Separation and Purication Technology 118 (2013) 305312

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Separation and Purication Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/seppur

Enrichment implication of froth otation kinetics in the separation

and recovery of metal values from printed circuit boards
A. Vidyadhar , A. Das
MNP Division, CSIR National Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur 831 007, India

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 13 May 2013
Received in revised form 21 June 2013
Accepted 18 July 2013
Available online 27 July 2013
Keywords:
Printed circuit boards
Recycling
Froth otation
Kinetics
Metal recovery

a b s t r a c t
The e-waste printed circuit boards (PCBs) are rich in metal content and processing these wastes for
extracting the metal values and removing the non-metallic constituents is a prospective proposition.
Froth otation methodology was observed to be a promising technique for rejecting plastics from the
comminution product. It has been shown that nearly reagent-free otation of relatively coarse size
(1.0 mm) pulverized e-waste is feasible with a reasonably good product at a high yield and excellent
recovery. In the present research work, enrichment of ground 1.0 mm PCB powder was investigated
through otation route by varying the operating variables such as frother dosage, pulp density, air ow
rate and rotational speed of impeller. The liberation studies accomplish that liberation of metal value
from non-metallic constituents at 1.0 mm size is excellent and the particulate system is signicantly
rich in metal value, containing around 23% metal. In-depth study of froth otation kinetics is primarily
focused on high rejection of plastics and also identication of optimum operating conditions for the same.
Single-stage otation enhances metal content from 23% to over 37%, contributing a mass yield of around
75% with recovery of nearly 95% metal values, suffering nominal loss of around 4% metal value only, while
effectively rejecting 32% of the materials in feed through oat fraction. The interdependence of kinetics
and process variables has been discussed and it has been concluded that a high rotor speed aids efcient
rejection of the plastics. However, addition of frother is essential to help stabilize the froth and enhance
the kinetics, while efcient pre-concentration is facilitated through a combination of moderate air ow
with low pulp density. Generation of pre-concentration through otation route from the entire
1.0 mm comminution product stands accomplished.
2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The vital issue of electronic waste associated grave concern
factually happens to be a potential risk for the populace and not
simply limited to the government bodies, taking into account the
hazards of toxic environmental pollution endangering the safe
existence of inhabitants in the region. The incremental consumption trend of electrical and electronic goods as lifestyle products
across the globe is contributing to the rapidly worsening scenario,
which has been recognized world-over as a potential threat to the
well-being of the inhabitants on account of the increasing air and
ground-water pollution. The escalating environmental risk phenomena cannot be addressed through incineration unlike other
waste, thus, evolving scientically focused safe methodologies is
imperative in effectively tackling the damaging consequences to
the region, particularly with respect to the growing concern, of
the society at large, about the likelihood of formation of e-waste
dump in the region. The disposal of these requires special treat Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 657 2349008; fax: +91 657 2345213.
E-mail address: ari@nmlindia.org (A. Vidyadhar).
1383-5866/$ - see front matter 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2013.07.027

ment to prevent the leakage and dissipation of toxics into the

environment [15]. Physical processing is admittedly the most
environment-friendly approach among other prevalent techniques
such as pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical processes for
materials recovery from end-of-life printed circuit boards (PCBs)
[6,7]. The printed circuit board is a major constituent of obsolete
and discarded electronic scraps containing valuable metals such
as Cu, Ni, Au, Ag, Pd, Fe, Sn, and Pb. The incentives drawing the
unorganized recyclers in the business is best explained by the
enormity of volume and market valuation of the materials recovered from e-waste. The volume and cost of the metals recovered
from 1000 kg of PCBs has been presented by Chatterjee and Kumar
[8].
It has been inferred that froth otation happens to be an effective enrichment technique in recovery of values from 75 lm
comminution nes [9]. Perceiving this as an applied minerals processing constraint, froth otation has been scientically advanced
as a promising beneciation technique for ne fraction [10,11]
and the same technique has also been applied in processing municipal solid waste [1214]. PCB nes consist of mixture of particles
of metals, alloys, ceramics and plastics, each with distinct surface

306

A. Vidyadhar, A. Das / Separation and Purication Technology 118 (2013) 305312

properties that should enable selective wetting and make froth

otation separation possible. This is the overall hypothesis upon
which froth otation can be expected to be applicable for the beneciation of this material mixture. Although the reports on otation of metals have deliberated more on those that occur in
native forms which are real situations in otation operations, many
metals and alloys in the PCB nes that do not naturally occur in
native forms can also be expected to respond to collectors. The ne
plastic particles are expected to oat under their natural hydrophobicity, thus making it possible to achieve an initial bulk metallic enrichment of the sink prior to attempting any surface
conditioning, contributes selective oats, thereby connoting a reverse otation in respect of metallic values.
The breakage characteristics of the metals and the non-metals
in the PCBs are strikingly different. Good liberation entails size
reduction in a ne range and in the process, albeit undesirable, signicant amount of ultranes are generated. The 75 lm fraction
poses a potential challenge in the recovery of metal values, however, removal of the ultranes in a large scale operation could be
yet another impeding factor considering the low density of the
plastics. Relatively larger size of the feed was considered, taking
into account the lower density of plastic particles, for assisting
its oat. Lack of adequate momentum in the ne plastic particles
to aid rupturing the bubble lm for effective attachment, oat
probability of these particles are likely to be less. However, eliminating such low density ultranes from the feed is a formidable
task in industrial-scale processing, thus, it was decided to investigate the otation of the whole 1.0 mm feed in the experimental
study.
In view of the stated hindrances, the present study was undertaken to investigate the possibility of using otation as a pre-concentration step for the entire 1.0 mm material and the impact of
the process variables such as frother dosage, pulp density, air ow
rate and rotational speed of the impeller on the effectiveness of
plastic rejection were analyzed in-depth, investigating the dependence of the overall otation rate on the operating variables as
well. Systematic quantication of e-waste otation performance
accentuated on kinetics, supported by statistically designed experimental campaign, comprising integration of features ranging from
liberation to optimization, statistical analysis and modelling efforts, evidence novelty per se in this research work.
2. Materials and characterization methods
2.1. Raw material preparation
One hundred kilograms of waste PCB was procured from different sources and snipped into smaller pieces through mechanical
shearing, followed by trimming the same in shredding mill to a size
of around 35 mm and thereafter, dry ground in a batch-type ball
mill to a top-size of 1.0 mm. To prevent generation of ultra nes,
the ball mill was intermittently halted for drawing the nes
through screening and the grinding process was terminated after
reduction of material size to 1.0 mm. The pulverized PCB powder
was used as the feed material for further characterization and otation studies.
2.2. Size distribution
Pulverized PCBs were subjected to size analysis by wet sieving
and the results were illustrated in Table 1. It was observed that signicant amount of nes (35 lm) were generated in pulverization
process and notably substantial quantity of the processed materials remained in the 1000  500 lm fraction while around half of
the materials were in the size range of 500  35 lm.

Table 1
Size analysis and microscopic liberation data for the powdered PCB scrap.
Size (lm)

Weight (%)

1000
500
300
150
100
75
50
35

26.64
15.07
10.79
6.89
4.42
7.40
2.86
25.93

Liberation analysis (number %)

Free metal

Interlocked

Free gangue

18.3
17.4
15.6
13.4
11.2
9.3

5.3
3.2
1.3
0
0
0

76.4
79.4
83.1
86.6
88.8
90.7

2.3. Liberation studies

Liberation analysis was undertaken in a stereo zoom microscope, using grain count method to unveil the degree of interlocking in each size class, wherein, 400 frames were counted for each
size class and counting in each frame the numbers of free metals,
free plastic and interlocked metal-plastic pieces. The number percentages of each type were computed from the overall counts
which exhibited the liberation pattern of the starting material.
The liberation data of the ground powder are also illustrated in
Table 1, from which it may be seen that the coarsest
(1000  500 lm) size class contains only about 5% (by number)
interlocking of metallic and non-metallic constituents. Interlocking
was not observed below 150 lm size and the metal values were
found to be adequately liberated in the pulverized mass, hence, it
was concluded that the grind size for effective liberation occurs
at the size of 1.0 mm.

2.4. Chemical analysis

Chemical analysis of head sample of the powder and of each
size fraction as well was carried out and the data are shown in
Table 2. It may be seen from Table 2, that the total metal content
in the powdered sample is around 23% which mainly contains
6.3% Cu, 2.7% Pb, 2.7% Sn, 7.9% Al and about 0.1% Ni from which
it is evident that the metal content decreased signicantly in the
ner size fractions. Al is mainly obtained from the capacitors
where it is in the form of thin foil. In the process of grinding the
size reduction for these are mainly due to shear which is reected
in relatively uniform distribution of Al over the size classes. However, for other metals attrition is the primary mode of size reduction which is reected in decreasing concentration of the same in
lower size classes, while Ni concentration is too low to have any
practical signicance from recycling standpoint.

Table 2
Chemical analysis of the powdered PCB scrap.
Size (lm)

Cu
(%)

Pb
(%)

Sn
(%)

Fe
(%)

Al
(%)

Ni
(%)

Total metal
(%)

Head sample
(analyzed)
1000
500
300
150
100
75
50
35
Head (calculated)

6.3

2.73

2.67

3.08

7.93

0.113

22.94

8.89
8.04
7.26
6.28
5.29
4.22
3.78
2.67
6.14

3.96
3.02
2.75
2.27
1.87
1.49
1.29
1.23
2.51

3.54
3.04
2.64
2.04
1.81
2.17
2.03
1.63
2.55

4.22
3.94
3.14
3.01
2.89
2.83
2.56
1.83
3.15

7.92
7.41
7.18
7.6
7.55
7.51
7.78
7.02
7.46

0.112
0.122
0.134
0.126
0.131
0.156
0.103
0.093
0.116

28.78
25.67
23.24
21.44
19.64
18.44
17.65
14.59
22.04

307

A. Vidyadhar, A. Das / Separation and Purication Technology 118 (2013) 305312

Table 3
Sink-oat analysis of the powdered PCB scrap.
Sample

Head

1000 +500

500 +300

300 +150

150 +100

100 +75

75 +50

50 +35

35

Sink (%)
Float (%)

31.4
68.6

40.0
60.0

36.6
53.4

32.2
67.8

29.7
70.3

26.1
73.9

23.5
76.5

19.7
80.3

12.2
87.8

Table 4
The otation experimental conditions according to BoxBehnken design.
S. no.

Stirrer speed
(rpm)

Frother dosage
(kg/t)

Pulp density
(%)

Air ow
rate (lph)

Yield (%)

Grade (%)

Recovery (%)

Rate constant
K (/min)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29

1100
1100
1000
1100
1000
1100
1200
1000
1100
1000
1200
1200
1100
1000
1200
1100
1100
1100
1100
1200
1100
1100
1200
1100
1100
1100
1000
1100
1100

4
2
2
4
2
2
2
2
0
4
2
4
2
2
0
2
2
0
0
2
4
2
2
4
2
2
0
2
0

9
12
12
12
9
9
9
6
9
9
6
9
9
9
9
12
6
12
6
9
6
9
12
9
6
9
9
9
9

5
35
20
20
5
20
5
20
5
20
20
20
20
35
20
5
35
20
20
35
20
20
20
35
5
20
20
20
35

70.1
68.9
73.9
73.7
75.0
74.1
72.4
70.1
91.3
73.2
68.9
67.5
74.1
75.2
72.2
76.8
70.6
76.6
72.2
75.5
69.7
74.0
68.3
72.4
79.9
73.8
75.5
73.4
75.3

31.8
31.4
28.7
27.9
27.7
28.7
38.7
31.0
27.0
29.5
31.1
32.3
29.0
27.3
29.5
27.7
30.8
28.1
29.7
27.7
30.7
29.2
32.3
29.5
26.8
28.8
28.4
29.1
27.7

97.2
94.3
92.5
89.6
90.6
93.2
94.7
94.7
93.6
94.1
93.5
95.0
93.2
89.5
92.8
92.7
94.9
93.8
93.5
91.2
93.4
93.2
96.2
93.1
93.3
93.2
93.5
93.2
91.3

0.3495
0.3585
0.2865
0.2739
0.3143
0.2822
0.3106
0.3332
0.2319
0.3088
0.3388
0.3944
0.2843
0.2835
0.3287
0.2828
0.3366
0.2585
0.3150
0.2680
0.3227
0.2836
0.3979
0.3086
0.2264
0.2888
0.2712
0.2778
0.2633

2.5. Sink-oat analysis

In order to have an understanding of metal content in the powder, it was subjected to sink-oat analysis, using a mixture of
bromoform and benzene with 2.0 specic gravity as the heavy liquid. The specic gravity of the plastics was lower than 2.0 while
all metals were having specic gravity more than 2.0. Hence, liberated metals sank in the liquid while liberated plastic particles
oated. However, depending upon the proportion of plastics in
the interlocked particles they sank or oated. The sink-oat data
are shown in Table 3, from which it is evident that the ner fractions contained lower quantity of metals. In the larger size classes,
the metals embedded in plastic also reported in the sink. Gravity
separation of metals from plastics in pulverized electronic waste
using owing lm concentration in a shaking table has been investigated [15].

2.6. Experimental design

Processing of 1.0 mm comminution product of e-waste was
investigated with a view to separate the metals from the nonmetallic constituents. The differences in specic gravity between
metals and non-metals were exploited in froth otation methodology. In order to optimize the performance of the otation a total of
29 experiments were performed according to the BoxBehnken design of experiment. The four operating variables were stirrer speed,
frother dosage, pulp density and air ow rate. The conditions for
these experiments and the concentration response in the form of

yield and grade are shown in Table 4. The product samples were
collected, dried and analyzed for total metal content (grade), which
have also been presented in Table 4.
3. Experimental
Bench scale otation tests were performed with 500 g of
1.0 mm PCB powder for each experiment in a WEMCO laboratory
cell of the Fagergren type with a cell volume of 2.7 L and the pulp
was conditioned for about 15 min. The differential degree of hydrophobicity between non-metals and metals is exploited using froth
otation wherein, the hydrophobic plastic particles are separated
from the hydrophilic metal particles by reverse otation, using
only a froth stabilizer. The hydrophobic plastic particles are made
to attach with the air bubbles to aid them oat to the top while, the
metal particles were retained in the pulp. Relatively narrower feed
size range augurs well for otation performance. In order to have
an idea of the otation rate, kinetic studies were undertaken. For
each experiment, oat samples were collected at an interval of
0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 min. The oat fractions were dried, weighed and
analyzed for total metal. For proper understanding of the kinetics,
these data were processed assuming a rst order rate equation. The
rate equation is presented as follows:

kt ln1=1  R

where R is the recovery of metals at time t (min) and k is the rate

constant. A plot of the right hand side of the above equation against
time gives a straight line with a slope k, the rate constant. The rate

308

A. Vidyadhar, A. Das / Separation and Purication Technology 118 (2013) 305312

constants were estimated from the plots for all experiments. Table 4
also lists the rate constants obtained under various operating
conditions.

0.8

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Beneciation by froth otation

ln[(1/1-R)]

0.6

0.4
Expt. No.
23
24
25

0.2
The loss of metal values in the oat fraction was of primary concern in this study and a few exploratory tests unveils that enrichment in grade is achievable at a much lower yield of the valuable
stream while suffering signicant metal loss in the froth. Therefore,
incremented recovery rather than grade enrichment was targeted
in this investigation, which is considered to be a pre-concentration
step.
Notably, characterization data exhibits 77% of the feed to be
plastic and the same has been targeted for otation. Since, the density of plastic particle is lower in terms of percentage but numberwise higher in comparison, therefore, low pulp density in combination with high aeration, bodes well. Higher impeller speed triggers
production of ner bubbles and increased turbulence, which translates into incremented particle-bubble collision frequency [16,17],
a precursor to attachment. While nes recovery to oat is augmented by smaller bubbles [18], higher turbulence can also lead
to rise in entrainment and metal losses.
According to BoxBehnken experimental design for response
surface methodology, 29 experiments were undertaken to establish the inuence of four operating variables on the separation performance wherein, the impact of four variables studied were stirrer
speed, frother dosage, pulp density and air ow rate. The conditions for these experiments and the concentration response in
the form of yield and grade are illustrated in Table 4. The product
samples were collected, dried, weighed and analyzed to ascertain
total metal content (grade). The otation response is quantied
in the form of yield of the metal-rich tailings and the total metal
content (grade) in it. The recovery of the valuables was also estimated. It can be seen from this table that the yield varies between
67.5% and 91.3% while the grade obtained varies from 26.8% to
38.6% total metal and recovery, under all circumstances, exceeds
90%.
The grades of the valuables stream are indeed low. Evidently,
not a great deal of enrichment has taken place. However, it should
be noted that nearly 2030% of the material is rejected in the oat
fraction with very little loss of metal values in the oat fraction.
Above 90% recovery under all circumstances corroborates this. Efcient otation performance has been observed with moderate pulp
density and air ow rate, at 1200 rpm stirrer speed preferably with
low frother dosage. However, no qualitative deterioration in froth
stability adversely impacting otation, has been observed with
no frother dosage. To facilitate otation, adequate momentum to
lighter plastic particles is attributable to rise in stirrer speed while
on the ip-side, no improvement in product grade has been witnessed in experiments conducted at 1000 rpm stirrer speed, thus,
better otation performance is achievable with moderate to high
stirrer speed.
Improvement in product grade has been achieved with higher
frother dosage in combination with high stirrer speed. It was established experimentally that no enhancement in oat performance is
obtainable by increase in frother dosage beyond a certain limit,
however, maintaining minimum froth stability is imperative and
frother dosage of about 2 kg/t is considered adequate. The detrimental impact of high pulp density, as illustrated by the data in Table 4 notwithstanding, excessive low pulp density is not desirable
from commercial perspective, thus, good otation performance in
terms of mass yield and grade of concentrate along with associated

0.0
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

Time (min)
Fig. 1. First order tting of otation responses under various process conditions.

recovery of metal values is obtainable with a moderate pulp density of around 10% solids concentration.
Air ow rate being a crucial process variable, excessive high air
ow rate accelerating the degree of turbulence triggers detachment of bubble particle aggregate, thus, better otation performance is achievable maintaining a low to moderate air ow rate,
as observed from data. Therefore, it has been inferred that a combination of high stirrer speed with low frother dosage, moderate
pulp density and low to moderate air ow rate is ideal for betterment of otation performance.
4.2. Kinetic response
The values of the rate constant suggest only moderate otation
rates. The extents of t of the kinetic responses to Eq. (1) can be
seen in Fig. 1 which depicts a high, intermediate and low otation
rate as observed in this study. All the conditions resulted in good
correlation, implying that the observed response conforms to rst
order otation kinetics. The reasons for the attainment of such
rates in these experimental tests are discussed below along with
other experiments.
The highest rate constant values are obtained under high stirrer
speed (1200 rpm) and moderate air ow rate (12 lph) conditions
with over 95% recovery of the metal values. The rejection of plastics from the pulp is efcient under these conditions. A lower yield
with good product grade along with a high recovery of metals is
most desirable. From this standpoint, it is not necessary that a
highest rate constant would full all the criteria. The loss of metals
in the reject stream (oat fraction) must be examined carefully before deciding the best suitable conditions. However, a faster rate is
certainly desirable from an application angle.
4.3. System response
The system response is shown in Fig. 2 in the form of variation
of yield and recovery along with grade of the valuable fraction. The
gure indicates that the yield of the valuable fraction sharply declines as better grade is targeted. However, the recovery values remain similar under the conditions tested. There is a small increase
in the recovery at high target grades under specic conditions,
which of course, should be the preferred conditions for the preconcentration targeted in this experimental study. It indicates that
Expt. 23 gives the best conditions, under which less than 4% metals
are lost in the oat fraction. A low yield of the sink indicates very
effective rejection of plastics into the froth wherein, nearly one
third of the feed reports to the oat fraction with negligible metal
value in it. As discussed above, effective rejection of plastics under
these conditions is attributed to good stability of the froth, high

309

Recovery / Yield (%)

A. Vidyadhar, A. Das / Separation and Purication Technology 118 (2013) 305312

100

Yield 73:88  0:57 A  6:06 B  2:62 C  5:72 D

95

 0:63 AB  1:10 AC 0:72 AD  0:075 BC

90

4:56 BD 1:78 CD  2:27 A2 0:46 B2 1:32 C 2

85

2:91 D2 4:34 A2 B 3:42 A2 C 6:55 A2 D

Preferred
Operating
Regime

80

 1:65 AB2  1:13 AC 2 4:70 B2 C 2:26 B2 D

75

4:74 BC 2

70
65
60
26

Recovery
Yield

Grade 29:00 2:84 A 1:65 B 0:37 C 1:93 D

28

30

32

34

0:42 AB 0:87 AC  2:64 AD  0:30 BC

Grade (%)

 0:75 BD 1:31 A2  0:20 B2 0:32 C 2  0:67 A2 B

Fig. 2. Grade vs. recovery/yield curve for all the experimental conditions.

 0:65 A2 C  4:76 A2 D  1:86 AB2  1:91 AC 2

 1:47 B2 C  2:33 B2 D  1:45 BC 2

concentration of air bubbles, appropriate turbulence level, high

collision frequency and adequate momentum of plastic particles.
The retrotted model of the experimental data displayed that a
reduced cubic model correlates well to the yield data with a correlation coefcient (R2) of 0.9995. The model expression for the yield
is projected in Eq. (2) and in the same degree, a reduced cubic model is well suited to the grade data with an R2 value of 0.9957, as
projected in Eq. (3). With the help of the model equations, optimization exercise was undertaken to maximize the yield, at maximum possible grade, at highest possible feed rate wherein, the
optimum conditions were inferred to be at 1198 rpm stirrer speed,
0.61 kg/t frother dosage, pulp density 9.02% solids and at an airow
rate of 5.00 lph with a desirability value of 0.841. At the optimum
conditions, the yield is predicted to be 76% with a grade of 37% and
it was also established that removal of substantial plastics from the
pulp could be accomplished with a residence time of 1 min, wherein, the metal content increases from 23% to over 37%, with a yield
of 76%, resulting in almost 95% recovery of metal values through
single-stage roughing.
In terms of coded factors A, B, C and D, the equations are:

where A, B, C and D corresponds to stirrer speed, frother dosage,

pulp density, air ow rate respectively, varying from 1 to +1. In actual, for all the process variables the 1 level corresponds to the
minimum value and the +1 level corresponds to the highest value
as considered in the experimental design.
Figs. 36 illustrate the response surfaces generated from the
experimental data. Figs. 3 and 4 are plotted with the optimum conditions of pulp density 9.0% and at an air ow rate of 5.0 lph. From
Fig. 3, it is evident that the maximum yield is obtained at lower
frother dosage with intermediate stirrer speed. The yield increases
and levels off with a decrease in stirrer speed at high frother dosage while at low frother dosage, the yield initially increases and
then decreases, with fall in stirrer speed and a linear drop in yield
is observed at low stirring speed with increase in frother dosage,
however, at higher stirring speed the drop is nearly parabolic. It
is observed that the maximum grade is obtained at a high frother
dosage in combination with high stirrer speed (Fig. 4). The grade
of the concentrate was observed to have an inverse relationship
with yield wherein, fall in yield improved the grade and vice versa.

92
84.5

Yield

77
69.5
62
1000.00
0.00
1050.00
1.00
1100.00

2.00
B: Frother Dosage

3.00

1150.00

A: stirrer speed

4.00 1200.00
Fig. 3. Variation in yield with frother dosage and stirrer speed at 9.0% pulp density and air ow rate of 5.0 lph.

310

A. Vidyadhar, A. Das / Separation and Purication Technology 118 (2013) 305312

42

37.75

Grade

33.5

29.25

25

4.00
1200.00

3.00
1150.00
2.00

B: Frother Dosage

1100.00
1.00

1050.00

A: stirrer speed

0.00 1000.00

Fig. 4. Variation in grade with frother dosage and stirrer speed at 9.0% pulp density and air ow rate of 5.0 lph.

79

74.75

Yield

70.5

66.25

62

0.00

5.00
1.00

12.50
2.00

20.00

D: Air flow rate

3.00

27.50

B: Frother Dosage

35.00 4.00
Fig. 5. Variation in yield with air ow rate and frother dosage at stirrer speed 1200 rpm and 9.0% pulp density.

Figs. 5 and 6 are generated for the optimum conditions at stirrer

speed 1200 rpm and 9.0% pulp density. It is seen from Fig. 5 that
the yield is maximum at lower frother dosage with high air ow

rate and conversely decreases with an increase in frother dosage.

However, beyond a threshold pulp density, the yield suffers a sharp
fall. The grade was found to drop linearly with an increase in air

311

A. Vidyadhar, A. Das / Separation and Purication Technology 118 (2013) 305312

41

36.25

Grade

31.5

26.75

22

5.00

0.00
12.50

1.00
20.00

D: Air flow rate

2.00
27.50

3.00
35.00

B: Frother Dosage

4.00

Fig. 6. Variation in grade with air ow rate and frother dosage at stirrer speed 1200 rpm and 9.0% pulp density.

ow rate (Fig. 6). The grade increases with the increase of frother
dosage at low air ow rate, however, it increases and levels off with
rise in frother dosage at a high air ow rate.

moderate pulp density is desired and is found to be acceptable

from the process angle. Thus, a single pass otation of the e-waste
is recommended for good pre-concentration of the pulverized mass
with excellent rejection of plastic particles.

5. Conclusions
5.2. Model development

The 1.0 mm comminution product of e-waste can be treated

using otation method, provided the ultranes are removed from
the feed to facilitate adequate and effective enhancement of grade,
as otherwise the utility of the same will remain conned to being a
pre-concentrate.

Model equations for the two primary responses, namely, mass

yield and product grade were obtained with excellent accuracy.
The R2 values of over 0.99 in both cases stand testimony to that.

5.1. Flotation features

5.3. Optimum operating regime

Notably, specic conditions with respect to maintaining high

rotor speed in combination with moderate air ow, low pulp density and addition of frother for froth stabilization contributes to
effective otation performance and enhanced rejection of plastics
in the process. However, otation performance is adversely impacted by excessively high or low aeration rate. As observed, collector less otation serves the purpose of effective preconcentration since removal of light ultranes poses severe constraints in ne PCB processing.
In view of the low density of the plastic particles, a high stirrer
speed is necessary to impart adequate momentum to these particles for capture. However, when a high air ow is also introduced,
the turbulence is excessive and detachment starts taking place. A
moderate airow rate is required to maintain adequate concentration of air bubble. Froth stability must be enhanced by adding only
moderate amount of frother. Pulp density has to be maintained at a
low level for good dispersion. However, from an applied angle, a

The optimum conditions were identied as a stirrer speed of

1198 rpm, a frother dosage of 0.61 kg/ton, a pulp density of
9.02% solids and an air ow of 5.00 lph. Under these conditions a
product grade of 37% metal is achievable at 76% mass yield.
Acknowledgement
The nancial support from the Department of Information
Technology, Govt. of India for carrying out the research is gratefully
acknowledged.
References
[1] J. Cui, L. Zhang, Metallurgical recovery of metals from electronic waste: a
review, J. Hazard. Mater. 158 (2008) 228256.
[2] X. Niu, Y. Li, Treatment of waste printed wire boards in electronic waste for
safe disposal, J. Hazard. Mater. 145 (2007) 410416.

312

A. Vidyadhar, A. Das / Separation and Purication Technology 118 (2013) 305312

[3] I.C. Nnorom, O. Osibanjo, S.O. Nnorom, Achieving resource conservation in

electronic waste management: a review of options available to developing
countries, J. Appl. Sci. 7 (2007) 29182933.
[4] R. Widmer, H. Oswald-Krapf, D. Sinha-Khetriwal, H. Schnellmann, H. Bni,
Global perspectives on e-waste, Environ. Imp. Assess. Rev. 25 (2005) 436458.
[5] J. Cui, E. Forssberg, Mechanical recycling of waste electric and electronic
equipment: a review, J. Hazard. Mater. 99 (2003) 243263.
[6] M. Goosey, R. Kellner, A Scoping Study: End-of-Life Printed Circuit Boards,
Department of Trade and Investment, Shipley Europe Ltd., 2002.
[7] M. Goosey, R. Kellner, Recycling technologies for the treatment of end of life
printed circuit boards (PCB), Circuit World 29 (2003) 3337.
[8] S. Chatterjee, K. Kumar, Effective electronic waste management and recycling
process involving formal and non-formal sectors, Int. J. Phys. Sci. 4 (2009) 893
905.
[9] I.O. Ogunniyi, M.K.G. Vermaak, Improving printed circuit board physical
processing an overview, in: Proceedings of European Metallurgical
Conference, Dusseldorf, Germany, 2007, pp. 16451656.
[10] I.O. Ogunniyi, M.K.G. Vermaak, Froth otation for beneciation of printed
circuit boards comminution nes. An overview, Miner. Process. Ext. Met. Rev.
30 (2009) 101121.

[11] I.O. Ogunniyi, M.K.G. Vermaak, Investigation of froth otation for beneciation
of printed circuit board communution nes, Miner. Eng. 22 (2009)
378385.
[12] H. Shen, R.J. Pugh, E. Forssberg, A review of plastics waste recycling and the
otation of plastics, Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 25 (1999) 85109.
[13] G. Dodbiba, N. Haruki, A. Shibayam, T. Miyazaki, T. Fujita, Combination of sinkoat separation and otation technique for purication of shredded PET-bottle
from PE or PP akes, Int. J. Miner. Process. 65 (2002) 1129.
[14] H. Alter, The recovery of plastics from waste with reference to froth otation,
Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 43 (2005) 119132.
[15] A. Vidyadhar, G. Chalavadi, A. Das, Stratication and segregation features of
pulverized electronic waste in owing lm concentration, J. Environ. Manage.
118 (2013) 4954.
[16] J. Duan, D. Fornasiero, J. Ralston, Calculation of the otation rate constant of
chalcopyrite particles in an ore, Int. J. Miner. Process. 72 (2003) 227237.
[17] B. Pyke, D. Fornasiero, J. Ralston, Bubble particle hetero coagulation under
turbulent conditions, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 265 (2003) 141151.
[18] J.D. Pease, D.C. Curry, M.F. Young, Designing otation circuits for high nes
recovery, in: Centenary of Flotation Symposium, Brisbane, QLD, 2005, pp. 905
912.