Individual Differences in Reading and Spelling Skill Affect Lexical

Ambiguity Resolution
Ashley N.

1
Abraham,
1Kent

Jocelyn R.

1
Folk,

Michael A.

1
Eskenazi,

2
Jones,

& Angela C.

State University, Kent, OH, 2John Carroll University, University Heights, OH

Background
Research Question: Do high skill and low skill spellers use context differently to
resolve semantic ambiguity?
Background
Low skill spellers rely more on context to recognize words
Effortful word identification due to inefficient connections
between orthography and semantics
Experience more interference during a memory-probe task (Andrews

Results

Spelling Scores
Range
Composite Spelling
7-68
Average
49.5 (out of 70)
Standard
19.63
Deviation
Range
7-68

Analyzed using a Linear Mixed-Effect Model (LMM) using R statistical

software (R project, 2013).
Low Skill Spellers
Reading Time on Ambiguous Word: No significant differences between
neutral and subordinate context conditions on the ambiguous word.
No SBE in subordinate context condition.
Reading Time on Disambiguating Region: A trend for shorter reading
times in subordinate context vs. neutral context condition
Indicates that context appropriate subordinate meaning
was initially selected
High Skill Spellers
Reading Time on Ambiguous Word: Longer reading times in context
condition vs neutral condition
SBE - competition between subordinate and dominant
interpretations
Reading Time on Disambiguating Region: Significantly faster in
subordinate context vs neutral context condition.
Initially selected context appropriate subordinate
interpretation in subordinate context condition

Number of Participants
Low

32

High

34

& Bond, 2009)

Spelling may be a better indicator of skill (Andrews & Bond, 2009)

Requires precision
Index of highly specified lexical representations.
Current Study
Examines the use of context among high and low skilled spellers during a silent
reading task
Ambiguous words preceded by subordinate-biasing context
Subordinate Bias Effect (SBE): Slower on ambiguous word when
prior context consistent with subordinate vs neutral context (Dopkins
et al., 1992; Duffy et al., 1988)

Investigated whether high- and low-skill spellers use context to resolve

semantic ambiguity in the same way?

Methods

Note: The average spelling score was 71%. Low skill spellers < 33%. High skill spellers > 66%.

Reading Time on The Ambiguous Word

780

Participants: 101 Kent State University students participated for course credit.

750
740
730

758

720
710

733

729

Neutral
Context

729

690

Low Skill

High Skill
Spelling Skill

Stimuli
Materials adopted from Dopkins, Morris, and Rayner (1992)
Biased ambiguous words embedded into sentences between two clauses
1st clause: contained either context supporting the subordinate meaning
or neutral material, providing no support for either meaning
The clause following the ambiguous word always disambiguated to the
subordinate meaning.

Reading Time on the Disambiguating Region

Conclusions
The results support the claim that low skill spellers rely more on context
for word recognition.
High skill spellers show SBE
Context re-orders availability of subordinate interpretation, making it
available close in time to the dominant
Select context appropriate subordinate meaning, allowing them to
read the disambiguating material quickly.
Low skill spellers did not show SBE
No competition between meanings of the ambiguous word
Faster reading times in the disambiguating region suggest low skill
spellers initially selected the subordinate meaning.

2500

2450
2400

Time in Milliseconds

Procedure
Participants read 24 experimental sentences using moving window
paradigm
Reading times in critical regions were recorded using EPrime software
10 filler sentences followed by true or false questions.
6 participants removed for scoring below 80% on the
comprehension questions
The average comprehension question score was 93%

760

700

Skill Assessment
Comprehension subtest percentile score on the Nelson-Denny Reading Test
Spelling recall and recognition measures.

Context: Viciously snarling and growling, the boxer soon barked at the baggage
attendant.
Neutral: As we had all expected and feared, the boxer soon barked at the baggage
attendant.

NS

770

Time in Milliseconds

Differences in reading comprehension skill only showed successful (high)

vs unsuccessful (low) comprehension of the biased ambiguous word.

2350

Tentative explanation is that slower lexical activation of low skill spellers

allows top-down activation of subordinate interpretation from context
to exert influence earlier in lexical access process, eliminating the SBE.

2300
2250

Neutral
Context

2200
2150
2100

2316

2253

2228
2103

2050
2000

Low Skill

High Skill
Spelling Skill

References
Andrews, S., & Bond, R. (2009). Lexical expertise and reading skill: Bottom-up and top-down processing of
lexical ambiguity. Reading and Writing, 22(6), 687-711.
Dopkins, S., Morris, R. K., & Rayner, K. (1992). Lexical ambiguity and eye fixations in reading:
A test of competing models of lexical ambiguity resolution. Journal of memory and language, 31(4), 461476.
Duffy, S. A., Morris, R. K., & Rayner, K. (1988). Lexical ambiguity and fixation times in reading. Journal of
memory and language, 27(4), 429-446.
Pacht, J. M., & Rayner, K. (1993). The processing of homophonic homographs during reading:
Evidence from eye movement studies. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 22(2), 251-271.