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Depositional Environment Can Be Defined As An Area With A Typical
Depositional Environment Can Be Defined As An Area With A Typical
material. The
depositional environment can be defined as an area with a typical
set of physical,
chemical and biological processes which result in a specific type of
rock. The
characteristics of the resulting sediment package are dependent on
the intensity and
duration of these processes. The physical, chemical, biological and
geomorphic variables
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show considerable differences between and within particular
environments. As a result,
we have to expect very different behaviour of such reservoirs
during hydrocarbon
production. Depositional processes control porosity, permeability,
net to gross ratio,
extent and lateral variability of reservoir properties. Hence the
production profile and
ultimate recovery of individual wells and accumulations are heavily
influenced by the
environment of deposition.
For example, the many deepwater fields located in the Gulf of
Mexico are of Tertiary age
and are comprised of complex sand bodies which were deposited
in a deepwater turbidite
sequence. The BP Prudhoe Bay sandstone reservoir in Alaska is
of Triassic/Cretaceous
age and was deposited by a large shallow water fluvial-alluvial fan
delta system. The
Saudi Arabian Ghawar limestone reservoir is of Jurassic age and
was deposited in a
warm, shallow marine sea. Although these reservoirs were
deposited in very different
to fluid flow
Shallow water
carbonate (reefs &
carbonate muds)
Shelf (clastics)
Reservoir quality governed
by diagenetic processes
and structural history
(fracturing)
Sheet-like sandbodies
resulting from storms or
transgression. Usually thin
but very continuous sands,
well sorted and coarse
between marine clays
Prolific production from
karstified carbonates.
High and early water production
possible. 'Dual porosity' systems
in fractured carbonates.
Dolomites may produce H2S
Very high productivity but high
quality sands may act as
'thief zones' during water or gas
injection. Action of sediment
burrowing organisms may impact
on reservoir quality
Figure 5.3 Characteristics of selected environments
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It is important to realise that knowledge of depositional processes
and features in a
given reservoir will be vital for the correct siting of the optimum
number of appraisal and
development wells, the sizing of facilities and the definition of a
reservoir management
policy.
To derive a reservoir geological model, various methods and
techniques are employed;
mainly the analysis of core material, wireline logs, high resolution
seismic and outcrop
studies. These data gathering techniques are further discussed in
Sections 5.3 and
2.2.
The most valuable tools for a detailed environmental analysis are
cores and wireline
logs. In particular the gamma ray (GR) response is useful since it
captures the changes
in energy during deposition. Figure 5.4 links depositional
environments to GR response.
The GR response measures the level of natural gamma ray activity
in the rock formation.
Shales have a high GR response, while sands have low responses.
PLAN VIEW
deltaic &
shallow marine
~ , A'
A .~ ~-.~..:-.~ =B== =======================
_
channel
SECTION GR Log
~ ,,:,,,:1, :,1, ,:.,.:,, .: ,l i:i~i , ~ ~ . :. :.. :. : . : ~ ~
~ ~ : ' , ' , ' ' , ' ' - - - - ~ 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2222
A I A'
0 150
"Bell" shape
":."':-"'.'" "- ~S
0eta Funne sha0e
B B'
Figure 5.4 Depositional Environments, sand distribution and GR
log response
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A funnel shaped GR log is often indicative of a deltaic environment
whereby clastic,
increasingly coarse sedimentation follows deposition of marine
clays. Bell shaped GR
logs often represent a channel environment where a fining upwards
sequence reflects
decreasing energy across the vertical channel profile. A modern
technique for
sedimentological studies is the use of formation imaging tools
which provide a very
high quality picture of the formations forming the borehole wall.
5.1.2 Reservoir Structures
As discussed in Section 2.0 (Exploration), the earth's crust is part
of a dynamic system
and movements within the crust are accommodated partly by rock
deformation. Like
any other material, rocks may react to stress with an elastic, ductile
or brittle response,
as described in the stress-strain diagram in Figure 5.5.
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yie_ld_ p~,o~~ ductile
e l a s t i c - ~ ,,mit / \
Strain
Figure 5.5 The stress - strain diagram for a reservoir rock
It is rare to be able to observe elastic deformations (which occur for
instance during
earthquakes) since by definition an elastic deformation does not
leave any record.
However, many subsurface or surface features are related to the
other two modes of
deformation. The composition of the material, confining pressure,
rate of deformation
and temperature determine which type of deformation will be
initiated.