Mech. Mac& Theory Vol. 22, No. 6, pp.

563--568, 1987
Printed in Great Britain

0094-114X/87 $3.00+0.00
Pergamon Journals Ltd

KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS A N D ANALYSIS OF THE RACK

A N D PINION MECHANISM FOR PLANAR PATH
GENERATION A N D F U N C T I O N GENERATION FOR
SIX PRECISION CONDITIONS!"
PETER DUSCHL
Technology Service Center, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI 48197, U.S.A.

STEVEN KRAMER
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, U.S.A.

(Received 19 June 1986)

Abstract--The rack and pinion mechanism is synthesized for generating both three prescribed path points
with input coordination and three positions of function generation. This mechanism has a number of
advantages over the four bar finkage. First, since the rack is always tangent to the pinion, the transmission
angle is always the same (optimum) value of 90 minus the pressure angle of the pinion. Second, with
both translation and rotation of the rack occurring, multiple outputs are available. Other advantages
include the generation of monotonic functions for a wide variety of motion and nonmononotomic
functions for the full range of motion as well as nonlinear amplified motions. In this work, the mechanism
is made to satisfy a number of practical design requirements such as a completely rotatable input crank
and others. The method of solution developed in this work utilizes the complex number method of
mechanism synthesis and the solution is programmed on a VAX 11/785 computer and is being made
available to interested readers.

aging industry as well as toys and other leisure

equipment. The inversion of the mechanism, where
the pinion is the driver, can be used in mechanical
aircraft control devices, hospital and laboratory
equipment, rack and pinion automotive steering
linkages[l l] and several tasks on manufacturing
assembly lines.

INTRODUCTION

The rack and gear mechanism (Fig. 1) has been

studied by a number of researchers over the
years[I-6]. This work extends the work done by the
second author on the solution of the three point
function generation[3] and four point path generation
with prescribed input timing[5] to combine path
generation and function generation in the same mechanism to achieve multiple outputs.
The rack and gear mechanism (Fig. 2) is composed
of an input crank, Z2, whose rotation, ~j, is specified
by the mechanism designer. The rack, Z(, is in
nonslip contact with the pinion such that it rotates ~j
and translates. The offset, Zs, is rigidly connected to
Z( and allows for generality but in some cases may
be omitted. The pinion, whose radius vector is Z s,
rotates as the rack rotates and translates. The vector
Z~ defines the tracer point of the path generating
mechanism and is rigidly attached to the rack. The
fixed link, Zj, connects the two fixed pivots.
This specialized mechanism is similar to the prismatic mechanism[7, 8] in that the vectors Zs, Z( and
Z5 all rotate with the same angle, since Z( is always
perpendicular to Zs. The rack and pinion mechanism,
however, produces an additional output, ~, which is
the rotation of the pinion. The rack and pinion
mechanism has industrial applications in the pack-

METHOD OF SOLUTION

The vector representation of the rack and pinion

mechanism along with coordinate axes are shown in
Fig. 2 in the initial design position. The input crank
rotations, ~bj, and the position vectors, 1~, are known
because of the path generation specification, where
j - - 1 , 2 and 3. The magnitudes of all links are
unknown but the orientations of Z 3 and Zs relative
to Z( are known. Since Z3 is rigidly connected to Z,
at a right angle and Z s is perpendicular to Z 4 due to
the rack's tangency to the pinion, the following
relationships are true [3]:

t This paper is based on work performed at The University

of Toledo, Ohio.

Z 3 = Z4hse~n/2)= Z 4 h3i

(1)

Z s -- Z 4 h s e 1(-~/2) ~- Z 4 h 5 ( - i ) ,

(2)

and
where the variables h 3 and h 5 (scalar unknowns at this
point) are
h3 ~ - I g s l

Iz, I

563

(3)

PETERDUSCHLand STEVENKRAMER

564

Fig. 1. The rack and gear mechanism

and
IZsI
h5 = Z4----/"
[

(4)

Although h3 and h5 are ratios of magnitudes, either

may be negative to indicate a direction opposite to
that assumed in equations (1) and (2). Physically
speaking, the offset need not be perpendicular to Z4
but kinematically speaking there will always be a
perpendicular vector, Z3, which can be drawn. Since
Z 3 and Z 6 are rigidly connected, the following
definition is adopted for simplicity:
Z36 = Z3 + Z6.

(5)

Since the magnitude of link Z4 does not remain

constant, a stretch ratio is defined as the ratio of the
magnitude of Z4 in its jth position to its initial
magnitude so that
IZ4jl
Kj= 141

(6)

For path generation, the loop closure equation can

be written from Fig. 2 for the initial position as:
Z 0 + Z 2 + Z ~ = RI.

Additional loop closure equations can be written for

any (jth) position which represents the general
displaced path position. They are
Z0 + Z~e~j + Z~e i~j = Rj.

(8)

subtracting the initial position from the general position yields the following loop closure equation:
Z2(eic~j -- 1) + Z~(e/~j -- 1)
=(RI-RI)

for j = 2 , 3 .

(9)

For function generation, an equation can be written

from Fig. 2 for the initial position as
Z2 + Z3 + Z4 + Z5 = Zt.

(10)

Additional function generation equations can be

written for any (jth) position which represents the
general position. They are

Z2ei*j + Z3eeej + kj Z4eeej

+Zseej=Zl

for j = 2 , 3 .

(11)

Subtracting the initial position from the general

position and using equations (1) and (2) yield

(7)

Z2(e~j - 1) + Z4[(h3 - hs)i(ej - 1)

Y

+e~jkj-l]=O

for j = 2 , 3 .

(12)

Referring to Fig. 3, the relationship between the

pinion and rack rotations can be expressed using the
principle of superposition as Ref. [3]
k-1
~b = 7 + - h5

(13)

Equation (13) can be written in the general form for

subsequent positions as
~j=yj+(kj+l)
h5

Fig. 2. The vector representation of the rack and gear

mechanism in its initial design position.

for j = 2 , 3 .

(14)

A table[10] can be constructed to describe why the

number of path and functional positions for this
mechanism can be obtained. Table 1 is such a table
where the letters "p" and " f " in column 1 refer to
path and function respectively, at that position num-

Kinematic synthesis and analysis of the rack and pinion mechanism

I//

~
+

565

@'-- @
q /

t~5

Fig. 3. The gear rotation , is found by superimposing the effects of the rack's rotation and translation.

Table 1. Determination of the maximum number of possible positions of

the mechanism
Number of
positions

Scalar
unknowns

Scalar
equations

1 p,f

12 (Zo, Z I , Z2, Z3, Z4, Zs, Z~)

13 (same as above + Y2)
14 (same as above + k2)
15 (same as above + ~'3)
16 (same as above + k3)

6
9
11
14

7
5
4
2

2p
2f
3p
3f

ber. The n u m b e r of scalar unknowns and scalar

equations as a function of the n u m b e r of prescribed
path and function positions are shown to be solvable
at three prescribed path positions and three function
positions with two arbitrary choices. It is important
to note that Z3 and Zs are each considered as one
additional scalar u n k n o w n because of equations
(1)-(4). So in row 1, these variables could have been
replaced with h3 and hs.
The solution of the mechanism is found by first
transforming equation (9) into matrix notation for
j = 2 and 3 as follows:

and
Z4 {(C:3 - l)(h3 - h5)i + [e/~3(~//3 - )'3)h5

+ l] - l} = -Z2(c~3 - I). (19)

Dividing equation (18) by equation (19) will eliminate Z4 and Z2 from the above equations and yields
h3[A(C:2i - i) - B ( i e ~ : 3 - i)]
+h5 {A[e#2(~b2 - )'2) - c#2i + i]
-- B[C:3 (~b3 - )73) C:3i + i]}
-

I)JLZ~ j =

LR,-R,J

= B ( e # 3 - 1) - A ( e ~ 2 -

[(e'O2- 1)(e"2- 1)11- 1 I-R.-R,I

(e'*3 - l ) ( e O 3 -

Free
choices

(15)

1),

where

Since the frec choices arc chosen to be ~2 and ~3, link

vectors Z2 and Z3~ arc then easily determined to be

A = (ci*3 -

I) and B = (ci*2- I).

(20)

The same result should also have been obtained if

equations (18) and (19) were written in matrix
notation where the determinant would be set equal to
zero [10]. By defining

Z2 = [(R2 - R i ) ( e O 3 - 1)
-- ( R 3 - RI)(eO2 - I)]/

[(e~*2- l)(eo3 - I)
T = A(e~2i - i) - B(e~3i - i)

(21)

-(e~*3 - I)(C2- I)]

and

S = A [e~:2(~b2- )'2) - e~2i + i]

(16)

- B[ett 3 (~3 - )'3) - e~3i + i]

Zs6 = [(ei~'2- l)(Rs - RI)

- (e'*3 -

I)(R~

Q = B(e#3 - 1) - A(e#2 - 1) = - i T

- R0]/

(23)

and substituting into equation (20) the following

simplified relationship can be written:

[(e'#2- 1 ) ( e " 3 - 1)
-(ei#3 - 1)(e~2 - 1)].
For the function generation part of the mechanism,
equation (14) is solved for kj:

k/=(~j--Tj)hs+l , forj

(22)

2,3,

(17)

and this result is then substituted into equation (12)

to yield
Z4 {(C:2 - 1)(h3 - hs)i + [C:2(~b2 - )'2)h5
+ 1 ] - 1} - Z ~ ( e ' * 2 - 1)

h 3 T + h5 S = Q.

(24)

Since T, S and Q are complex functions of known

quantities, h 3 and h5 can be found by separation of
variables and solving the following two scalar equations:

Txh3 + Sxh5 = Qx
and

(18)

ryh 3 -]- Syh 5 = Qy,

(25)

566

PETER DUSCHLand ST~WN K~MF.R

where the subscripts x and y refer to the real and

imaginary parts, respectively. The solution of h 3 and
h s is
ha = (Q.Sy - QyS~)/(T~Sy - rySx)

and

Iz21 Iz3
ZI

h 5 = (QyT x - Q~Ty)/(T~Sy

- TySx).

(26)

Link vector Z4 can be found from equation (18)

-

Z,(ei~2

Fig. 5. Rack interfering with gear when h3h ~ < O.

1)

Z4 = [(e~2 - 1)(h 3 - hs)i + (e#2((~2 - y2)h5 + 1 ) - 1)]"

ANALYSIS

(27)
The remainder of the link vectors can be found by
equations (1), (2), (5) and (10) where
Zo= R i -

Z~

Z 2.

(28)

DESIGN RESTRICTIONS
Once the mechanism has been determined, it is
checked for adherence to practical design restrictions.
These restrictions include elimination of extraneous
roots and certain geometries which make the mechanism unusable.
First, all mechanisms that yield at least one negative value for the stretch ratio are invalid since a
negative kj signifies a reverse direction of the rack
which is physically impossible. Second, to insure the
input crank can rotate fully
1221 + IZsI < 1211.

(29)

Third, to insure that the rack remains in contact

k =

Analyzing the rack and pinion mechanism reqmres

the determination of the stretch ratio, k and rack
rotation, y, for any and all mechanism positions.
Rewriting equation (11) results in the following
equation:

z:
Z1 - Z~e'*J

IZ2l -t- IZ3l < IZsl + IZll if h3h5 > 0.

(30)

Fourth, to insure that the crank does not overlap the

pinion, the following relationship must hold:

IZ21 +lZ31 +lZsI < IZal if h3h5 < 0.

(31)

Figures 4 and 5 illustrate these conditions.

If the above restrictions are met, then complete
rotation of the input crank is insured and branching
cannot occur since h5 will not change sign.

(C~ q- k D x ) 2 q- (Cy q- kDy)2 = 1.

(32)

(33)

The subscript x refers to the real part and the

subscript y refers to the imaginary part of the complex numbers. Separating and combining like terms
in equation (33) yield a quadratic equation which,
when solved for k, yields
2 + Cy2 _

l)

(34)

It can be shown that vectors C and D will always

be normal to each other, hence their dot product will
vanish. This means the two roots of k will differ only
in sign and the above equation reduces to
k = _ 2

/1 -ICl:
IDI2 .

(35)

Since a negative value for k is physically impossible, the positive root of k is used for analysis. The
rack rotation can be readily determined for any
mechanism position from equation (32).
Although vector Zs rotates y because it is tangent
to the rack, the pinion will rotate a different amount
due to the rack's translation with respect to the
pinion. The equation determining the pinion rotation
can be explained by superposition as shown in
Fig. 3 and is[3]:
k-I
= y+ - h5

Fig. 4. Rack leaving contact with gear when h3h 5 > 0.

= e-"'

where no subscripts are used for the variables k, tp

and y to indicate generality. If the terms in parentheses are denoted by C and D, then separating equation
(32) into real and imaginary parts, squaring both
sides of the equation and adding yield

- (CxDx + CyDy) + x/4(CxD. + CyDy) 2 - 4(D 2 + Dy)(C.2

with the pinion for the worst possible case, the

following must be true:

- ZW*J

(36)

Finally, the position vector R can be established for

any and all mechanism positions from equation (8).

Kinematic synthesis and analysis of the rack and pinion mechanism

R3

\
\\

y
.Ra

RI

accomplished using s t a n d a r d tcchniques[4, 10] b u t for

simplicity the first function a n d p a t h precision points
are at the initial position in this example.
The m e t h o d o f solution described in this p a p e r was
p r o g r a m m e d o n a V A X 11/785 computer. Since 3'2
a n d 3'3 were a r b i t r a r y choices m a n y solutions were
generated. Due to the design constraints a m u c h
limited n u m b e r o f solutions were eventually found.
One such m e c h a n i s m solution f o u n d where 3'2 = 20
a n d 3'3 = 30 was
Z0 = ( - 8.485, 0.442)
")
ZI = ( - 9 . 7 9 1 , 3.925)
Z 2 = (0.041, - 3.390)
Z 3 = ( - 7.161, - 5.090)
Z4 = ( - 6.754, 9.502)
Z 5 = (4.083, 2.902)
Z6 = (18.605, 1.038).
t

Fig. 6. Synthesized mechanism.

NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
T o test the m e t h o d o f solution developed in this
paper, the following example was used. T h e three
p a t h precision positions were (3.0, 7.0), (7.0, 0.0) a n d
(4.0, 6.0). T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n p u t c r a n k r o t a t i o n s
were 0, 80 a n d 170 , respectively. T h e function to be
generated was ~ = 40 sin~ where b o t h ~ a n d ~b are
in degrees a n d the precision points are also at ~b = 0,
80 a n d 170 . Respacing o f the precision points c a n be

(37)

The m e c h a n i s m is s h o w n in Fig. 6 a n d the analysis

o f this m e c h a n i s m is s h o w n in Table 2. T h e accuracy
o f the function generation c a n be seen in Fig. 7 where
the ideal curve is solid a n d the generated curve is
dashed. T h e m a x i m u m structural e r r o r in the r a n g e
o f 0 - 1 8 0 was f o u n d to be 1.6 .

Table 2. Analysis of synthesized mechanism

Path vector
~b

567

~b

0.00

0.00

0.00

1.000

10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
90.00
100.00
110.00
120.00
130.00
140.00
150.00
160.00
170.00
180.00
180.00
200.00
210.00
220.00
230.00
240.00
250.00
260.00
270.00
280.00
290.00
300.00
310.00
320.00
330.00
340.00
350.00
360.00

2.44
4.96
7.53
10.11
12.67
15.19
17.65
20.00
22.23
24.29
26.15
27.77
29.08
30.04
30.57
30.59
30.00
28.70
26.60
23.62
19.76
15.10
9.92
4.63
-0.26
-4.31
--7.28
--9.13
-9.96
- 9.94
--9.24
-- 8.03
-6.40
-4.48
- 2.32
0.00

7.76
14.87
21.23
26.75
31.38
35.05
37.74
39.39
40.00
39.55
38.03
35.44
31.79
27.09
21.37
14.64
6.94
-- 1.64
- 11.02
- 21.02
-31.32
-41.48
- 50.84
- 58.59
--63.99
--66.52
-66.11
-63.06
--57.86
-- 51.07
--43.20
-- 34.66
--25.83
- 16.96
-- 8.29
0.00

1.040
1.074
1.103
1.125
1.140
1.149
1.151
1.145
1.133
1. 114
1.089
1.058
1.020
0.978
0.931
0.880
0.827
0.772
0.718
0.665
0.617
0.576
0.544
0.526
0.522
0.534
0.559
0.596
0.641
0.692
0.745
0.800
0.854
0.906
0.955
1.000

Real
3.000
3.750
4.465
5.122
5.703
6.192
6.577
6.848
7.00O
7.031
6.944
6.745
6.444
6.056
5.597
5.088
4.549
4.000
3.458
2.933
2.426
1.925
1.409
0.863
0.293
-0.259
-0.724
- 1.037
-1.160
- 1.085
-0.827
-0.411
0.134
0.776
i.487
2.237
3.000

Imaginary
- 7.000
-6.450
- 5.776
-4.991
-4.109
-3.149
-2.129
- 1.071
0.000
1.061
2.085
3.046
3.918
4.674
5.287
5.730
5.977
6.000
5.774
5.274
4.486
3.411
2.081
0.569
- 1.014
-2.542
-3.911
- 5.069
,6.003
- 6.726
-7.255
-7.606
-7.791
-7.818
-7.691
-7.416
- 7.000

568

PETER DUSCHLand STEvrN KRAMER

REFERENCES
40

0o= 30
e0

20

40

60
80 100 120 140
Cronk rototion q5 (deg)

160

180

Fig. 7. Gear rotation vs crank rotation.

CONCLUSION
The rack and pinion mechanism is a versatile
mechanism because it has two major advantages over
the four bar mechanism. The first is that the transmission angle is always at the same value of 90
minus the pressure angle of the rack. Second, both
path and function generation are simultaneously
attained. In this paper the pinion rotation, which
represents this functional output, is the sum of the
rack rotation and the length of arc swept-out by the
pinion divided by its radius. The synthesis of this
single degree-of-frecdom rack and pinion mechanism
for multiple output (path and function generation)
makes it very valuable in machine and mechanism
design.

1. G. K. Kinzel and S. Chen, A general procedure for the

kinematic analysis of planar mechanisms with higher
pairs, A S M E Mech. Conf. Paper No. 84-DET-140
(1984).
2. D. Wilt and G. N. Sandor, Synthesis of a geared
four-link mechanism. J. Mech. 4, 291-302 (1969).
3. D. Gibson and S. Kramer, Kinematic design and
analysis of the Rack-and-ear mechanism for function
generation. Mech. Mach. Theory 19, (3) 369-375 (1984).
4. K. E. Hofmeister and S. N. Kramer, Kinematic synthesis, Analysis, and optimization by precision point
respacing of the rack-and-gear function generating
mechanism. A S M E Mech Conf. Paper 84-DET-134
(1984).
5. M. Claudio and S. Kramer, Synthesis and analysis of
the rack and gear mechanism for four point path
generation with prescribed input timing. A S M E J.
Mech. Transmiss. Automat. Design 108, (1) 10-14
(1986).
6. I. Meyer zur Capellen, Der einfache ZahnstangenKurbeltrieb un Das entsprechende Bandgetriebe. Z.
Mach. Fert. Jahrg 2, 67-74 (1956).
7. J. E. Shigley and J. J. Uicker, Jr. Theory of Machines
and Mechanisms. McGraw-Hill, New York (1980).
8. Y. C. Tsai and A. H. Soni, Design of an inverted
slider-crank mechanism. 6th Applied Mechanisms Conf.
Denver. Paper No. 33 (1979).
9. G. N. Sandor, A general complex-number method of
plane kinematic synthesis with applications. Ph.D. Dissertation, Columbia Univ., University Microfilms,
LCN59-2596 (1959).
10. G. N. Sandor and A. G. Erdman, Advanced Mechanism
Design: Analysis and Synthesis, Vol. 2, pp. 180-184.
Prentice-Hall, Engelwood Cliffs (1984).
11. C. E. Zarak and M. A. Townsend, Optimal design of
rack-and-pinion steering linkages, A S M E J. Mech.
Transmiss. Automat. Design. 105(2), 220-226 (1983).

KINEMATISCHE SYNTHESE UND ANALYSE DES

Z A H N S T A N G E N - K U R B E L G E T R I E B E S ALS F U H R U N G S UND UBERTRAGUNGSGETRIEBE FUR 6 GENAUIGKEITSLAGEN
Km'zfamlg--Eine Komplexe-Zahlen-Methode wird angewandt fur den kinematischen Entwurf und zur
Analyse des funktionsgenerierenden Zalmstangen kurbeigetriebes mit Beziehung auf drei genau
voneinander getrenente Positionen. Das Zahnstrangen kurbeigctriebe ist ein nutzlicher ebener Mechanismus, der angewendet werden kann, urn viel Funktionendes Viergliexi-SystemsZu generieren und der
zahlreiche zusatzliche Anwendungsmoglichkeiten hat. Wegen der zusatzlichen Komplikation des Zahnstangen kurbeigetriebes konnen sowohl monotone als auch nichtmonotone Funktionen, sowie nichtlineare, verstarkte Bewegungen erzeugt werden. Ein Hauptvorteil des getriebes besteht darin, dass der
Ubertragungswinkel immer bei seinem optimalen Wert verbleibt da die Zahnstange immer tangential zum
Zahnrad Liegt. Der Entwurf und die Analyse wurden fur den computer VAX 11/785 programmiert und
steben interessierten Lesern zur Verfugung.