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Testing and Apparatus Essais Et Appareils
Testing and Apparatus Essais Et Appareils
Testing and Apparatus Essais Et Appareils
Essais et appareils
J. Koseki
Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
T. Kawaguchi
Hakodate National College of Technology, Hakodate, Japan
ABSTRACT: Recent developments in equipments and techniques regarding deformation and strength testing
of geomaterials in the laboratory are reviewed. The scope of strain measurement discussed in this keynote paper
is wide, ranging from the elastic behaviour at very small strains to the generation of shear bands at large strains
beyond failure. Some problems overlooked in characterising engineering properties of geomaterials in the laboratory are cited, and their countermeasures are discussed. Practical application of the laboratory test results is
discussed with a limited number of case histories.
1
INTRODUCTION
Pre-failure
(element)
Peak
Post-faliure
(shear band boundary value problems)
Figure 1.
A typical of stress-strain curve of soil element when subjected to shearing in the laboratory.
stiffness, G0 or E0, at very small strains can technically be performed at any stages. The interpretation of
the result as the element may be appropriate over the
pre-failure regime, but it is not so after the peak where
strain localization (i.e., the development of shear bands)
is usually seen.
In the current world-class standard of geotechnical
laboratories, the deformation behaviour over the whole
pre-failure regime, including the elastic stiffness at
very small strains can successfully be observed in triaxial test. Conversely, the scope of strain measurement
seems inferior in HC/simple shear tests due to stress/
strain non-uniformities in the specimens, but these tests
enable us to examine more general behaviour such as
anisotropy and the effects of principal stress rotation.
Plane strain/true triaxial tests both using a rectangular
specimen provide an opportunity to examine the
behaviour of post-peak strain localization by using,
for example, photo-image techniques.
This paper consists of two parts. In part I, recent
developments in measurement/control and data acquisition systems are reviewed. The scope of strain measurement discussed is wide, ranging from the elastic
behaviour at very small strains to the generation of
shear bands at large strains beyond failure. In Part II,
practical implications of the laboratory test results are
cited with a limited number of case histories.
8
6
3
4
7
9
10
11
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
2.1
Upper gear
(bevel gear A)
AC servo-motor
Servo-motor
Lower gear
(bevel gear B)
Ballspline screw
1.
4. Drive Unit
5.
6.
a (%)
3.
2.
0.005
0.005
Proximity
transducer
0.005
8.
20
30 40 50
Time (sec.)
60
70
11.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Manual handle
Direct-drive motor
Output-flange of motor
Input section of revolution
to reduction unit
5. Reduction unit
6. Output section of reduced
revolution to ball screw nut
7. Ballspline screw
8. Ball screw nut
9. Thrust-angular bearing
10. Spline nut
11. Piston rod
NSF clay
CD test
p'c = 300 kPa
0.3 da /dt = 0.0002 (%/min)
80
0.98
1
0.2
50
40
0.1
q (kPa)
Direct-drive motor
('nearly-zero' backlash)
Ballspline screw
('nearly-zero' backlash)
10
0.4
Personal
Computer
10.
Reduction unit
('nearly-zero' backlash)
Top cap
0
Serial Port
17 18 19 20
Time (sec.)
7.
9.
0.0045
Frequency
0.013 (Hz)
30
20
10
0
0
0.1
0.2 0.3
a (%)
0.4
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Axial strain calculated by position of motor (%)
14
NSF clay
Deviator stress, q (kPa)
12
p' = 30 (kPa)
K = 1.0
10
OCR = 10
8
6
4
2
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Axial strain, a (%)
0.1
0.12
0.1
0.08
1
0.18
0.06
0.18
0.04
0.02
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Time (min.)
1.4
1.2
(Unit : mm)
Pneumatic
cylinder for
counter-balancing
Bearing
EMB:Electro-magnetic brake
EMC:Electro-magnetic clutch
AC servo-motor
EMC
Universal joint for
transmitting torque
Top plate
Loading
wedge
Top cap
Specimen
(X=220,Y=250,
Z=500)
Observation window
(4@ 90)
Ball screw
G
E
Loading wedge
Pre-pressurized nut
Loading plate
with slanted back face
Load cell
Pedestal
Figure 6.
High-stiffness
pre-pressurized bearing
Roller bearing
Ball screw
Reaction plate
Base plate
Roller bearing
Loading
plate
Loading
wedge
(a)
46
4
qy
44
42
400
500
600
700
Time (sec)
800
50
qz
48
44
0
900
42
4
Toyoura sand
Horizontal small cyclic loading
at x= 49 kPa
850
900
950
0
1000 1050 1100 1150 1200
Time (sec)
10
(b)
b)
50
qz= z-x (kPa)
48
46
6
4
Toyoura sand
Vertical small cyclic
loading at x=49 kPa
44
42
0.021
0.022
Figure 7.
0.023
0.024
z (%) (by LDTs)
Toyoura sand
Horizontal small cyclic
loading at x=49 kPa
2
0
-0.006
0.025
-0.005
200
Dial gauge
(vertical disp.)
Direct-drive motor
Load cell
Universal joint
Shear box
Yubari clay
'v = 325 kPa
100
-0.002
Load cell
r = 73.9
100
r
50
200
Shear stress, (kPa)
150
p
no. of cycles: 3
d/dt = 0.02 mm/min
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
Horizontal displacement, (mm)
200
Yubari clay
s = 133.7
100
Yubari clay
c's = 18.0 (kPa) 's = 20.7 (deg.)
c'r = 14.4 (kPa) 'r = 11.3 (deg.)
150
100
50
s:
r:
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Figure 8.
-0.004
-0.003
z (%) (by LDTs)
Typical results by applying small amplitude cyclic loading in vertical and horizontal directions (AnhDan, 2001).
Pneumatic
cylinder
qy
46
52
qz
qy= y-x (kPa)
48
10
52
10
50
Toyoura sand
Vertical small cyclic loadingat x= 49 kPa
(a)
52
100
200
300
Vertical stress, v' (kPa)
Direct shear box (DSB) apparatus with results from a cyclic test (Mitachi et al., 2003).
400
Figure 9. Torsional shear apparatus equipped with a couple of direct-drive motors for generating the axial load and
the torque (Yamashita and Suzuki, 1999a).
Figure 11 shows a triaxial specimen whose axial deformation was measured by using a couple of proximity
transducers. The metal targets are pinned into the sample so that potential error due to slipping between the
target and the rubber membrane and also between the
rubber membrane and the soil specimen may be minimized (refer to Lo Presti et al., 2000). We have found
that this type of slipping may take place in tests on
soft clay and also on stiff geomaterials like soft rocks.
Local deformation transducer (LDT) developed by
Goto et al. (1991) is now widely used in geotechnical
laboratories. Figure 12 shows a hollow cylinder (HC)
specimen on the surface of which three LDTs are
Fz
HTPB strip
GS2
45
GS4
GS3 GS1
Pin
GS4
GS2
SET1
30cm
SET2
GS7 GS5
GS7,GS8
16cm
GS3
GS1
GS5,GS6
SET1
20cm
2.3
1.0
200.5
-0.2148
200.0
0.4
0.2
z (kPa)
z (kPa)
0.6
Geq=34.6 MPa
0.0
-0.2150
z=0.45
199.5
Eeq=103.6 MPa
1
-0.2154
198.5
-0.2
-0.4
-0.2156
198.0
-0.2158
-0.6
-0.8
Toyoura sand
-0.003
197.5
-0.002
-0.001
0.000
0.001
z(%) at radius of (Do+Di)/2
500
400
300
2
500
400
200
200
100
90
80
70
60
50
100
90
80
70
60
50
n=0.49
IC (z =0)
'=200 kPa, z = 0 kPa
'=200 kPa, z =-35 kPa
'=200 kPa, z = 35 kPa
40
30
30
Toyoura sand
300
Ez /f(e) (MPa)
Gz /f(e) (MPa)
Toyoura sand
-0.2160
0.2295 0.2300 0.2305 0.2310 0.2315 0.2320 0.2325
z (%)
0.002
Test 9 sand
Toyoura
-0.2152
199.0
0.8
40
50 60 70 80 90100
200
0.5
['z.']
300
40
30
30
400 500
(kPa)
m=0.45
IC (z =0)
'=200 kPa, z =0kPa
'=200 kPa, z =-35kPa
'=200 kPa, z =35kPa
40
50 60 70 8090 100
'z (kPa)
300
400 500
Figure 13. Typical results by applying small amplitude cyclic loading in vertical and torsional directions (HongNam, 2004).
Figure 14. Plane strain compression tests on Chiba gravel under passive and active controls (Maqbool and Koseki, 2003).
(1)
where t denotes bulk density of soil.
The bender element (BE) that is designated for
measuring G, is handy, inexpensive and durable. The
10
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Table 1.
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
(a) LDT1
3 4
800
600
400
200
0
(b) LDT2
0.0
0.5
Axial strain, 1 (%) LDT2
2. After 5
cycles
3. After 10
cycles
1.0
max (%)
15
10
Shear band
6cm
8cm
LDT1
0
4. After 15
cycles
16cm
5. After 20
cycles
max (%)
15
10
LDT2
5
11
Figure 18.
12
VH
BE
BE
HV
HH
Figure 21. Results of BE tests on Toyoura sand and a volcanic ash (Yamashita et al., 2003).
13
2.00
S(U)
Geq GBE
In-situ
samples
1.80
Void ratio, e
S(L)
Geq GBE
1.60
1.40
MI (G)
1
S(R)
Geq
1
1.20
= 0.29
= 0.080 Reconstituted
Singapore clay
= 2.13 sample
1.00
4
6
8 10
20
40
Elastic shear modulus, G (MPa)
Trigger
L1
Trigger
Receivers
L2
Triggers
L3
Receiver
(2)
2.4
14
2.2
: upper
: lower
: average
yielding
Void ratio, e
2.0
1.8
OCR1.2
OCR1.1
OCR1.0
500
:upper
:lower
:average
'v(insitu)=320kPa
1.6
102
0
Effective vertical stress, 'v(kPa)
103
500
1000
Effective overburden pressure, 'v(insitu) (kPa)
Figure 28.
15
Figure 29.
Author
16
Base slab
22.1m
Concourse slab
25m
Sand
39m
DW
Inclinometer at 17m
distance from DW
17
10
20
20
30
(a) 2nd stage of excavation
40
- Roof slab
30
(b) 3rd stage of excavation
40
- Retail slab
-4
-3
-2
-1
1
10
-5
Depth (m)
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
1
10
20
Depth(m)
10
Depth (m)
Depth(m)
Legend:
Measured
Predicted (E'max/2)
Predicted (SSS, springs)
Predicted (SSS, slabs)
20
30
(c) 4th stage of excavation
40
- Concourse slab
30
(d) 5th stage of excavation
- Base slab
40
Settlements (cm)
-1
-1
-2
-2
-3
Settlements (cm)
10
20
30
40
50
-4
60 0
0
-1
-1
-2
-2
-3
-4
60
-3
(a) 2nd stage of excavation
- Roof slab
-4
20
30
40
50
60
-3
(c) 4th stage of excavation
- Concourse slab
-4
18
Section
G.L.-5m
Plan
Jack
Case1
Case3
Lining
20
Loading
plate
B Case4
L
Case2
G.L.-10m
Jack
Loading
plate
Case1,2:B=0.5m
Case3:B=1.0m
Case4:B=2.0m
B: Loading width
B/L=2(All cases)
G.L.-10m
B=0.5m,B/L=2
k=P/
k=k0(B/30)-3/4
k0=1/30E
E :EBHLT,E50,ESPT
15
10
FEM
Cs=88.2MN/m3
Measured
EBHLT=135.0MPa,=4
E50=68.4MPa,=4
ESPT=137.3MPa,=1
= 2.5 m
0
0.0
2.0
2000
G.L.-10m
q=v h
h=490kPa
10
1500
0.5
1.0
1.5
Horizontal displacement, h (cm)
392kPa
1000
196kPa
500
400
98kPa
500
300
200
49kPa
External
LDT
100
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
0
0
5
10
Axial strain, v (%)
G.L.-5m
B/L=2
Measured(B=0.5)
Measured(B=0.5)
Measured(B=2.0)
FEM(B=0.5,Cs=88.2)
FEM(B=0.5,Cs=0)
FEM(B=2.0,Cs=88.2)
FEM(B=2.0,Cs=0)
15
19
Prototype behavior
of well foundation
with B=1, 2.5, 5 m Softrock
B
Sedimentary
mudstone
deposit
Gravel
Crushed sand
stone (Fc=2%)
Clayey
gravel
Pleistocene
deposit
(Fc=10-20%)
10m
1
k/k0=(B/B0)n
=1cm constant
n=-1/2
3D FEM Simulation
Softrock
Gravel
Clayey Gravel
B0=1m
10
Toyoura sand, 3 = 9.8 kPa
n=-1
Conventional design
for highways in Japan
0.1
1
10
Normalized loading width, B/B0
Figure 40. Scale effects on coefficients of horizontal subgrade reaction (Koseki et al., 2001).
3.4
peak = 51.7
6
Case 5 (eo=0.644)
res = 45.4
4
= 90
Direction of 1
measured from
bedding plane
0
0
4
6
Axial strain, 1 (%)
20
Retaining
wall
Pa
kvW
R
kvW
khW
W
Pa
Well-graded sand
Sand/Gravel
Poorly-graded sand
Clay
khW
R
Force polygon
for soil wedge
Figure 43. Force equilibrium assumed in MononobeOkabe method (modified from Koseki et al., 1998).
0.8
MO (35)
(a)
0.6
MO (50)
0.4
Modified MO (50/35)
0.2
0.0
Modified MO (50/35)
60
(deg)
(b)
40
MO (35)
20
0
0.0
MO (50)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
kh
Figure 44. Comparison of original and
Mononobe-Okabe methods (RTRI, 1999).
res
55
50
45
45
40
35
30
45
1.0
peak
modified
3.5
It should be noted that, in this method, the mobilized strength of backfill along the potential failure
plane (or shear band) is assumed to be constant and
distributed uniformly.
Figure 44a shows a relationship between the coefficient of active earth pressure and the horizontal
seismic coefficient. When the original MononobeOkabe method is applied with a relatively low
value, the coefficient of active earth pressure
becomes extremely large. As shown in Figure 44b, it
also induces unrealistically small value of , defined
as the angle between the shear band and the horizontal
direction.
21
KEA
modified
MO
Present
Linear function
0
0.5
1
kh
us : shear disp.
along shear band
Figure 48.
57cm
22
CONCLUDING REMARKS
23
24
Joviic , V., Coop, M. R. and Simi, M. 1996. Objective criteria for determining Gmax from bender element tests,
Gotechnique 46(2): 357362.
Kawaguchi, T., Mitachi, T. and Shibuya, S. 2001. Evaluation
of shear wave travel time in laboratory bender element
test Proc. of the 15th ICSMGE 1: 155158. Istanbul:
Balkema.
Kawaguchi, T., Mitachi, T., Shibuya, S. and Sano, Y. 2002.
Development of an elaborate triaxial testing system for
deformation of clay, Journal of Japan Society of Civil
Engineering 708(III-59): 175186. (in Japanese)
Kawaguchi, T. 2002. Study on measurement and evaluation
of elastic modulus in clays, PhD thesis, Hokkaido
University. (in Japanese)
Kishi, M. and Tani, K. 2003. Development of measuring
method for axial and lateral strain distribution using
CCD sensor in triaxial test, Deformation Characteristics
of Geomaterials 1, IS-Lyon, Balkema: 3136.
Kobayashi, T. and Fukagawa, R. 2003. Characterization of
deformation process of CPT using X-ray TV imaging
technique, Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials
1, IS-Lyon, Balkema: 4347.
Konagai, K., Tamura, C., Rangelow, P. and Matsushima, T.
1992. Laser-Aided tomography: A tool for visualization of
changes in the fabric of granular assemblage, Structural
Engrg./Earthquake Engrg., JSCE 9(3): 193201.
Koseki, J., Tatsuoka, F., Munaf, Y., Tateyama, M. and
Kojima, K. 1998. A modified procedure to evaluate
active earth pressure at high seismic loads, Soils and
Foundations, Special Issue on Geotechnical Aspects of
the January 17 1995 Hyogoken-Nambu Earthquake 2:
209216.
Koseki, J., Kurachi, Y. and Ogata, T. 2001. Dependency of
horizontal and vertical subgrade reaction coefficients on
loading width, Advanced Laboratory Stress-Strain
Testing of Geomaterials (Tatsuoka et al. eds.), Balkema:
259264.
Koseki, J., Tatsuoka, F., Watanabe, K., Tateyama, M.,
Kojima, K. and Munaf, Y. 2003. Model tests on seismic
stability of several types of soil retaining walls,
Reinforced Soil Engineering, Ling, Leshchinsky and
Tatsuoka (eds.), Dekker: 317358.
Kovacevic, N., Hight, D.W. and Potts, D.M. 2003. A comparison between observed and predicted behaviour of a
deep excavation in soft Bangkok clay, Deformation
Characteristics of Geomaterials 1, IS-Lyon, Balkema:
983989.
Kuwano, R. and Jardine, R.J. 1997. Stiffness measurements
in a stress-path cell, Pre-failure Deformation Behaviour
of Geomaterials, Gotechnique Symposium In Print:
391394.
Li, D.J., Shibuya, S., Mitachi, T. and Kawaguchi, T. 2003.
Judging fabric bonding of natural sedimentary clay,
Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials 1, ISLyon, Balkema: 203209.
Li, D.J., Shibuya, S. and Mitachi, T. 2004. Engineering properties of Osaka bay clay, Proc. of the International
Symposium on Engineering Practice of Soft Deposits, ISOsaka. (in print)
Lo Presti, D.C.F., Puci, I., Pallara, O., Maniscalco, R. and
Pedroni, S. 2000. Experimental Laboratory determination of the steady state of sands, Soils and Foundations
40(1): 113122.
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