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Consequences of Sleep Deprivation
Consequences of Sleep Deprivation
INTRODUCTION
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Considerable reduction
insleep time
Causes
Daily sleep time reduction below the
level of optimal individual needs
Wakefulness prolonged to several days Experimental conditions, extreme situations (e.g. tortures),
tribal shamanic rites
Selective deprivation (onlyREM
or4-NREM sleep)
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Symptoms
Night1.
Most people are capable of withstanding one-night sleep deprivation, although aslight discomfort may be
experienced.24-h sleeplessness does not alter behaviour; however, tremor and increased tonus, leading to
impairment in precise movements, can be observed.
Night2.
A feeling of fatigue and astronger need for sleep is persistent, especially between3a.m. and5a.m.,
when the body temperature reaches its lowest value.
Night3.
Performing tasks that require concentration and calculating may be impaired, particularly if the tasks are dull
and repetitious. The volunteers become irritated and impolite in any instance of disagreement. During earlymorninghours, the subjects experience an overpowering need for sleep. Remaining wakeful is possible only
with the help of the observers who wake the volunteers up if necessary.
Night4.
Prolonged microepisodes of sleep occur: the subjects discontinue their activities and stare into space; the
delta waves are recorded in the EEG output signal, even if the person is awake. Sleep microepisodes impair
performance of the tasks that require attention over aperiod of time. Subjects may also experience perception
disorders, illusions, hallucinations, irritation, inaccuracy and the hat phenomenon (a feeling of pressure
around the head).
Night5.
The symptoms become more intense and include disturbances in reasoning and orientation, visual and tactile
hallucinations, fatigue, irritability and delusions. The subjects may exhibit distrust: suspecting that someone
attempts to murder them is acharacteristic syndrome at this stage. Intellectual and problem-solving abilities are
considerably impaired.
Night6.
Participants develop symptoms of depersonalization and they are no longer capable of interpreting reality.
This syndrome is known as the sleep deprivation psychosis (very rarely persisting after the termination of the
experiment; it usually subsides after asufficient time of sleeping).
The trial was performed despite the fact that this category
had been excluded from the Guinness Book of Records.
The result did not differ much from the Californian record
(2hours more), probably constituting the upper limit of
human capabilities to withstand sleep deprivation.
The duration and limit of sleep time
Sleep readiness (sleep latency, recorded every twohours
from morning to evening) increases after asleepless night
and decreases after asleep period longer than the daily
norm. The tolerated minimum sleep time is approximately 6 hours, although for some individuals, maintaining
such sleep time over several days may result in alower effectiveness of work performance. However, if this sleep
time regime is kept for several weeks, no deterioration
in the neurobehavioral function, apart from drowsiness,
can be seen, which can be regarded as an adaptation to
reduced sleep. Interestingly, prolonging the sleep time
by23hours over what is an individual daily norm, does
not significantly enhance ones general efficiency. The
need for sleep changes with age and to acertain extent depends on gender and chronotype[17]. This demand varies
across individuals, as some people need only35hours of
sleep, whereas others need at least8hours of sleep per
night to maintain work effectiveness. Hence, the term deprivation applies only to the cases when impaired functioning due to sleep loss can be observed. The extent to
which one experiences the effects of sleep deprivation depends on individual needs. Most people declare that they
need approximately8hours of sleep. Nonetheless, during
asix-year questionnaire study involving over one million
participants of both genders, the lowest mortality was recorded in agroup sleeping6.57.5hours on average[18],
which may be attributed to various reasons. Shortened
sleep (but also the one that lasts too long) correlates with
aprobability of developing diabetes[19] and high blood
pressure[20]. Notably, however, ahigher risk of these diseases is attributed to sleep deficiency. The sleep apnoea
deteriorates the quality of sleep and thus contributes to
an increase in the sleep time needed. Moreover, such
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a single 2-hour immobilization resulted in an 92% increase in paradoxical sleep within the following10hours,
whereas a2-hour wakefulness, maintained using standard
methods (disk or gentle handling), did not significantly affect the sleep that followed[37].
Rats appear to be particularly vulnerable to sleep deprivation enforced using the moving disk method, since in other
animals (pigeons), the changes observed after2429 days
of this procedure were not as severe as in rats[38]. Other
deprivation procedures were not lethal either to rats or
other laboratory animals [39], although this may have
been due to the significantly shorter periods of deprivation
under other experimental conditions or to the difficulties
in achieving total sleep deprivation.
Post-deprivation recovery: rebound sleep
Rebound sleep takes place after the sleep deprivation and
is longer than the usual sleep time. It is composed of longer periods of the delta-wave sleep andREM sleep, while
stage 2 NREM is shortened and stage 1 NREM may be
absent[31,40,41]. The duration of the rebound sleep does
not correspond to the total duration of sleep loss; the sleep
lasting severalhours more than usual may provide sufficient
recovery even within the first24hours post-deprivation. In
rats,REM deficiencies after24hours of sleep deprivation
are compensated mainly during the initial period of recovery, mostly within the light sleep phase, whereas the compensation forNREM deficiency proceeds at aslower pace.
The post-deprivation changes in the sleep may be present
for several days[32], gradually losing their intensity.
SelectiveREM sleep deprivation (waking up at the beginning ofREM episodes) makes the entry intoREM more
frequent: the longer the paradoxical sleep (PS) deprivation, the higher the number of interventions necessary to
prevent this sleep phase. This finding indicates aprogressive increase in PS propensity[42,43]. At the same time,
selectiveREM sleep deprivation leads to the deterioration
of cognitive functions. Annoyance, anxiety and difficulty
in focusing attention result[44], while drowsiness during
daytime does not increase[45]. Other symptoms include
increased heart rate[33]. Apart from that, hypersexuality
has also been observed in rats[46,47]. During the rebound
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of work performance as well as impaired cognitive processing. Work effectiveness decreases during sleep deprivation
at consecutive experimental sessions, but also at asingle
session if the tasks are repetitious and monotonous. Wellrested individuals can obtain similar results in anumber
of tests in arow, whereas during sleep-deprivation, the accuracy of performance deteriorates with consecutive tasks
in aparticular series[59]. As reported in literature, onenight sleep deprivation contributed to a2032% increase
in the number of errors and a14% increase in the time required to perform an electrocoagulation trial on asurgical
laparoscope simulator[66,67]. It is plausible that during
areal surgical operation, the surgeons motivation partially compensates for the effects of weariness[59]. Nonetheless, the problem of insufficient rest among the health care
workers seems to have been underestimated.
As far as the speech performance is concerned, the volunteers kept awake for36hours showed atendency to use
word repetitions and cliches; they spoke monotonously,
slowly, indistinctly, and stammed. Owing to the intonation
impairments and poor word choice after prolonged wakefulness, they were not able to properly express and verbalize their thoughts and concepts[68]. Reasoning processes
became schematic, which impaired the outcomes in the
tasks that required flexible thinking and ability to reschedule plans [69]. Innovation in thinking, as well as proper
decision making, were less apparent, while there was an
increasing tendency to take up risky decisions[70]. When
presented with aseries of situations that included achanging element each time, the persons examined tended to
choose the same solution even if it did not strictly apply to
the new context.
Dermal effects
In the experiments on sleep deprivation, the characteristic
alterations of the skin were reported only in rats[38,71].
Considerable idiopathic changes were localized within the
tail and the hairless parts of the paws both during the total and selective deprivation of paradoxical sleep. Itwas
postulated that these effects might be linked either to
the change in the release pattern of the growth hormone
(GH, ahormone promoting anabolic processes), namely,
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depending on the brain area: CRH increased in the striatum, limbic structures and hypophysis, while decreased in
the hypothalamus[88]. During the late deprivation period
at the second half of the experiment, the levels of ACTH
and corticosteroids were found to increase. All the sleepdeprived rats showed elevated levels of noradrenaline,
which might indicate the deprivation-related augmentation
of the sympathetic system. This would partially explain the
increased energy expenditure[86]. In humans, a24-hour
sleep deprivation induced ahigh rate of ACTH secretion
between3a.m. and5a.m. on the following night, while
under normal conditions, the ACTH level shows aslight
linear increase[89].24-hourhour wakefulness resulted in
aslight increase in plasma cortisol level, while plasma aldosterone concentration and renin activity decreased and
their release peaks were absent[90].
The influence of 24-hour wakefulness on GH secretion
is particularly interesting. The typical maximum release
peak, normally present during the first sleep cycle, could
not be seen, whereas the total GH release remained
unchanged [72,73]. The physiological significance of
theGHrelease peak at early nocturnalhours has not been
elucidated. It also remains to be shown whether the lack
of GHpeak in the sleep-deprived subjects might be compensated simply by an increase in the daily release of the
hormone. Such considerations are justified by the findings
indicating that during the rebound sleep, the GH release
peak appeared earlier and achieved ahigher level than the
values obtained for the controls[89].
Immune system impairment
Arelationship between infectious diseases and prolonged
sleep time as asymptom of healing has long been intuitively anticipated. It was presumed that cytokines, which are
the mediators of the defensive immune response, might
also be involved in the sleep regulation processes[9193].
Interleukin IL-1 potentially acts both as asomnogen and
pyrogen, which would explain the prolonged duration of
sleep in the course of febrile diseases[94,95]. Classic research conducted by Rechtschaffen and his team does not
indicate, however, any mitogen-related changes in the proliferation, number and activity of the spleen lymphocytes,
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age is asignificant factor which has influence on the number of drowsiness-related accidents and determines the
time of the day or night when these accidents occur. Drivers younger than25years of age seem to cause twice as
many road accidents as the other age groups, although
they do not make up the majority of drivers[149]. This is
associated not only with the carelessness and overestimating ones abilities that are characteristic of young people
but also with the fact that older individuals can sometimes
more efficiently cope with sleep deficiency [150,151].
Young drivers cause accidents mainly at night, whereas
the older ones mainly in the afternoon[149], which may
be connected with the fact that many older drivers refrain
from driving at night hours and that the changes in the
circadian pattern of activity develop with age.
After one night of sleeplessness, the ability to simultaneously perceive stimuli both in the central and peripheral
areas of the visual field is impaired and the deficit intensifies with the driving time, but is also age-dependent.
While long-lasting and monotonous driving makes the visual field more narrow, intense drowsiness causes deficits
within the whole field[61]. Sleep restriction increases the
rate of risky behaviour, due to impaired ability to assess
asituation[152], and of aggressive behaviour as well[120].
Prolonged microepisodes of sleep during driving considerably reduce the driving safety [59]. With regard to such
parameters as the concentration of attention, reflexes,
perceptiveness and accuracy of task performance, the effects of a24-hour sleep deprivation, or of a45-hour night
sleep repeated over aperiod of one week, are similar to
those induced by the0.51 level of blood alcohol concentration[153157].
In most of the European countries, the highest permissible
blood level of alcohol in car drivers is0.5, and the Polish law permits only the values below0.2. While there
are legal regulations that impose prosecution of drunk
drivers, no restrictions apply to the drivers who show
acomparable impairment of perceptiveness and reactivity
due to sleep deprivation and who also pose aconsiderable
hazard to other traffic participants. The only solution is
to appeal to the common sense of such drivers. The most
effective remedy for drowsiness is abrief nap: a5-min nap
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SUMMARY
The first investigations into the effects of sleep deprivation in humans led to the findings indicating relatively safe and transient consequences of sleep loss.
However, a growing body of evidence points out that
sleep restriction, although inducing relatively small
physiological effects (changes in the immune function,
increased tendency to gain weight and to develop high
blood pressure with all its consequences), not only leads
to weariness but also causes a significant disruption in
functioning, such as the deterioration of vision and perception, weakened concentration, impaired memory,
longer reaction time, increased number of errors, reduced precision of performance, occurrence of sleep
microepisodes during wakefulness, schematic thinking,
making inaccurate decisions, and emotional disorders.
Moderate fatigue after2025hours of sleeplessness impairs task performance to an extent comparable with
that caused by alcohol intoxication at the level of0.10%
blood alcohol concentration. The effects of a chronic
sleep loss or ashallow sleep maintained for several days
tend to accumulate, leading to the disruption of cognitive functions which is comparable to that after severe
acute total sleep deprivation of several dozen hours.
Such effects hinder the correct performance at work,
and in extreme cases (machine operation and vehicle
driving), may pose hazard to the workers themselves
and their environment.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Grateful thanks to Professor Edyta Jurkowlaniec-Kope
forhelpful comments on the manuscript. The author also wishes
to thank Magda Kumierczak M.A. forlinguistic revision.
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