CAR BODY

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UNIT 1

CAR BODY

Cars can come in a large variety of different body styles. Some are still in production,while others are of historical
interest only. These styles are largely (though not completely) independent of a car's classification in terms of price,
size and intended broad market; the same car model might be available in multiple body styles (or model ranges).
For some of the following terms, especially relating to four-wheel drive / SUV models and minivan / MPV models,
the distinction between body style and classification is particularly narrow. Please note that while each body style
has a historical and technical definition, in common usage such definitions are often blurred. Over time, the common
usage of each term evolves. For example, people often call 4-passenger sport coupes a "sports car", while purists
will insist that a sports car by definition is limited to two-place vehicles. For instance, if a car is for a family of more
than 5 people then it demands a large car. A car to do the home to office and back, 5 times a week in city traffic
might need a smaller sized car. Car body styles is a broad subject to deal with and the names given also vary from
country to country.The names are given depending upon design, utility, technology used and customization.So its
important to select the car body type which you are going to buy.
Classifications of car body:

1.Sedan or saloon
i.Notchback
ii.Fast back
iii.Hatchback
iv.4 door saloon
v. 2 door saloon and pillar less saloon
2. Coupe
3. Sports coupe
4. Limousine
5. Estate car
6. Convertibles
7. MUV or MPV
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8.SUV

1.SEDAN or SALOON:

A sedan car or saloon car is a passenger car with two rows of seats and adequate
passenger space in the rear compartment for adult passengers. The vehicle usually has a
separate rear trunk for luggage, although some manufacturers such as Chevrolet, Tatra,
and Volkswagen have made rear-engined models. It is one of the most common body
styles for modern automobiles, and is often marketed at families under the rubric of
family sedan.
i) NOTCHBACK:

(diagram from class notes)

A notchback is a three box sedan, where the passenger volume is clearly distinct from the trunk volume of the
vehicle (when seen from the side). The roof is on one plane, generally parallel to the ground, the rear window at a
sharp angle to the roof, and the trunk lid is also parallel to the ground.
(diagram from class notes)

Ex: ford mustang,fiat 124,ford LTD

ii) FASTBACK:
(diagram from class notes)
A fastback sedan is a twobox sedan, with continuous slope
from the roof to the base of the deck lid, but excludes the
hatchback feature.

Ex: Volkswagen beetle, Plymouth barracuda

iii) HATCHBACK:

Hatchback containing a passenger cabin with an

integrated cargo space, accessed from behind the
vehicle by a single, tophinged tailgate or large flipup
window.
The vehicle commonly has two rows of seats, with the
rear seat able to fold down to increase cargo space.entire of the back lifts up using a hatch.

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have 4 doors and one rear lift gate

Also called as four door hatchback or 5 door saloon.
Eg: hyundai i20,i10,eon, ford figo, Volkswagen polo

iv) 4 DOOR SALOON:

This is the most common passenger car.
Passenger comforts such as well designed seats, ease
of entry and exit,
good heating and ventilation system and better styling are the features of this model.

Drag coefficient of this model is about 0.35 to 0.50.

Ex: Honda city,amaze, Skoda rapid,maruti ciaz.
Drag coefficient :
It is a common measure in automotive design as it pertains
to aerodynamics. Drag is a force that acts parallel and in the same
direction as the airflow. The drag coefficient of an automobile
impacts the way the automobile passes through the surrounding air.
When automobile companies design a new vehicle they take into
consideration the automobile drag coefficient in addition to the
other performance characteristics. Aerodynamic drag increases with
the square of speed; therefore it becomes critically important at
higher speeds. Reducing the drag coefficient in an automobile
improves the performance of the vehicle as it pertains to speed and
fuel efficiency.

iv) 2 DOOR SALON AND PILLAR LESS SALOON:

The features of two door saloon and pillar less saloon

are the same as that of four door saloon.However in
pillar less saloon there will not be a center pillar.
SAE(Society of Automobile Engineers) defines such a
vehicle as any two-door model with rear
accommodation greater than or equal to 33 cubic feet (0.93 m3) in volume (a calculation made by adding the
legroom, shoulder room, and headroom)

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Ex: Chevrolet Monte Carlo, Ferrari 612 Scaglietti, and Mercedes-Benz CL-Class coupes
are all two-door sedans.
2.COUPE:

A coupe is commonly understood to have a fixed roof and two doors.

The rear seat placed further forward than in a standard sedan offering either two seats or 2+2 seating for two
passengers in the front and two occasional passengers or children in the rear.
However several fourdoor vehicles, including the MercedesBenz CLS and Rover P5 Coupe, are claimed by
their manufacturers to be "coupes".
Ex. Mercedes benz CLS ,Rover P5
3.SPORTS COUPE:

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It is a small car with two seats.

Better aerodynamic shape and better acceleration are
the features of this model. Styling is not important.
Lightness and rigidity are also the features of this
model.
Cd = 0.2 to 0.3
EX: Audi R8,Alfa romeo 4C, porsche cayman
4.LIMOUSINE:

It is a luxury car. It is provided with components and

equipment of high quality and with better finish.
It is usually provided with a partition between the driver
and the passengers.
Cushioned seats, air conditioning, cooling glasses etc
are the other features of this Model.
EX: Rolls royce Phantom,Hummer H2,H3, Mercedes benz
S600,Ford Excursion
5.ESTATE CAR:

The luggage compartment is the continuation of passenger compartment

without partition between them. Thus more luggage
space and longer wheelbase are the speciality of this
model.
The other names of this model are Universal,
Kombi,Station wagon, Camping Van and Break van.
Body style similar to sedan but incorporating a full size
back cargo compartment.

Ex:Chrysler 300C, Tata estate

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6.CONVERTIBLES:

These models are provided with windup windows and

folding roof.
A convertible is a type of automobile in which the roof
can retract and fold away, converting it from an enclosed
to an open-air vehicle.
Roofs are affixed to the body of the vehicle and are
usually not detachable. Instead the roof is hinged and
folds away, either into a recess behind the rear seats or
into the boot or trunk of the vehicle.
The roof may operate either manually or automatically
via hydraulic or electrical actuators, the roof itself may
be constructed of soft or rigid material.
Soft-tops are made of vinyl, canvas or other textile
material; hard-top convertibles have roofs made from
steel, aluminum, carbon fiber or plastic materials.
Convertibles offer the flexibility of an open top in trade for:
potentially reduced safety
poor break-in protection
deterioration and shrinkage of the sun-exposed textile
fabric over time
diminished rear visibility, from a large roof structure, small rear window, or
obstructed rear window or all of these: e.g., MINI convertible.
generally poor structural rigidity. Contemporary engineering goes to great length
to counteract the effects of removal of a car's roof.
Ex: Jaguar XK8, Audi R8
7.SUV:

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A sports utility vehicle, or suburban utility vehicle

(SUV), is a vehicle similar to a station wagon, estate
car, or van usually equipped with four-wheel drive for
on-road or off-road ability. Some SUV's include the
towing capacity of a pickup truck with the passengercarrying space of a minivan or large sedan.
It is known in some countries as an "off-road vehicle" or
"four-wheel drive.
EX: Mahindra Scorpio, Toyota Fortuner, Maruti Grand Vitara,
Tata Safari.
8.MUV or MPV:
A minivan, multi-purpose vehicle (abbreviated MPV),
people-carrier, people-mover or Multi-Utility Vehicle
(shortened MUV) is a type of automobile similar in shape to
a van that is designed for personal use.
more seating capacity and most of the models are
designed with folded rear seats, and the area that is left
can be used for some extra luggage space. A multi utility
car can accommodate many passengers and also carry
more luggages at a time.
EX: Toyota Innova,Datsun GO Plus, Maruti Ertiga
WINDOW LOCK MECHANISM:
The car door window glass can be opened by these methods
MECHANICALLY OPERATED :

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In the above method the window is opened or closed manually.

If the handle inside the door is rotated it will rotate the pinion.
The power from the pinion to circular rack is transmitted.
There is a linkage attach the lifter to the rack.so if the pinion rotates the circular rack and rack , gets the up
and down movement depending upon the direction of rotation of the rack.
There is another linkage which is used to support the lifter in up and down movement.
The window glass is attached to the lifter and gets the movement to open and close.
There will be enough friction between pinion and rack, this friction helps to hold the lifter at any position.so we can
adjust the window at any position depending upon our convenience.

SCISSOR TYPE:

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In the scissor type same as above method the pinion is connected to the circular rack.
There is a scissor type of linkage is attached to the rack.and both the linkages are hinged at the mid point
where they meet.
When the passenger rotates the lever from inside the door the rotation power transmitted to the rack and the
scissor gets a scissor cutting motion.
In the other end of the linkage there is space provided for move forth and back of the linkage.
so this movement will lift the glass through the lift channels which is attached below the glass.
The glass will move up and down in the tracks by the sliders.

DOOR UNLOCKING MECHANISMS:

Here are some of the ways that you can unlock car doors:
With a key
By pressing the unlock button inside the car
By using the combination lock on the outside of the door
By pulling up the knob on the inside of the door
With a key less-entry remote control
By a signal from a control center
In some cars that have power door locks, the lock/unlock switch
actually sends power to the actuators that unlock the door.

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The power-door-lock actuator is positioned below the

latch. A rod connects the actuator to the latch, and another
rod connects the latch to the knob that sticks up out of the
top of the door.
When the actuator moves the latch up, it connects the
outside door handle to the opening mechanism. When the
latch is down, the outside door handle is disconnected from
the mechanism so that it cannot be opened.
To unlock the door, the body controller supplies power to
the door-lock actuator for a timed interval.
Inside the Actuator
This system is quite simple. A small electric motor turns a
series of spur gears that serve as a gear reduction. The

This actuator can move the metal hook shown in this photo to the left or right. When mounted in the car, it is vertical, so the hook can move up or down. It
mimics your motions when you pull the knob up or push it down.

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last gear drives a rack-and-pinion gear set that is connected to the actuator rod. The rack converts the
rotational motion of the motor into the linear motion needed to move the lock.
One interesting thing about this mechanism is that while the motor can turn the gears and move the latch, if
you move the latch it will not turn the motor. This is accomplished by a neat centrifugal clutch that is
connected to the gear and engaged by the motor.
When the motor spins the gear, the clutch swings out and locks the small metal gear to the larger plastic
gear, allowing the motor to drive the door latch. If you move the door latch yourself, all of the gears will turn
except for the plastic gear with the clutch on it.

SEAT ADJUSTMENT MECHANISM:

These are the adjustment can be made

Back rest angle,cushion edge,Fore &
after position, headrest level, lumbar
position, seat depth,seat height.

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centrifugal clutch

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The function of the radial spring is to bring back the seat to original position after the lever is released .When
we move the lever upside the contact between tooth are released ,so the seat will be brought back to original
position.If we push the seat backside and push the lever down , the tooth will be locked with each other
again.The linear spring is to hold the lever in the lower position as well as in the upper position.So whichever
the position the driver wants he can adjust the lever.

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DRIVER'S VISIBILITY:

In transport, driver visibility is the maximum distance at which the driver of a vehicle can see and identify
prominent objects around the vehicle. Visibility is primarily determined by weather conditions and by a
vehicle's design.
The parts of a vehicle that influence visibility include the windshield, the dashboard and the pillars.Good
driver visibility is essential to safe road traffic.Blind spots may occur in the front of the driver when the A-pillar
(also called the windshield pillar), side-view mirror, and interior rear-view mirror block a driver's view of the
road. Behind the driver, there are additional pillars, headrests, passengers, and cargo,that may reduce
visibility.
A blind spot in a vehicle are areas around the vehicle that cannot be directly observed
under existing circumstances. Blind spots exist in a wide range of vehicles: cars,
trucks, motorboats and aircraft.

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1. Forward visibility:

A-pillar blind spot

This diagram shows the blocked view in a horizontal-plane in front of the driver. The
front-end blind spots caused by this can create problems in traffic situations, such as in
roundabouts, intersections, and road crossings. Front-end blind spots are influenced by the following design criteria:
Distance between the driver and the pillar
Thickness of the pillar
The angle of the pillar in a vertical plane side view
The angle of the pillar in a vertical plane front view
the form of the pillar straight or arc-form
Angle of the windshield
Height of the driver in relation to the dashboard
Speed of the opposite car

1.Effects of A-pillar angle on visibility :

Most passenger cars have a diagonal pillar as shown in this side view. The angle between the horizon and Apillar is approximately 40 degrees with a straight pillar that is not too thick. This gives the car a strong,
aerodynamic body with an adequately-sized front door.

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vertical A-pillar having small blind spots

1.1 Panoramic windshield:

The sides of a panoramic windshield
are curved, which makes it possible to
design vertical A-pillars that give the
driver maximum forward visibility.
However, it is impossible to design an
aerodynamic small car with a vertical Apillar because the more vertical the Apillar is, the less space the door opening
has, and the greater frontal area and
coefficient of drag the vehicle will have.
Examples of cars with an almost vertical
A-pillar:
Honda Step Bus Concept
Saab 900
School bus
Almost all Cadillacs from 1954-1959

40 angle A-pillar bar blind spots

Some modern car designs have an extremely flat A-pillar angle with the horizon. For example, the Pontiac
Firebird and Chevrolet Camaro from 1993-2002 had a windshield angle of 68 with the vertical, which equals
just 22 with the horizon.A flatter A-pillar's advantages include reducing the overall drag coefficient and
making the car body stronger in a frontal collision, at the expense of reducing driver visibility in a 180 field of
view from left to right.
1. 2 Other disadvantages of a flat windshield angle
Other traffic can not see the driver through the reflection if the driver can see them.
The heater needs more time to heat the bigger window surface.
The flat windshield angle does not let snow slide off easily.

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 The driver cannot reach the whole flat window to clean it easily.

2. Height of the driver:

Driver height can also affect visibility. An A-pillar

that is split up and haves a small triangle window
(Front Quarter glass) can give a short driver
visibility problems.
Some cars the windshield is fillet with the roofline
with a big radius. A fillet round A-pillar can give a
tall driver visibility problems.Also sometimes the
A-pillar can block the driver from seeing
motorcyclists.
Also the B-pillar (car) can block the vision of a tall
driver in small 4 door cars.
A driver may reduce the size of a blind spot or
eliminate it completely by turning their head in the
direction of the obstruction. This allows the driver
to see better around the obstruction and allows
the driver better depth perception.
3. Visibility in a convertible:
Turning your head reduces blind spot

Because there is no roof connection between the Aand B- pillar The A-pillars of a convertible automobile have to be stronger and even thicker, However, with the top
down there are no B or C pillars, improving driver visibility behind the driver.
4. Windshield reflections:

4. 1. Dashboard reflection

It is best if the dashboard has a non-reflecting dark colored surface.

A small dashboard gives some reflection on the lower part of the windshield.
A big dashboard can give reflection on eye height.
4. 2. A-pillar reflection

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It is best if the inside of the A-pillar has a non-reflecting dark

colored surface.If the side of the window is curved there is
less A-pillar reflection.
4. 3. Light through roof reflection
Some new model cars have a very big roof-window. Sometimes
the sunlight through the roof lights up the dashboard and gives a
reflection in the windshield.
5. Other automobile design factors:

Other design factors may prevent a manufacturer from

maximizing visibility. These include safety, as narrower pillars
cannot be made strong as easily as thicker pillars, and size
restraints pertaining to aerodynamics, as taller, more vertical
windshields create additional drag and reduce fuel efficiency.
6. Rear-view mirror blind spots:

A vehicular blind spot is the area of the road that while driving
cannot be seen when looking forward or through either the
rear-view or side mirrors. Blind spots can be checked by
turning one's head briefly, eliminated by reducing overlap
between side and rear-view mirrors, or reduced by adding
other mirrors with larger fields-of-view.
Detection of vehicles or other objects in blind spots may also
be aided by systems such as video cameras or distance
sensors, though these are uncommon or expensive options
in automobiles generally sold to the public.

VISIBILITY TESTS:

Sunlight dashboard reflection

(1)Reversing visibility test procedure:

The test procedure consists of the following:
1. a laser pointing device,
2. a dummy to represent an average adult size,
3. a test cylinder to represent the shoulder height of an average 2 year old child ,and
4. a grid extended 1.8 x 15 meters to the rear of the vehicle.
The laser is directed through the rear window of each vehicle. The position where the laser is visible on the
test cylinder is noted. This procedure is repeated for all positions on the grid. The results are analysed and an

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overall score is given.

The best scores are awarded to the vehicles which have the most effective rear visibility. A low star rating car
means a driver looking out the rear window is less likely to see an object of child height, compared to a car
with a better star rating. The more stars the better.
(2) Visibility test by Motor Research Industry Association:

Each of the cars was driven into the darkened lab and lights mounted in a dummy drivers eye position were
used to project shadows on to a screen which surrounded the car. The grid on the screen was marked with a
scale so that the edges of the shadow could be measured in terms of their distance from the drivers eyes.
Three sets of measurements were taken for each car. Firstly, a single bulb was used to project the shadow of
both A-pillars on to the screen. Then, the coordinates of the upper and lower corners were measured to
enable the area of vision obscured by the pillars to be calculated.
The dummys head was then changed to one which had both left and right eyes (bulbs) so that binocular
vision and pillar thickness could be assessed. The edge of each pillar was measured using one bulb, then the
other. In this way, we ensured that only the proportion of the pillar which was obscured to both eyes was
measured.

Finally, the critical vision area of the windscreen, which is four degrees above and four degrees below the drivers
straight-ahead eye position, was also measured and assessed.

Analyzing and presenting the data:

A car with wide pillars and a wide screen will give a better overall field of view than a vehicle with the same
thickness of pillars, but a narrower screen.
The ratio of the screen to pillar areas is the critical vision area of the windscreen divided by the left and right
pillar areas added together.The higher this value is, the better the score the car will receive.

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System for improving the visibility in vehicles:

1) Laser Measuring

A system for improving the visibility in vehicles, including the following:

1. an illumination optical system (2) for continuous radiation of infrared pulsed light
2. an associated receiver optical system (3) for receiving reflected components of the radiated light;
3. a display (4) for representing information obtained by the receiver
optical system (3), and a device (5, 6) for determining the presence of glare in the receiver optical system (3)
from a foreign vehicle illumination optical system and for changing the keying interval or duty cycle of the
infrared pulsed light of the illumination optical system (2) driven with fixed keying interval in dependence upon
the vehicle direction of travel in such a manner that the glare is eliminated.
Therein the illumination optical system is driven is driven with a fixed keying interval depending upon the
vehicle direction of travel or, in certain cases, the direction of illumination.
In an alternative embodiment, the illumination optical system (2) is operated at a wavelength which depends

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upon the vehicle direction of travel or, in certain cases, the direction of illumination.

2) Patent Research

The invention concerns a device for improving the view in vehicles, in particular at night, bad weather and
fog.

In the process images of actual traffic scenes are recorded by a camera (2), which is sensitive outside the
visible spectrum, and these images are reproduced in the visible spectrum in the vehicle via a display optic
(6)
. According to the invention the type of object which is contained in a traffic scene recorded by the camera (2)
is automatically classified according to type, and depending upon the type of the recognized object it is
reproduced on the display optic (6) in an intensity and/or color,which corresponds to the intensity and/or color
which the associated object typically has by daylight.
The process facilitates the recognition by the vehicle operator of images of traffic scenes recorded outside

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the visible spectrum.

Automobile safety:
Automobile safety is the study and practice of vehicle design, construction, and equipment to minimize the
occurrence and consequences of automobile accidents. (Road traffic safety more broadly includes roadway
design.)
Active and passive safety:
Active safety:
it refers to devices and systems that help keep a car under control and prevent an accident. These devices
are usually automated to help compensate for human error -- the single biggest cause of car accidents.
example:
Anti-lock brakes prevent the wheels from locking up when the driver brakes, enabling the driver to steer while
braking.
Traction control systems prevent the wheels from slipping while the car is accelerating.
Electronic stability control keeps the car under control and on the road.
Passive safety:
it refers to systems in the car that protect the driver and passengers from injury if an accident does occur.
Example:
Air bags provide a cushion to protect the driver and passengers during a crash.
Seat belts hold passengers in place so that they aren't thrown forward or ejected from the car.
Rollover bars protect the car's occupants from injury if the vehicle rolls over during an accident.
Head restraints prevent the driver and passengers from getting whiplash during a rear-end collision.
Crash avoidance:
Crash avoidance systems and devices help the driver and, increasingly, help the vehicle itself to avoid a
collision. This category includes:

1. The vehicle's headlamps, reflectors, and other lights and signals

2. The vehicle's mirrors
3. The vehicle's brakes, steering, and suspension systems
Driver assistance:
A subset of crash avoidance is driver assistance systems, which help the driver to detect
ordinarily-hidden obstacles and to control the vehicle. Driver assistance systems include:
i) Automatic Braking systems to prevent or reduce the severity of collision.

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ii) Infrared night vision systems to increase seeing distance beyond headlamp range
iii)Adaptive high beam which automatically and continuously adapts the headlamp range to
vehicles ahead or which are oncoming
iv)Adaptive headlamps swivels headlamps around corners
v) Reverse backup sensors, which alert drivers to difficult-to-see objects in their path when
vi) Backup camera
vii)Adaptive cruise control which maintains a safe distance from the vehicle in front
viii) Lane departure warning systems to alert the driver of an unintended departure from
lane of travel
ix) Tire pressure monitoring systems or Deflation Detection Systems
x)Traction control systems which restore traction if driven wheels begin to spin
xi) Electronic Stability Control, which intervenes to avert an impending loss of control
xii) Anti-lock braking systems
xiii)Electronic brake-force distribution systems
xiv) Emergency brake assist systems
xv) Cornering Brake Control systems
xvi) Pre-crash system
xvii) Automated parking system

the distance of

reversing

the intended

1)Electronic brake-force distribution (EBD):

It is coupled with ABS

Components:
Speed sensors:
To determine the slip ratio of a wheel, the EBD system needs two pieces of information: the speed at which the
wheel is rotating and the speed of the car. If the speed at which the wheel is rotating is slower than the speed at
which the car is moving, then the wheel is slipping and a skid can result. A sensor is placed at each wheel to
determine wheel speed.
Brake force modulators: Brake force is applied to the wheels hydraulically, with brake fluid pumped into brake
lines in such a way as to pneumatically activate the brake cylinders. The EBD system can modulate the amount of

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brake fluid going to each wheel through electrically actuated valves.

It is an automobile brake technology that

automatically varies the amount of force applied to
each of a vehicle's brakes, based on road
conditions, speed, loading, etc. Always coupled
with anti-lock braking systems, EBD can apply
more or less braking pressure to each wheel in
order to maximize stopping power whilst
maintaining vehicular control. Typically, the front
end carries the most weight and EBD distributes
less braking pressure to the rear brakes so the
rear brakes do not lock up and cause a skid.In
some systems, EBD distributes more braking
pressure at the rear brakes during initial brake
application before the effects of weight transfer
become apparent.
During braking first the brake has to be applied at
the rear side.After that weight shifting will take
place.So we have apply the front brakes to avoid
the skidding.These are done by EBD.

Electronic Control Unit (ECU):

The ECU is a small computer embedded in the antilock braking system. It receives input from the speed
sensors, calculates the slip ratio of the wheels, and uses the brake force modulators to apply an appropriate
amount of force to keep the slip ratio of each wheel within a reasonable range.
Most EBD systems also include a yaw sensor, which detects the rotation of the vehicle as it turns. This can
be compared with the angle of the steering wheel by using a steering wheel angle sensor to detect oversteer (too much rotation relative to the angle of the wheel) or under-steer (not enough rotation relative to the
angle of the wheel). EBD can then correct the steering by activating one of the rear brakes. For instance, if
the car begins to understeer, the inner rear brake is activated to increase the car's rotation. If the car begins
to oversteer, the outer rear brake is activated to decrease the car's rotation.
2) ESP:(Electronic Stability Program):

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Electronic stability control (ESC), also referred to as electronic stability

program (ESP) or dynamic stability control (DSC), is a computerized
technology that improves a vehicle's stability by detecting and reducing loss
of traction (skidding).

Wheel-speed sensors: One wheel-speed sensor at each wheel measures the speed
computer can then compare to the speed of the engine.

of the wheel which the

Steering-angle sensors:This sensor, in the steering column, measures the direction the driver intends to aim the
car. If it's different than the direction the car is actually traveling, the ESC system will kick in.
Rotational-speed sensor:This is also known as the yaw sensor. It's the one in the middle of the car that measures
the side-to-side motion of the vehicle.

Understeer happens when the front wheels don't have enough traction and the car continues moving forward
rather than turning. Oversteer is just the opposite: the car turns farther than the driver intended causing the

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rear wheels to slide and the car to spin. ESC, as electronic stability control is often known, can help correct
both of these situations.
The electronic stability control system doesn't work all alone .it uses the car's other safety and regulatory
devices, like anti-lock braking and traction control, to correct problems before they become accidents.
Yaw sensor is there to sense the yawing moment.If the ESC system detects that the car is swinging too far
(or not far enough) around that up-and-down axis, it springs into action to assist.
The ESC will activate one or more individual brakes, depending on which wheel can increase driving safety
the most, and control the throttle to lessen the speed at which the car is traveling.
The sensor is looking for differences between the direction of the steering wheel and the direction the car is
headed; the car's computer then makes the necessary corrections to bring the vehicle's direction of travel in
line with what the driver wanted.

3)Anti-lock braking system:

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Anti-lock braking system (ABS) is an automobile safety system that allows the wheels on a motor vehicle
to maintain tractive contact with the road surface according to driver inputs while braking, preventing the
wheels from locking up (ceasing rotation) and avoiding uncontrolled skidding.
ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping distances on dry and slippery
surfaces; however, on loose gravel or snow-covered surfaces, ABS can significantly increase braking
distance, although still improving vehicle control.
WORKING:
ABS includes a central electronic control unit (ECU), four wheel speed sensors, and at least two hydraulic
valves within the brake hydraulics.
Speed sensors
A speed sensor is used to determine the acceleration or deceleration of the wheel.
Valves
There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the ABS.This valve is to allow or control the
brake fluid to the brakes.
Pump
The pump in the ABS is used to restore the pressure to the hydraulic brakes after the valves have released it.

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Controller
The controller is an ECU type unit in the car which receives information from each individual wheel speed
sensor, in turn if a wheel loses traction the signal is sent to the controller, the controller will then limit the
brake force (EBD) and activate the ABS modulator which actuates the braking valves on and off.
The ECU constantly monitors the rotational speed of each wheel; if it detects a wheel rotating significantly
slower than the others, a condition indicative of impending wheel lock, it actuates the valves to reduce
hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel, thus reducing the braking force on that wheel; the wheel
then turns faster.
Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning significantly faster than the others, brake hydraulic pressure
to the wheel is increased so the braking force is reapplied, slowing down the wheel. This process is repeated
continuously and can be detected by the driver via brake pedal pulsation.
Some anti-lock systems can apply or release braking pressure 15 times per second.

Brake types:
Four-channel, four-sensor ABS
There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a separate valve for all four wheels. With this setup, the
controller monitors each wheel individually to make sure it is achieving maximum braking force.
Three-channel, four-sensor ABS
There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a separate valve for each of the front wheels, but only
one valve for both of the rear wheels. Older vehicles with four-wheel ABS usually use this type.
Three-channel, three-sensor ABS
This scheme, commonly found on pickup trucks with four-wheel ABS, has a speed sensor and a valve
for each of the front wheels, with one valve and one sensor for both rear wheels. The speed sensor for
the rear wheels is located in the rear axle. This system provides individual control of the front wheels,
so they can both achieve maximum braking force.
Two-channel, four sensor ABS
This system, commonly found on passenger cars from the late '80s through early 2000s uses a speed
sensor at each wheel, with one control valve each for the front and rear wheels as a pair.
One-channel, one-sensor ABS
This system is commonly found on pickup trucks with rear-wheel ABS. It has one valve, which controls
both rear wheels, and one speed sensor, located in the rear axle. This system operates the same as
the rear end of a three-channel system. The rear wheels are monitored together and they both have to
start to lock up before the ABS kicks in.

4)Traction Control systems:

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This system optimize grip and stability of the car on the road during acceleration by measuring wheel rotation.
It stops wheel spin by reducing engine power or temporarily applying the brakes to that wheel, allowing the
car to accelerate smoothly, even on slippery surfaces.
electronic traction control. In modern vehicles, traction-control systems utilize the same wheel-speed
sensors employed by the anti lock braking system. These sensors measure differences in rotational speed to
determine if the wheels that are receiving power have lost traction.
When the traction-control system determines that one wheel is spinning more quickly than the others, it
automatically "pumps" the brake to that wheel to reduce its speed and lessen wheel slip. In most cases,
individual wheel braking is enough to control wheel slip.
However, some traction-control systems also reduce engine power to the slipping wheels. On a few of these
vehicles, drivers may sense pulsations of the gas pedal when the system is reducing engine power much like

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a brake pedal pulsates when the antilock braking system is working.

Many people mistakenly believe that traction control will prevent their vehicle from getting stuck in the snow.
Traction control does not have the ability to increase traction; it just attempts to prevent a vehicle's wheels
from spinning.
5)Adaptive cruise control:
Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) is an automotive feature that allows a vehicle's cruise control system to adapt
the vehicle's speed to the traffic environment.
A radar system attached to the front of the vehicle is used to detect whether slower moving vehicles are in the
ACC vehicle's path. If a slower moving vehicle is detected, the ACC system will slow the vehicle down and
control the clearance, or time gap, between the ACC vehicle and the forward vehicle.
If the system detects that the forward vehicle is no longer in the ACC vehicle's path, the ACC system will
accelerate the vehicle back to its set cruise control speed. This operation allows the ACC vehicle to
autonomously slow down and speed up with traffic without intervention from the driver.
The method by which the ACC vehicle's speed is controlled is via engine throttle control and limited brake
operation.

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ACC Module The primary function of the ACC module is to process the radar information and determine if a
forward vehicle is present. When the ACC system is in 'time gap control', it sends information to the Engine Control
and Brake Control modules to control the clearance between the ACC Vehicle and the Target Vehicle.
Engine Control Module The primary function of the Engine Control Module is to receive
information from the ACC module and Instrument Cluster and control the vehicle's speed based on this information.
The Engine Control Module controls vehicle speed by controlling the engine's throttle.
Brake Control Module The primary function of the Brake Control Module is to determine
vehicle speed via each wheel and to decelerate the vehicle by applying the brakes when
requested by the ACC Module. The braking system is hydraulic with electronic enhancement, such as an ABS
brake system.
Instrument Cluster The primary function of the Instrument Cluster is to process the Cruise Switches and send
their information to the ACC and Engine Control Modules. The Instrument Cluster also displays text messages and
telltales for the driver so that the driver has information regarding the state of the ACC system.
CAN The Controller Area Network (CAN) is an automotive standard network that utilizes a 2 wire bus to transmit
and receive data.
Cruise Switches The Cruise Switches are mounted on the steering wheel and have several buttons which allow
the driver to command operation of the ACC system.

6)Lane departure warning systems:

Lane departure warning system is a mechanism designed to warn a driver when the vehicle begins to
move out of its lane (unless a turn signal is on in that direction) on freeways and arterial roads.
adaptive cruise control pacing you against the car in front, lane departure warning or lane keep assist

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watching ahead and to the side.

Types
There are two main types of systems:
Systems which warn the driver (lane departure warning, LDW) if the vehicle is leaving its lane (visual,
audible, and/or vibration warnings)
Systems which warn the driver and, if no action is taken, automatically take steps to ensure the vehicle stays
in its lane.

The most common LDW system is a camera mounted high up in the windshield (photo above), often as part
of the rear view mirror mounting block. It captures a moving view of the road ahead. The digitized image is
parsed for straight or dashed lines the lane markings.
As the car deviates and approaches or reaches the lane marking, the driver gets a warning: a visual alert
plus either an audible tone, a vibration in the steering wheel, or a vibration in the seat. If the turn signal is on,
the car assumes the driver is intentionally crossing over the lane, and theres no alert. Thats lane departure
warning.

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Sometimes the steering change is effected by braking the opposite front wheel and the car pivots back into
the lane. The car can also move you back by turning the steering wheel. In either case, the driver can easily
overcome the cars intentions by turning the wheel.

7)Tire pressure monitoring systems or Deflation Detection Systems:

A tire pressure monitoring system (TPMS) is an electronic system designed to monitor the air pressure inside
the pneumatic tires on various types of vehicles. TPMS report real-time tire-pressure information to the driver
of the vehicle, either via a gauge, a pictogram display, or a simple low-pressure warning light.
TPMS can be divided into two different types.
1. Direct (dTPMS)
2. Indirect (iTPMS).

1.Direct tire pressure monitoring systems use individual sensors inside each tire.The sensors read internal
pressure, and sometimes temperature. The information received at the module is analyzed, and any issues with any
of the tires are sent to the car's vehicle information system, or low-pressure light.
Information is most often sent wirelessly as a radio signal. While some aftermarket systems are mounted outside the
tire. Each sensor has a battery with a life of about a decade. On most, the battery is not serviceable, and the entire
sensor must be changed.

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2.Indirect tire pressure monitoring systems don't rely on sensors to do the work, or at least not pressure sensors.
The systems rely on wheel speed sensor data to interpret the size of a tire based on how fast it rotates, a small tire
would rotate faster than a larger tire, and an underinflated tire is smaller than one with proper inflation. All of this
data can be gleaned by electronic monitors within in the car, and then interpreted using advanced programming and
processing.

8)Automotive night vision:

An automotive night vision system uses a

thermographic camera to increase a driver's perception and
seeing distance in darkness or poor weather beyond the
reach of the vehicle's headlights.

Night vision systems use an infrared sensor typically in the

grille to look for warm objects in the roadway. The sensor is
a video camera that captures the infrared spectrum just
above visible light. The sensor outputs the moving image to
a dashboard display. Increasingly, thats coupled with
sophisticated algorithms that detect humans and large
animals, and most recently, that sound an alert.

1)passive night vision system:

Night vision systems use an infrared sensor typically in
the grille to look for warm objects in the roadway. The
sensor is a video camera that captures the infrared
spectrum just above visible light. The sensor outputs the
moving image to a dashboard display. Increasingly,
thats coupled with sophisticated algorithms that detect
humans and large animals, and most recently, that
sound an alert. This is the case for all night vision

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technologies.
hey measure the heat generated by living objects without the need for additional illumination. Warmer objects
show up as lighter images on the cars LCD display, colder objects show up as dark. In between dark grays
are the road and rocks emitting heat from the sun into the evening hours.
Passive night vision wins hands down for claimed range, up to 1,000 feet or 300 meters. (At 60 mph on a
country road, thats theoretically more than 10 seconds of travel time.) Passive systems work better in rainy
and foggy conditions.
Passive systems work less effectively at warmer temperatures.
EX: using in Lexus LX 470 (windshield), LS (instrument cluster), Mercedes-Benz CL-Class (C216)(instrument
cluster)..etc

2)Active night vision system:

Active night vision systems use an infrared illuminator, sometimes part of the headlamp cluster, to light up the
road in the IR spectrum. The image can be higher-resolution than passive. Roads and buildings show up
better. Thats why drivers initially think theyre watching black and white TV of the road ahead.

As with normal headlamps, the range of active night vision systems is reduced in rain, snow or fog, and
effectiveness falls off with the square of the distance. The biggest drawback with active NV is range, an
estimated 500-650 feet or 150-200 meters.

9)Emergency brake assist:

Emergency brake assist (EBA) or Brake Assist (BA or BAS) is an automobile braking technology that increases
braking pressure in an emergency situation.

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Electronic brake assist systems use an electronic control unit (ECU) that compares instances of braking to
pre-set thresholds. If a driver pushes the brake down hard enough and fast enough to surpass this threshold,
the ECU will determine that there is an emergency and boosts braking power. Many of these systems are
adaptable, which means they will compile information about a drivers particular braking style and tweak the
thresholds to ensure the highest accuracy in emergency-situation detection.
Older vehicles that do not have an ECU can have a mechanical brake assist system put in. Mechanical
systems also use pre-set thresholds, but these are set mechanically. This means that they are not adaptable
to individual drivers. These systems include a locking mechanism that activates when the valve stroke
which is directly related to how far the brake pedal is pushed passes a critical point. Once this threshold is
passed, the locking mechanism switches the source of braking power from the brake piston valve to the
brake booster, which supplies the braking assistance.

10)Adaptive Highbeam:

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Adaptive Highbeam Assist makes night-time driving

even safer. The system adjusts the headlamp range
automatically to the distance of oncoming traffic or
vehicles in front with their lights on. This provides the
driver with the ideal headlamp range at all times,
enabling better and earlier recognition of the course of
the road, pedestrians or other dangers.
The Adaptive Highbeam Assist is based on a camera
on the inside of the front windscreen which monitors
the traffic situation in front of the car. An intelligent
image processing algorithm enables the camera to
identify other vehicles and to calculate their
distances.

The range of the variably adjustable headlamps is set accordingly and adjusted continuously according to
the distance of the vehicle ahead or oncoming traffic.The system is extremely fast, relaying fresh data to the
headlamps every 40 milliseconds. On the basis of this information, the headlamps are switched to low beam
and the range of the adjustable bi-xenon headlamps in dipped-beam mode is set within a maximum reach of
300 metres and continuously adapted to the prevailing traffic situation.
When the system detects that the road ahead is clear, high beam is activated automatically. Adaptive
Highbeam Assist in Mercedes-Benz cars is available at speeds of 55 km/h and over. Once it has been
switched on it operates fully automatically.

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