limnology. Pratibha
Publisher, Sagar, p. 1166.
Agarker, M.S., Goswami, H.K., Kaushik, S., Mishra, S.M., Bajpai,
A.K. and Sharma, U.S., 1994. Biology, conservation and
management of Bhoj wetland, Upper lake ecosystem in Bhopal.
Bionature, 14: 250273.
APHA, 1975. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water, Sewage
and Industrial Wastes, 14th Edn. APHA Inc., New York, p. 1193.
Bajpai, A.K. and Agarker, M.S., 1997. Lower plants at high altitutes,
I. Some plankton from Auli Skiing field. Ecol. Environ. Conser., 3:
97100.
Bharati, S.G. and Hegde, G.R., 1982. Desmids of Karnataka state
and Goa, PartI. Phykos, 21: 143149.
George, D.G. and Winfield, I.J., 2000. Factors influencing the spatial
distribution of zooplankton and fish in Loch Ness, UK. Freshw.
Biol., 43: 557570.
Ismael, A.A. and Dorgham, M.M., 2003. Ecological indices as a tool
for assessing pollution in E1Dekhaila Harbour (Alexandria,
Egypt). Oceaologia, 45: 121131.
Jeppesen, E., Jensen, J.P. and Sondergaard, M., 2002. Response of
phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish to re-oligotrophication:
An 11 year study of 23 Danish lakes. Aquat. Ecosyst. Health
Manag., 5: 3143.
Kudesia, V.P. and Kudesia, Ritu, 1998. Water Pollution. Pragati
Prakashan, Meerut, India, 728, p. 11.
Lampert, W. and Sommer, L., 200. Ecology of Freshwaters. PWN,
Warszawa.
Ludwig, J.A. and Reynolds, T.R., 1988. Statistical Ecology. John Wiley
and Sons Inc., New York.
Miller, J.N., Brooks, R.P. and Croonquist, M.J., 1997. Effects of
landscape patterns on biotic communities. Landsc. Ecol., 12: 137
153.
Munawar, M., 1970. Limnological studies on freshwater ponds of
Hyderabad, IndiaII. The Biocoenose, distribution of unicellur

Hydrobiological Status of the Ralakunta Pond in Raichur District

181

and colonical phytoplankton in polluted and unpolluted

environments. Hydrobiology, 36: 105128.
Patrick, R., 1948. Factors affecting the Distribution of Diatoms. Bot.
Rev., 14: 473524.
Philipose, M.T., 1967. Chlorococcales. ICAR, New Delhi, India, p. 365.
Rao, C.B., 1953. On the distribution of algae in a group of six small
ponds. J. Ecol., 41: 6271.
Ryding, S.O. and Rast, W., 1989. The Control of Eutrophication of Lakes
and Reservoirs, Man and the Biosphere Series, Vol. 1. UNESCO.
The Parthenon Publishing Group.
Seenayya, G., 1971. Ecological studies on the phytoplankton of
certain freshwater ponds of Hyderabad, India II. The
Phytoplankton I. Ibid., 13: 5588.
Singh, S.P. and Nayak, T.R., 1990. Phytoplankton and certain
physico-chemical conditions in freshwater lake, Matyatal, Pana.
National Seminar on Recent Advances in Hydrobiology, p. 118.
Singh, V.P., 1960. Phytoplankton ecology of the inland waters of
Uttar Pradesh. Proceedings of Symposium on Algology, (SA60),
Indian Council Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India, p. 243
271
Tallberg, P., Horppila, J., Vaisanen, A. and Nurminen, L., 1999.
Seasonal succession of phytoplankton and zooplankton along
a trophic gradient in a eutrophic lake implications for food
web management. Hydrobiologia, 412: 8194.
Ven Den Hoeck, C., Mann, D.G. and Jahns, H.M., 1995. Algae: An
Introduction to Phycology , Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
West, W. and West, G.S., 1912. On the periodicity of Phytoplankton
of some Irish lakes.
Zafar, A.K., 1959. Taxonomy of lakes. Hydrobiologia, 13: 287299.
Zafar, A.R., 1964. On the ecology of algae in certain fish ponds of
Hyderabad India.
Zafar, A.R., 1967. On the ecology of algae in certain fish ponds of
Hyderabad, India III: The periodicity. Hydrobiologia, 30: 96112.