Multiplexing

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University of Dar es Salaam | Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering |

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Multiplexing Outline
Introduction to
Telecommunication Networks
Multiplexing
Introduction
Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| TE 413 Introduction to Telecommunication Networks | Christine Mwase | 03/12/2009 | Slide 1

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Before Multiplexing
Early
Days

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The
Telephone
Network

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Introduction
Transmission across a network may be divided into two categories
Access network
Trunk network
Multiplexing is an economic necessity.

Trunk digital transmission makes use of Time Division Multiplexing
(TDM) in order to share the large trunk capacity between many
users.
Links between LEs and the backbone network and links between
backbone switches ( trunks) carry many PCM streams using TDM.

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Multiplexing Techniques
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

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TDM
Time
Frame 1
Frame 2
Frame 3
The channels are separated in the aggregate by their frequency.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Used Used
Used
Slot 1
for
Slot 2
Circuit A
for
Circuit B
Slot 1
for
Circuit A
Used Used
Channels share common aggregate based upon time.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Optical domain
WDM, DWDM, UDWDM
Statistical Multiplexing
Slot 3
for
Circuit C
Slot 1
for
Circuit A
TDM reserves capacity
for each circuit in each frame;
assures speed but is wasteful

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Sampling
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
T1
The basis of analogue to digital conversion is Shannons

theory.
T2
Audio Signal
T3
time
T4
T5
T6
T7
Sampler Output
The PCM Consists of 3 steps.
Pulse Amplitude
Modulated (PAM)
signal
Sampling
Quantization
T1
T2
T3
time
T4
T5
T6
T7
Coding
1.
2.

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Quantization and Encoding

_______________________________________________________________________________
The 64 kbit/s Channel (TDM Time Slot)
For Quantization CEPT countries use A- Law, other countries use -law. In law the decoder output value number is 0 to 127 for positive and 0 to 127 for
Negative. In A- Law, the decoder output value number is 1 to 128 for positive and
1 to 128 for negative.
Quantizing = Amplitude given certain value

Encoding
Voice Frequency 4 KHz

Sampling
4 KHz * 2 = 8 KHz
= 8000 samples/sec * 8
= 64 Kb/s
This is the basic transport unit in both PDH and SDH transport
systems. Switching in exchanges in the PSTN is also based on 64
kbit/s TDM time slots.
When used for voice transport, a 64 kbit/s channel contains PCM
(Pulse Code Modulation) speech, generated according to ITU-T
specification G.711.
Analogue speech signal (3003400 Hz)

Sampling produces 8000 samples/s
Each sample is encoded into
an 8-bit PCM code word
(e.g. 01100101)
time
=> 8000 x 8 bit/s

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ITU-T Recommended PDH Multiplexing Hierarchy

(G.702, G.703)
Multiplexing Hierarchies
Multiplexing hierarchy: an upper hierarchy level system having a
higher capacity is constructed by combining a given number of lower
hierarchy level systems by means of time division multiplexing.
Hierarchies build upon the basic 64 kb/s voice signal, and the resulting
multiplexing rates have become the universal basis of sharing capacity
for data and computer communications.
In the ITU-T system, a frame consists of 32 8 bit slots

Slot 0 is used for synchronisation (8 bits instead of 1 bit in T1) and
slot 16 is used for signalling (8 bit / 125 sec = 64 Kb/s as in T1).
This yields aggregate rate of 32*8 bits / 125sec = 2 Mb/s.

This link is known as E1.
There are three different versions of PDH multiplexing hierarchy,

one of which is used in Europe and most parts of the rest of the world,
corresponding to ITU-T recommendations,
one in the USA and
one in Japan (similar to the USA one).
Higher order multiplexing is built up by systematically

multiplexing four lower-level signals at each stage.
E2=4*E1 (8Mb/s), E3=4*E2 (34 Mb/s), E4=4*E3 (140 Mb/s), etc.

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Structure of E1 frame (2.048 Mbit/s)

012
16
31
(Capacity = 30 Base Channels)
Time slots 1-31 carry digital signals (usually PCM speech) with
a bitrate of 64 kbit/s.
Time slot 0 is used for frame synchronization (FAS, NFAS):
received bit stream ... where does a new frame begin?
...

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PDH Bit Rates

E1. PCM 30 Mux (Level 1)
E2. PDH (Level 2)
4 * 2.048 +stuffing bits = 8.448 Mbps
Capacity = 120 Base Channels
32 TDM time slots (with 8 bits each / frame)
32 * 64 Kb/s = 2.048 Mb/s
...
Time slot 16 usually contains SS7 signalling information.

E3. PDH (Level 3)

4 * 8.448 + stuffing bits = 34.368 Mbps
E4. PDH (Level 4)
4 * 34.368 +stuffing bits = 139.264 Mbps
E5. PDH (Level 5)
4 * 139 + stuffing bits = 565 Mbps
Sampling x Coding
8000
x 8bits
64kbit/s
64kbit/s
32 Channels
(PCM30 or 31, CRC
C12 Container
2Mbit/s
2Mbit/s
4 Channels
8Mbit/s
8Mbit/s
4 Channels
C4 Container
4 Channels
C4 Container
34Mbit/s
34Mbit/s
140Mbit/s
140Mbit/s
E1
E3
E4

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PDH Multiplexing

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The American Multiplexing Hierarchy

In the American system, a frame consists of 24 8 bit slots for the
channels plus 1 synchronisation or framing bit in the beginning which
takes the pattern 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
This yields aggregate rate of (24*8+1) bits / 125 sec = 1.5 Mb/s.
This link is known as T1.
1 bit of the slots 6 and 12 is destined as signalling information, resulting in
8 + 8 = 16 Kb/s (8 Kb/s = 1 bit / 125 sec), although most systems use
one of the 24 slots typically 0 for signalling (8 bit / 125 sec = 64 Kb/s).
In the American system, the second hierarchy level system is

constructed from four first level systems, the third level system from
seven second level systems and the fourth level system from three
third level systems.
In Japan, the hierarchy is otherwise similar, but the third level system is
constructed from five second level systems.

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PDH Multiplexing Hierarchies

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PDH Multiplexing Hierarchies
Bit rate (Kb/s)

Mult. level
1
2
3
4
5
T1: ((24*8)+1)*8000
Europe
North America
Japan
2.048
8.448
34.368
139.264
565.148
1.544
6.312
44.736
274.176
1.554
6.312
32.064
97.728
397.200
E1: (30+2)*8*8000

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PDH Rates and Designations

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PDH (Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy)

Plesio means similar
Chronous means timing
Plesiochronous - "almost synchronous, because bits are stuffed into the
frames as padding and the calls (signal) location varies slightly - jitters from frame to frame".
The resulting digital infrastructure is known as Plesiochronous Digital
Hierarchy (PDH) and was the first digital infrastructure of the PSTN.

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Bit Stuffing
Early digital transmission was introduced in an incremental way as

analogue systems were updated, resulting in each TDM stream using
a separate timing source.
When combining lower-order multiplexed streams, compensation is
required for the timing differences due to the different clocks used.
In this case, the produced stream rate is slightly higher than the sum of
the combined input rates, with the unused bits known as justification bits.
The number of stuffing bits added depends not only on the speed of the
tributaries to the multiplexer, but also on the speed of the higher order bit
stream.
The justification process is employed in all the PDH Multiplexers.
At the far end of the transmission system, the justification bits are
removed and the original digital signal is recovered.
The removal of these justification bits causes a small variation in the
phase of the clock. This variation is called Jitter.

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PDH-Based Leased Lines
What are Jitter and Wander?

Jitter
Jitter is the term used to designate periodic or stochastic
deviations of the significant instants of a digital signal from
the ideal, equidistant values.
Otherwise stated, the transitions of a digital signal
invariably occur either too early or too late when compared
to a perfect square wave (reference clock).
The PDH justification bits do not just cause overhead: their presence
means that it is not possible to identify the start of a lower-order
stream within a higher-order one without de-multiplexing.
This complicates offering customers leased-line services derived
from high-order multiplexed circuits: de-multiplexing down to the
capacity a customer requires e.g. from a 140 Mb/s E4 link to a 2
Mb/s E1 stream means demultiplexing to E3 (34 Mb/s), to E2
(8Mb/s) and then to E1.
Wander
Very slow jitter is known as wander. ITU-T G.810 puts the
limit between jitter and wander at 10 Hz.
This is done through equipment known as Add-Drop Multiplexers

(ADMs) which need to be installed (or pre-exist) close to the
customer premises in order to intercept the high-order link.

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De-multiplexing down to E1 for the customer will be configured at
the ADM by the operator.
In addition, any switches at the end of the links and in the path
between the two ADMs need to be configured to bypass the ADMs
so that the two sites are directly connected with dedicated E1
bandwidth.
This configuration cannot be done easily, quickly and remotely in a
soft manner while faults cannot be easily detected by the provider.

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PDH Multiplexing of 2 Mbit/s to 140 Mbit/s requires a
total of 106 cables and 22 PDH multiplexers:
16 x 2DME
4 x 3DME
1 x 4DME
PDH multiplexing is
byte oriented at
primary MUX and bit
oriented thereafter.

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Disadvantages of PDH
Changing from one hierarchical level to another requires additional
equipment.
Transmitting a multiplexed signal (34/140 Mb, etc) requires
specialized equipment.
Redirection (cross-connection) of channels must be done by hand on
DDFs.
Alarm and performance management requires separate equipment in
PDH.
Compatibility of transmission and administrative signals between
different vendors may give trouble.

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With the increasing demand for leased-line and Virtual Private
Network (VPN) services, operators had to use more flexible
transmission infrastructure.
This led to the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) standardised by
the ITU-T, which is virtually the same with the equivalent American
system known as Synchronous Optical Network (SONET).
The basis of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) is synchronous
multiplexing - data from multiple tributary sources is byte interleaved.
In SDH the multiplexed channels are in fixed locations relative to the
framing byte.
Demultiplexing is achieved by gating out the required bytes from the
digital stream.
This allows a single channel to be dropped from the data stream without
demultiplexing intermediate rates as is required in PDH.

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(G.707, G.708, G.709)
The Basis of SDH
The key reasons behind SDH/SONET were:

The alignment of the European, US and Japanese digital
networks.
The provision of very high bit rates (to gigabits per second and
beyond) in a flexible manner, with individual substreams easily
identified.
The support for Operation, Administration and Maintenance
(OAM) activities in a soft, remote fashion, in order to offer new
services quickly and efficiently this points to manageable
elements (switches, multiplexers) through the
Telecommunication Management Network (TMN).

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ITU-T Standards
SDH has been standardized by ITU-T.
CCITT Blue book recommendations
G.707, G.708 & G.709 covering the SDH standards.
G.707 - SDH Bit Rates
G.708 - Network Node Interface for the SDH
G.709 - Synchronous Multiplexing Structure
G.781 - (Formerly G.smux-1) Structure of Recommendations on
Multiplexing Equipment for the SDH
G.782 - (Formerly G.smux-2) Types and General Characteristics
of SDH Multiplexing Equipment
G.783 - (Formerly G.smux-3) Characteristics of SDH Multiplexing
Equipment Functional Blocks
G.784 - (Formerly G.smux-4) SDH Management

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A SDH/SONET network consists of switches, multiplexers and
repeaters connected through optical fibre.
A piece of fibre between two devices is called a section, a run between
two multiplexers (possibly with repeaters in-between) is called a line and
a stream connection between two endpoints across multiplexers is
called a path.
SDH/SONET are synchronous systems, with bits controlled by an

extremely precise master clock.
The SDH basic transmission rate of 155 Mbps for a Synchronous
Transport Module 1 (STM-1) is equivalent to a SONET Optical
Signal 3 (OC-3), with higher rates possible (up to 2.5 Gb/s).
All SDH/SONET equipment includes a network management agent
which supports a TMN-compliant interface for OAM activities.

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_______________________________________________________________________________
SDH Bit Rates and

Multiplexing
PDH
(asynchronous)
SDH is a transport hierarchy based on multiples of 155.52 Mbit/s

4 Channels
C4 Container
The basic unit of SDH is STM-1:

STM-1 = 155.52 Mbit/s
STM-4 = 622.08 Mbit/s
STM-16 = 2588.32 Mbit/s
STM-64 = 9953.28 Mbit/s
SDH (synchronous)
Each rate is an exact multiple of the lower rate therefore the

hierarchy is synchronous.
SDH defines a multiplexing hierarchy that allows all existing PDH
rates to be transported synchronously.

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SDH Frame Structure

A frame with a bit rate of 155.52Mbps is defined in ITU-T
recommendation G.707. This frame is called the Synchronous
Transport Module (STM).
Since it is the first level in the hierarchy it is called STM-1
It is made up from a byte matrix of 9 rows and 270 columns

Transmission is row by row, starting with the byte in the upper left corner
and ending with the byte in the lower right corner.
The frame repetition rate is 125ms. Each byte in the payload

represents a 64kbps channel.
140Mbit/s
140Mbit/s
USA, HongKong, Taiwan
44.36Mbit/s
44.36Mbit/s DS3
STM-0
E4
51Mbit/s
51Mbit/s
STM-1
155Mbit/s
155Mbit/s
STS3
OC3
STM-4
622Mbit/s
622Mbit/s
OC12
STM-16
2.5Gbit/s
2.5Gbit/s
OC48
STM-64
10Gbit/s
10Gbit/s
OC192
STM-256
40Gbit/s
40Gbit/s
OC768
STS1
OC1

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SDH Frame Structure

The STM-n frame structure is best represented as a rectangle: 9x270xn.
The 9 x n first columns are the frame header and the rest of the frame is
the inner structure data i.e. payload (including the data, indication bits, stuff
bits, pointers and management).
The STM-n frame is usually transmitted over an optical fiber. The frame is
transmitted row by row (the first row is transmitted first then the second
and so on). At the beginning of each frame, synchronization bytes A1, A2
are transmitted.
The multiplexing method of 4 STM-1 streams into a STM-1x4 is an
interleaving of the STM-1 streams to produce the STM-4 stream.

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SDH
Frame
Structure
10

_______________________________________________________________________________
STM-1 Frame Structure
270
1
RSOH
3
4
POINTER
PAYLOAD CONTAINER
POH
MSOH
9
PAYLOAD CONTAINER: 9 (Rows) * 260 (Columns) * 64Kbps = 149.76 Mbps
POH:
9 (Rows) * 1
(Column ) * 64 Kbps = 0.576 Mbps
RSOH:
3 (Rows) * 9
(Columns) * 64 Kbps = 1.728 Mbps
MSOH:
5 (Rows) * 9
(Columns) * 64 Kbps = 2.880 Mbps

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SDH Containers
SDH is essentially a transport mechanism for carrying a
large number of PDH payloads.
A mechanism is required to map PDH rates into the STM frame.
This function is performed by the container (C).
A PDH channel must be

synchronised before it can be
mapped into a container.
The synchroniser adapts the rate of an
incoming PDH signal to SDH rate.
At the PDH/SDH boundary Bit stuffing
is performed when the PDH signal is
mapped into its container.

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SDH Virtual Containers

Once a container has been created, path overhead bytes
are added to create a virtual container.
Path overheads contain alarm, performance and other
management information.
A path through an SDH network exists from the point

where a PDH signal is put into a container to where the
signal is recovered from the container.
The path overheads travel with the container over the path.

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SDH Virtual
Containers

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SDH Virtual Containers
C-4 container being mapped into an STM frame via a VC-4 virtual container

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SDH Administrative Units

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SDH Tributary Units
The VC-4 is mapped into an STM frame via the

administrative group (AU).
The VC-4 can carry a container -4 (C-4). The C4 carries a 140

Mbit/s PDH signal. The VC-4 forms what is known as a high order
path.
The VC-4 associated with each AU-4 does not have a

fixed phase with respect to the STM-N frame.
If lower speed PDH signals need to be transported these are

mapped into a tributary unit (TU).
The TUs are then multiplexed into a VC-4.
The location of the first byte of the VC-n is indicated by

the AU-n pointer.
The VC-n associated with each TU-n does not have a fixed phase
relationship with respect to the start of the VC-4.
The TU-n pointer is in a fixed location in the VC-4 and the location of the
first byte of the VC-n is indicated by the TU-n pointer.

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SDH Tributary Units
How Is The Frame Composed ?

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PDH Payload
Container (C)
Container + Path Overhead (POH)
Virtual Container (VC)
Virtual Container + TU Pointer
Tributary Unit (TU)
more than 1 Tributary Unit
Tributary Unit Group (TUG)
biggest Tributary Unit Group

Tributary Unit Group + AU Pointer
=
=
Administrative Unit (AU)

Administrative Unit (AU)
more than 1 Administrative Unit
Administrative Unit Group
Administrative Unit Group +

Section Overhead (SOH)
SDH Frame

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SDH Multiplexing Structure
SDH Network Layers

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Path Overhead Bytes
Multiplexer Section Overhead Bytes

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Regenerator Section Overhead Bytes

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C-12
VC-12
TU-12
X3
TUG-2
X7
C-3
VC-3
TU-3
X1
TUG-3
X3
C-4
VC-4
ALIGNMENT
SDH Hierarchy
- TUG Structure
POINTERS
MULTIPLEXING
ADDITION OF OVERHEADS
AU-4
X1
STM-1

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SDH Hierarchy
Example: Multiplex Path for an E1

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Construction of an STM-4 Frame

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Elements of a SDH Network
Regenerator (Reg.)
Terminal Multiplexer (TM)
Add / Drop Multiplexer (ADM)
Digital Cross Connect (DXC)

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Terminal Multiplexer (TM)
Regenerator (Reg.)
STM-N

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Regenerator
STM-N
PDH
SDH
Amplifies the optical signal after converting back to

electrical and generates a new optical signal of the
same format reshaping & timing of data stream

_______________________________________________________________________________
STM-N
It combines the plesiochronous and synchronous input

signals into a higher bit rate STM-N signal.
Terminal
Multiplexer

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Add / Drop Multiplexer (ADM)

Add / Drop
Multiplexer
STM-N
STM-N
PDH
SDH
The Add and Drop Multiplexer (ADM) passes the (high rate) STM-n
through from one side to the other and has the ability to drop or add
any (low rate) tributary. Used in all topologies.

_______________________________________________________________________________

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Digital Cross-Connect
Digital Cross Connect (DXC)

STM-16
STM-4
STM-1
STM-16
STM-4
STM-1
140 Mbit/s
34 Mbit/s
2 Mbit/s
140 Mbit/s
34 Mbit/s
2 Mbit/s
Cross - Connect
A digital cross connect is an equipment which has the
capability of interconnecting tributaries.
SDH Network Topologies

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Ring Network
Tributaries
Add Drop
Multiplexer
(ADM)
Terminal
Multiplexer
(TM)
Chain Network
Terminal
Multiplexer
(TM)
Tributaries
Regenerator
Terminal
Multiplexer
(TM)
Tributaries
Terminal
Multiplexer
(TM)
Add Drop
Multiplexer
(ADM)
Tributaries
Add Drop
Multiplexer
(ADM)
Add Drop
Multiplexer
(ADM)
Tributaries
Point-to-Point Network
Tributaries
Add Drop
Multiplexer
(ADM)
Tributaries
Add Drop
Multiplexer
(ADM)
Tributaries
Tributaries

_______________________________________________________________________________
Tributaries
Add Drop
Multiplexer
(ADM)

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SDH Management
SDH has enhanced management capabilities:
Advantages of SDH
Alarm/Event Management
Configuration Management
Performance Management
Access and Security Management

_______________________________________________________________________________
SDH is more flexible than PDH making it better suited to fast evolving
modern networks.
Developed primarily for wideband networks using optical fibre transmission
(but not restricted to this).
Individual channels and MUXs visible in STM-1 alleviating the need to scale
MUX mountain to add/drop channels/MUXs.
SDH multiplexing factors of 4, compatible with SONET.
Virtual containers allow transport of a variety of tributary bit rates including
PDH MUXs.
Large (5 Mbit/s) signalling capacity allowing sophisticated network operation
/ monitoring / control.
Compatibility between European and US / Japanese PDHs.
Has extensive network management capability within the hierarchy.
Standard interfaces between equipment.
Standardization of equipment management process.

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University of Dar es Salaam | Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering |

University of Dar es Salaam | Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering |

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| TE 413 Introduction to Telecommunication Networks | Christine Mwase | 03/12/2009 | Slide 1

University of Dar es Salaam | Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering |

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| TE 413 Introduction to Telecommunication Networks | Christine Mwase | 03/12/2009 | Slide 2

University of Dar es Salaam | Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering |

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| TE 413 Introduction to Telecommunication Networks | Christine Mwase | 03/12/2009 | Slide 3

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| TE 413 Introduction to Telecommunication Networks | Christine Mwase | 03/12/2009 | Slide 4

University of Dar es Salaam | Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering |

University of Dar es Salaam | Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering |

Multiplexing is an economic necessity.

University of Dar es Salaam | Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering |

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| TE 413 Introduction to Telecommunication Networks | Christine Mwase | 03/12/2009 | Slide 6

University of Dar es Salaam | Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering |

The channels are separated in the aggregate by their frequency.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Channels share common aggregate based upon time.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| TE 413 Introduction to Telecommunication Networks | Christine Mwase | 03/12/2009 | Slide 8

University of Dar es Salaam | Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering |

University of Dar es Salaam | Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering |

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

The basis of analogue to digital conversion is Shannons

The PCM Consists of 3 steps.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| TE 413 Introduction to Telecommunication Networks | Christine Mwase | 03/12/2009 | Slide 9

University of Dar es Salaam | Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering |

Quantization and Encoding

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| TE 413 Introduction to Telecommunication Networks | Christine Mwase | 03/12/2009 | Slide 10

University of Dar es Salaam | Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering |

The 64 kbit/s Channel (TDM Time Slot)

Quantizing = Amplitude given certain value

Voice Frequency 4 KHz

Analogue speech signal (3003400 Hz)

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| TE 413 Introduction to Telecommunication Networks | Christine Mwase | 03/12/2009 | Slide 11

=> 8000 x 8 bit/s

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| TE 413 Introduction to Telecommunication Networks | Christine Mwase | 03/12/2009 | Slide 12

University of Dar es Salaam | Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering |

University of Dar es Salaam | Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering |

ITU-T Recommended PDH Multiplexing Hierarchy

In the ITU-T system, a frame consists of 32 8 bit slots

This yields aggregate rate of 32*8 bits / 125sec = 2 Mb/s.

There are three different versions of PDH multiplexing hierarchy,

Higher order multiplexing is built up by systematically

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| TE 413 Introduction to Telecommunication Networks | Christine Mwase | 03/12/2009 | Slide 13

University of Dar es Salaam | Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering |

Structure of E1 frame (2.048 Mbit/s)

(Capacity = 30 Base Channels)

University of Dar es Salaam | Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering |

PDH Bit Rates

32 TDM time slots (with 8 bits each / frame)

32 * 64 Kb/s = 2.048 Mb/s

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| TE 413 Introduction to Telecommunication Networks | Christine Mwase | 03/12/2009 | Slide 14

Time slot 16 usually contains SS7 signalling information.

E3. PDH (Level 3)

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| TE 413 Introduction to Telecommunication Networks | Christine Mwase | 03/12/2009 | Slide 16

University of Dar es Salaam | Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering |

University of Dar es Salaam | Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering |