CHAPTER

SUMMARY
S

Work done by a force: When a constant force F acts on

S
a particle that undergoes a straight-line displacement s ,
the work done by the force on the particle is dened to
S
S
be the scalar product of F and s . The unit of work in
SI units is 1 joule = 1 newton-meter 11 J = 1 N # m2.
Work is a scalar quantity; it can be positive or negative,
but it has no direction in space. (See Examples 6.1
and 6.2.)

W = F s = Fs cos f

Kinetic energy: The kinetic energy K of a particle equals

the amount of work required to accelerate the particle
from rest to speed v. It is also equal to the amount of
work the particle can do in the process of being brought
to rest. Kinetic energy is a scalar that has no direction in
space; it is always positive or zero. Its units are the same
as the units of work: 1 J = 1 N # m = 1 kg # m2>s2.

K = 12 mv2

(6.2), (6.3)
S

f = angle between F and s

W 5 Fis
5 (F cos f)s

F'

f
Fi 5 F cosf

(6.5)

2m

Doubling m doubles K.
m

2v

Doubling v quadruples K.

The workenergy theorem: When forces act on a particle while it undergoes a displacement, the particles
kinetic energy changes by an amount equal to the total
work done on the particle by all the forces. This relationship, called the workenergy theorem, is valid
whether the forces are constant or varying and whether
the particle moves along a straight or curved path. It is
applicable only to bodies that can be treated as particles.
(See Examples 6.36.5.)

Wtot = K2 - K1 = K

Work done by a varying force or on a curved path: When

a force varies during a straight-line displacement, the
work done by the force is given by an integral, Eq. (6.7).
(See Examples 6.6 and 6.7.) When a particleSfollows a
curved path, the work done on it by a force F is given
by an integral that involves the angle f between the
force and the displacement. This expression is valid
even if the force magnitude and the angle f vary during
the displacement. (See Example 6.8.)

W =

Power: Power is the time rate of doing work. The average power Pav is the amount of work W done in time
t divided by that time. The instantaneous power is the
limit of
the average power as t goes to zero. When a
S
S
force F acts on a particle moving with velocity v, the
instantaneous power (the rate at
which the force does
S
S
work) is the scalar product of F and v. Like work and
kinetic energy, power is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of
power is 1 watt = 1 joule>second 11 W = 1 J>s2. (See
Examples 6.9 and 6.10.)

196

(6.6)

K1 5

1
2

v1

Wtot 5 Total work done on

particle along path
m

mv12
K2 5

1
2

mv22 5 K1 1 Wtot

x2

Lx1

Fx dx

LP1

P2

F cos f dl =

P2

LP1

P = F v

LP1

F dl
(6.14)

F dl

W
t
W
dW
P = lim
=
t S 0 t
dt
Pav =

Area 5 Work done by

force during displacement

Fx

P2

W =

(6.7)

(6.15)

x1

t55s

(6.16)
(6.19)
t50

v2

x2

Work you do on the

box to lift it in 5 s:
W 5 100 J
Your power output:
100 J
W
5
P5
t
5s
5 20 W

CHAPTER

SUMMARY

Gravitational potential energy and elastic potential

energy: The work done on a particle by a constant
gravitational force can be represented as a change
in the gravitational potential energy Ugrav = mgy.
This energy is a shared property of the particle and
the earth. A potential energy is also associated with
the elastic force Fx = - kx exerted by an ideal
spring, where x is the amount of stretch or compression. The work done by this force can be represented as a change in the elastic potential energy
of the spring, Uel = 12 kx 2.

Wgrav = mgy1 - mgy2

= Ugrav,1 - Ugrav,2
= - Ugrav

When total mechanical energy is conserved:

The total potential energy U is the sum of the
gravitational and elastic potential energy:
U = Ugrav + Uel . If no forces other than the
gravitational and elastic forces do work on a
particle, the sum of kinetic and potential energy
is conserved. This sum E = K + U is called the
total mechanical energy. (See Examples 7.1, 7.3,
7.4, and 7.7.)

K 1 + U1 = K 2 + U2

When total mechanical energy is not conserved:

When forces other than the gravitational and elastic
forces do work on a particle, the work Wother done
by these other forces equals the change in total
mechanical energy (kinetic energy plus total
potential energy). (See Examples 7.2, 7.5, 7.6,
7.8, and 7.9.)

K 1 + U1 + Wother = K 2 + U2

Conservative forces, nonconservative forces, and the

law of conservation of energy: All forces are either
conservative or nonconservative. A conservative
force is one for which the workkinetic energy
relationship is completely reversible. The work of a
conservative force can always be represented by a
potential-energy function, but the work of a nonconservative force cannot. The work done by nonconservative forces manifests itself as changes in
the internal energy of bodies. The sum of kinetic,
potential, and internal energy is always conserved.
(See Examples 7.107.12.)

K + U + Uint = 0

Uel 5

1
2

kx2
x

Wel = 12 kx 12 - 12 kx 22
= Uel, 1 - Uel, 2 = - Uel

x50

(7.10)

Ugrav,2 5 mgy2
O

(7.4), (7.11)

At y 5 h
E 5K 1Ugrav

zero

At y 5 0

(7.14)

At point 1

E 5K 1Ugrav

Point 1 f 5 0
n50
w

E5K 1Ugrav

f
zero

At point 2

E 5K 1Ugrav

n
f

w
Point 2

zero

zero

zero

(7.15)
E5K1Ugrav

E5K1 Ugrav
v50

As friction slows block,

mechanical energy is converted
to internal energy of block and ramp.

Fx 1x2 = 0U
0x
0U
Fz = 0z

Fx = -

F a

230

Ugrav,1 5 mgy1

(7.1), (7.3)

zero

Determining force from potential energy: For motion

along a straight line, a conservative force Fx 1x2 is
the negative derivative of its associated potentialenergy function U. In three dimensions, the components of a conservative force are negative partial
derivatives of U. (See Examples 7.13 and 7.14.)

dU1x2

(7.16)

dx
Fy = -

0U
0y

0U
0U
0U n
n
n
kb
0x
0y
0z

Unstable equilibria

(7.17)

(7.18)

x
Stable equilibria

CHAPTER

SUMMARY
S

Momentum of a particle: The momentum p of a particle

is a vector quantity equal to the product of the particles
S
mass m and velocity v. Newtons second law says that
the net force on a particle is equal to the rate of change
of the particles momentum.

p mv

(8.2)

dp
gF
dt
S

(8.4)

p 5 mv

py

px

Impulse and momentum: If a constant net force g F acts

on a particle for a time interval t from t 1 to t 2 , the
S
impulse J of the net force isSthe product of the net
force
S
and the time interval. If g F varies with time, J is the
integral of the net force over the time interval. In any
case, the change in a particles momentum during a time
interval equals the impulse of the net force that acted on
the particle during that interval. The momentum of a particle equals the impulse that accelerated it from rest to its
present speed. (See Examples 8.18.3.)

Conservation of momentum: An internal force is a force

exerted by one part of a system on another. An external
force is a force exerted on any part of a system by something outside the system. If the net external force on
a
S
system is zero, the total momentum of the system P (the
vector sum of the momenta of the individual particles
that make up the system) is constant, or conserved. Each
component of total momentum is separately conserved.
(See Examples 8.48.6.)

J gF1t 2 - t 12 gF t
t2

gF dt

Lt1
S

(Fav)x

J p2 p1

(8.6)
t1

P pA pB
S

m A vA m B vB
S

(8.14)

t2

If gF 0, then P constant.
S

FB on A
S

FA on B

x
S

P 5 pA 1 pB 5 constant

r cm

m1 r1 m2 r2 m3 r3
m1 + m2 + m3 +

vA1

M vcm
S

vA2

vB2

Shell explodes
cm

cm

(8.29)
S

P m 1 v1 m 2 v2 m 3 v3
S

cm

g im i r i
g im i
S

vB1

A B

(8.32)

gFext M a cm

(8.34)

Rocket propulsion: In rocket propulsion, the mass of a rocket changes as the fuel is used up
and ejected from the rocket. Analysis of the motion of the rocket must include the momentum
carried away by the spent fuel as well as the momentum of the rocket itself. (See Examples 8.15
and 8.16.)

266

Jx 5 (Fav)x(t2 2 t1)

(8.7)

Collisions: In collisions of all kinds, the initial and nal total momenta are equal. In an elastic collision between two bodies, the initial and nal total kinetic energies are also equal, and the initial and
nal relative velocities have the same magnitude. In an inelastic two-body collision, the total
kinetic energy is less after the collision than before. If the two bodies have the same nal velocity,
the collision is completely inelastic. (See Examples 8.78.12.)
Center of mass: The position vector of the center of
S
mass of a system of particles, r cm , is a weighted averS
S
age of the positions r 1 , r 2 , of the individual partiS
cles. The total momentum P of a system equals its total
mass M multiplied by the velocity of its center of mass,
S
vcm . The center of mass moves as though all the mass
M were concentrated at that point. If the net external
force on the system is zero, the center-of-mass velocity
S
vcm is constant. If the net external force is not zero, the
center of mass accelerates as though it were a particle
of mass M being acted on by the same net external
force. (See Examples 8.13 and 8.14.)

Fx

(8.5)

1x-direction
vfuel 5 v 2 vex

v 1 dv

2dm

m 1 dm

CHAPTER

SUMMARY

Rotational kinematics: When a rigid body rotates about

a stationary axis (usually called the z-axis), its position
is described by an angular coordinate u. The angular
velocity vz is the time derivative of u, and the angular
acceleration az is the time derivative of vz or the second
derivative of u. (See Examples 9.1 and 9.2.) If the angular acceleration is constant, then u, vz , and az are related
by simple kinematic equations analogous to those for
straight-line motion with constant linear acceleration.
(See Example 9.3.)

du
u
=
t
dt
vz
dvz
d 2u
az = limS
=
= 2
t 0 t
dt
dt
vz = limS

t 0

du
dt
At t2

vz 5

(9.3)

az 5

dvz
dt

At t1
Du

u2
u1

(9.5), (9.6)

u = u0 + v0z t + 12 az t 2

(9.11)

(constant az only)
u - u0 = 12 1v0z + vz2t

(9.10)

(constant az only)
vz = v0z + az t
(constant az only)

Relating linear and angular kinematics: The angular

speed v of a rigid body is the magnitude of its angular
velocity. The rate of change of v is a = dv>dt. For a
particle in the body a distance r from the rotation axis,
S
the speed v and the components of the acceleration a
are related to v and a. (See Examples 9.4 and 9.5.)

(9.7)

vz2 = v0z2 + 2az 1u - u02

(constant az only)

(9.12)

v = rv
dv
dv
= r
= ra
atan =
dt
dt
v2
arad =
= v 2r
r

(9.13)
(9.14)
(9.15)

atan 5 ra

v 5 rv

Linear
acceleration
of point P

P
arad 5 v2r
s

Moment of inertia and rotational kinetic energy: The

moment of inertia I of a body about a given axis is a
measure of its rotational inertia: The greater the value
of I, the more difcult it is to change the state of the
bodys rotation. The moment of inertia can be expressed
as a sum over the particles m i that make up the body,
each of which is at its own perpendicular distance ri
from the axis. The rotational kinetic energy of a rigid
body rotating about a xed axis depends on the angular
speed v and the moment of inertia I for that rotation
axis. (See Examples 9.69.8.)

Calculating the moment of inertia: The parallel-axis

theorem relates the moments of inertia of a rigid body
of mass M about two parallel axes: an axis through the
center of mass (moment of inertia Icm) and a parallel
axis a distance d from the rst axis (moment of inertia
IP). (See Example 9.9.) If the body has a continuous
mass distribution, the moment of inertia can be calculated by integration. (See Examples 9.10 and 9.11.)

I = m 1 r 12 + m 2 r 22 +
= a m ir i

(9.16)

Axis of
rotation

v
r2

m2
I 5 S miri2

K =

1
2
2 Iv

(9.17)

m1

i
1

r1

K 5 2 Iv2
r3

IP = Icm + Md 2

m3

(9.19)
cm
Mass M

Icm

d
P

IP 5 Icm 1 Md 2

297