TableofContents

TableofContents
Introduction
LiteratureReview
WhatisMathematics
WhatDoesitMeantoDoMathematics
ImplicationsfortheClassroom
TheDanceofAgencyandAuthority
AlternativeViews
SettingDescription
Location
Foundations
Methods
ImprovementScience
MyAIM/ResearchQuestion
WhatIDidandWhatIMeasured
DataCollection
FindingsFromTheSAICSurvey
GrowthMindsetandBelongingness
Whenyouhavetotryreallyhardinmath,itmeansyoucantbegoodatmath.
Howconfidentareyouthatyoucanbesuccessfulinyourmathclass?
Belongingness

Howcomfortableareyouaskingyourteacheraquestionwhenyou'reconfusedin
mathclass?
LookingforExplanations
BuildingaCulturethatCelebratesthePatternSeeking
ReframingandCelebratingStruggle
MathematiciansStruggle
AStudentsReframingofMathandStruggle
BeingUnhelpful,SometimesAuthentically.
UsingaCollaborativeWorkProtocol
AddressingStatusIssues
Conclusion
References

Introduction
Irecentlygaveamathassessmenttomystudents.Thestatemathematicsexamwas
comingupandwehadspentaweekreviewingtheconceptsthatmightappearontheexam.In
myorganizationwedonotputaheavyemphasisonstateexamsbutthestudentsarestill
requiredtotakethem.Ihavefoundthatifyougiveanexaminationtoakidthattakestwodays
andtheyseequestionsonitthattheyhaveneverheardoforseen,itaffectstheirsenseof
themselvesaslearnersofmathematics,regardlessofhowwellIexplainthatitisnotareflection
oftheirknowledgeofthissubject.
Unfortunately,thelessonsleadinguptotheassessmentfeltdryandforced.Theywere
inconsistentwithwhatwehadbeentryingtodiscoverallyearaboutwhatmathwasandwhatit
meanttodomath.WeweregoingthroughsomanytopicssoquicklyitfeltlikeIwasfeeding
theminformation,recipestofollow,whethertheyunderstoodthemornot.Theywereatbest
cooks,notchefs.
Igavetheassessmentandmanystudentstookit.Soonafter,theywereeagerseewhat
theygot.Theywantedtoknowtheirgradesandsomewantedtoseewhogotthehighestscore.I
wastroubledbythisforreasonsIwilltrytoarticulateinthisproposal.HereiswhatIdid.
Irefusedtogradethem.InsteadIbroketheclassintotwosmallergroupsandIassigned
eachgroupafacilitator.HerearetherulesIsaid,todayyouaregoingtogradeyourown
papersandIwillnotgiveyouanswers.Youwillneedtodecidethecorrectanswerasagroup.I
continuedwithsomesuggestedrules:thefacilitatorencouragesstudentstoputallthepossible
answersontheboardstudentsdecideontherightanswerthroughaprocessofshowingillogical

orinvalidimplementationsinalloftheothers.Ourapproachwas,thelastproblemstandingis
thebestwevegot.
AfterIexplainedtherulesmanystudentsaskedquestionslike,buthowwillweknowif
itisright?Andlater,whenIspoketocolleaguestheyaskedme,butwhatiftheyhadthe
wronganswer?Ishruggedmyshoulderstomycolleagues,andaskedmystudentswhatthey
meantbytherightanswer.
Aswebegan,Ifoundthattherewereplentyofdifferentanswersandforeachquestion
students
did
decideonasolution.Howeverthesolutionswereconsistentwithmyown
understandingoftheanswers,andwiththatofthelargercommunityofmathematicalthinkers.
Thequestionof
whatitmeanstoberightinmathematics
and
whogetstosay
iscentralto
whatwemeanwhenwespeakaboutmathematicalauthority.Inmyownclassroom,Ichoosean
approachtoteachingmathematicsthatexplicitlyemphasizesproblems,equitablecollaborations,
presentationsofthought,andconstructionofknowledge.Ibelievethatthisproblemcentered,
constructivistapproachhaspositiveeffectsonstudentsabilitytothinkcritically.Italso
developstheirproblemsolvingskillsandstrategies,andtheirselfperceptionasmathematicians.
Thisisacurriculardecisionandthereisampleresearchthatsupportsthisreformapproachto
mathematics.Butwhatteachingpracticesbestsupportthisapproach?
Theideasofmathematicalagencyandmathematicalauthoritysuggestapossibleplaceto
lookforbestpractices.Inamathclassroom
MathematicalAgency
referstoastudentsabilityto
actproductivelywithinthatenvironmenttodomath.Whenwelookforindicatorsofagencywe
alsolookatstudentsdispositionstowardsmathematicsandtheirbeliefsabouttheircapacityto
besuccessfulinamathclass.
Mathematicalauthorityisaboutonesabilityandopportunityto

validateonesownmathematicalthinking
.MathematicalAuthorityisanecessarycomponentof
mathematicalagency.
Teachersaretheaudienceformyworkandmyfocusisoneffectiveteachingpractices.In
afouryearlongitudinalstudyfollowingover1,000studentsinseveraldifferentschoolsandin
manydifferentmathclassrooms,theonlysignificantvariableaffectingstudentperformancewas
theteacher(Boaler,2003).Thiswastrueacrossradicallydifferentcurricularapproaches.The
practicalimplicationforteacherresearchersisthatateacherschosenapproachtoteachingmath
isasimportantaseffectiveimplementationofthatapproach.
Myresearchinquiryquestionis:Howdoselectedteachingpracticesaffectmathematical
authorityandstudentagencyintheclassroom?Thegoalofmyinquiryistoidentifyand
documentpracticeswhichproduceproductivechangesinthosetwofocusareas.

LiteratureReview
Thegoalofthisliteraturereviewistopresentalogicalargumentforexploringteaching
practicesthatpromoteproductivesharingofmathematicalauthorityandmathematicalagency.I
willdiscussideasaboutwhatmathematicsisandwhatitmeanstodomath.ThenIwillconnect
thoseideaswithpracticalimplicationsfortheclassroom.Finally,Iwilllookathowadanceof
agencyandauthoritybetweenthedisciplineofmathematicsanditsstudentsisanecessary
conditionforaproductivemathematicsclassroom.ThepracticesIwillexploreinmyresearch
focusonwaysthatstudentscanincreasetheirownagencyandauthority,andwaysthattheycan
effectivelyinvoketheauthorityofthediscipline.
WhatisMathematics
Therearemanydefinitionsofmathematics.Someoftheseinterpretationsoverlapand
somecontradicteachother.Forthepurposesofmyresearchandmypractice,ithasbeenuseful
tochooseone.Myunderstandingofmathematicsasthescienceofpatternscomesfromthe
shorthanddescriptionsuggestedbyHoffmanin1989(ascitedinSchoenfeld,1994).Patternsare
asignificantandcompellingaspectofthisdefinitionbecausepatternsaremeanttobe
discovered.Theymightbepractical,trivial,concreteorabstracttheirstructurecanbe
beautifullysimpleorincomprehensiblycomplex.Apatternislikeariddle,itsimplicitpromise
andchallengeisthatitissomethingthatcanbeunderstood.
Thesciencecomponentofthedescriptionalsohasseveralpowerfulconnotations.It
impliesintellectualexplorationandasystematicorganizationofmessyprocesses.Itevokesa
desireandmandatetoaskwhy,andtomakesenseofpatterns.Istruggletoconveythis
distillationofmathtomystudents.Manystudentsdonotinitiallyperceivetheintrinsicvalueof

math.Theyunderstanditsusefulnessinservicetoanotherscienceorengineering.
This
classificationofmathasthescienceofpatternsinfusesthedisciplinewithsomethingthathas
meaningorutilityuncoupledfromotherfieldsofstudy.
Thecontributionofmathematicstoother
fieldsofstudyisneitherirrelevantnorinsignificant,butitisalsonotthewholestory.
WhatDoesitMeantoDoMathematics
Schoenfeld(1994)alsohasanaffinityforthisdescriptionofmathematicsandsuggests
thatthisdefinitionaffectswhatitmeanstodomathematics.Themostimportantimplicationis
thatthescienceofmathisaninherentlysocialactivity,inwhichacommunityoftrained
practitioners(mathematicalscientists)engagesinthescienceofpatterns."
Lockhartexpandsontheideasofpatternseekingandsensemakingbyhighlightingan
aestheticimperative.Hestates,doingmathematicsshouldalwaysmeandiscoveringand
craftingbeautifulandmeaningfulexplanations(2009,p.66).Lockhartispartofagrowing
groupofmathematicianswhoarepassionateaboutthebeautyandwonderofmathematics,and
whoareadamantabouttheimportanceofteachingitinawaythathonorsitsessential
playfulnessandbeauty.Hisenthusiasmiscompellingandbordersonspiritual:ThethingI
wantyouespeciallytounderstandisthisfeelingofdivinerevelation.Ifeelthatthisstructurewas
"outthere"allalongIjustcouldn'tseeit.AndnowIcan!Thisisreallywhatkeepsmeinthe
mathgamethechancethatImightglimpsesomekindofsecretunderlyingtruth,somesortof
messagefromthegods.(2009,p.114)
ImplicationsfortheClassroom
BothBoalerandSchoenfeldcontendthathowwedefineanddomathematicsshouldplay
acriticalroleinhowitshouldbetaught.Thatmightappearobvious,butthepracticeofteaching

andlearninginmathclassroomsoverthepasthundredyearssuggeststhatwhatmathematicians
generallythinkofastheexperienceofdoingmathematicsisnotreflectedinthemathematics
classroom.Whilemathematicianstendtoworkaspartofacommunitypuzzlingoverunsolved
patterns,Boaler(2000)positsthattheexperienceofmoststudentsofmathematicscontinuesto
beateacherdominatedpractice,withasubstantialamountofselfdirectedworkundertaken
fromeitheratextbook,boardworkorindividualworksheets.Studentsarepresentedwiththe
creativediscoveriesofmathematicians,butarenotgivenafoundationinofwhatthatcreative
processislike,theyareconsumersratherthancreators.Inthepasthundredyears,thisapproach
hasremainedvirtuallystatic.
Therearetwoessentialargumentsforteachingmathematicsinawaythatparallelsthe
waywedefineit.Thefirstistha
tthewayweteachmathematicslargelydetermineshowstudents
definemathematics
.Ifweembracethedefinitionofmathematicsanddoingmathematicsas
described,itmustbereflectedinourclassrooms.Weshouldstrivetobuildaclassroom
communityofmathematicalthinkersthatactinwaysthataresimilartothelargermathematical
communityoutsidetheclassroom(Schoenfeld,1994).
Thesecondargumentrestsontheideathatstudentsnotonlydefinewhatmathematicsis
bytheirexperienceswithintheclassroom,
theyconstructtheiridentitiesasmathematical
thinkersintheseclassroomsaswell
.A'reform'classroom,whichembracesmathematicsasthe
scienceofpatternsanddoingmathematicsasthecollaborativeexplorationsofthese,asks
studentstocontributetothemathematicalknowingofthecommunity.Theaimoftheclassroom
istogenerateideasandtoassessthevalidityofthecommunitysideas.Studentsmathematical

identitiesintheseenvironmentsarecharacterizedbyasenseofagency,authorityandcommunity
belonging(BoalerandGreeno,2000).
TheDanceofAgencyandAuthority
Whentalkingaboutmathematicalauthorityweareessentiallytalkingaboutwhodecides
whatisright.Inaclassroomwheredoingmathisacollaborativeinvestigationintothescienceof
patterns,authoritybelongstothecommunityofmathematicalthinkers.Thatis,itiscenteredon
thestudentsthemselves.
Thismodelofauthorityisdifficulttoachieve.AccordingtoMuis,ateachercentered
authoritymodel,wherestudentstendtoviewtheirteachersasthesolearbitersofwhatisright,
existsbothbecauseofpedagogicalconsiderationsbutalsobecauseoftheimplicitassumptions
thatstudentsmakeabouttheirteachers(ascitedinWebel,2010).Inmyownclassroom,Iaimto
establisharelationshipwhereinmystudentsdonotseemeasthesolearbiteroftruthandcorrect
answers.Rather,Iamthepersonwithwhomtheyconsultaboutthevalidityoftheirthoughts.
This'oracle'viewoftheteacherandthedisciplineofmathisproblematic.Partly,thisis
becauseitisdisempoweringtostudents.Itpreventsthemfromengaginginanysituationin
whichtheydonotalreadyknowtheanswer(Webel,1995).Itisalsoproblematicbecauseofthe
dependentdynamicthatitcreatesbetweenstudentandteacher.Finally,thisapproachcheats
studentsoutofthebeautyoflearningandunderstandingmathematicsratherthansimply
applyingit.Itcheatsthemoftheopportunitytothinkcritically,creativelyandcollaboratively,
andtoseemathasaprocessofmodelingandmakingsense.
AnAdHocauthoritystructurecanalsodevelopwherestudentsgrantotherstudentsa
levelofmathematicalauthority.Certainstudentsareseenasexpertsandconsultedforanswers

othersarenotseenasexpertsandarenotconsulted.Thestudentexpertsarenotquestionedabout
howtheygottheiranswers,justwhattheansweris(AmitandFried,p2005).Inmyown
classroomIhaveseenthisdynamic.Studentsoftengotootherstudentsthattheyseeasexperts
foranswers,butlittleelse.
Thedance.
Inaclassroomwherestudentsaredoingmath,authorityrestswithstudents.
However,thatisonlypartiallytrue.Thisauthoritydoesnotsolelyrestwiththestudents,italso
restswithmathematicsitselfthecollectiveworkandstandardsofthelargermathematical
community,andtheproceduresandpracticesthattheyhavedeveloped(Schoenfeld,1994).
Whatdoesthismeanandwhataretheimplications?Whenastudentisstuck,orseeking
validationofherideas,shewilloftenapproachmeforhelp.Torespondwiththenextstep,orto
provideavalidationorrefutationofherideassetsmeupastheepistemologicalauthority.Itisa
stepawayfromwhatIamtryingtoachieve.Thenwhataremyoptions?Thestudentisoffering
meauthority,soIcanrespondwith,Whatdoyouthink?Butstudentsareoftengenuinelystuck
andthiskindofresponse(wheretheteacherdeflectsauthoritydirectlybackontothestudent
afterthestudentreachesanimpasse)cancreatefrustrationthestudentisappealingtome
becauseshegenuinelydoesntknow(Boaler,2003).
Anotherapproachistodeflectthisauthorityontothedisciplineitself:Isitconsistent
withyourgraph?orDoesyourapproachworkwithothervalues?orHaveyoutriedtolook
atasimplerproblem?Theseresponsesdeflectauthoritybackontothediscipline,thecollective
standardsandpracticesofthemathematicalcommunitywhichSchoenfeld(1994)describesasa
crucialcomponentofthedisciplineitself.

AndrewPickering(1995),asociologistofknowledge,studiedmathematiciansinvolved
insignificantadvancesofmathematicalknowledge.Basedonhisobservationsheproposedthat
mathematicaladvancesrequiredadanceofagencywheremathematiciansuseanapproach
whichbalancestheirownthoughtsandideaswiththecollectiveunderstandingandstandardsof
thediscipline.CarmelSchettino,aresearcherandteacherofproblemsbasedmathematics,
summarizedthisdancewhereastudentisconfused,frustratedandstuckandcomestotheteacher
forhelp.Theteacherdoesnotmovetheproblemforwardwithinformationbutprovidesherwith
support,encouragement,andadvicetofollowherinstincts.Thestudentmustacceptagency
becausetheteacherhasnotprovidedherwithanyinformationpertinenttotheproblem.Oftenat
thispointthestudentfeelslikeshedoesnthavetheauthoritytobetheagentofherownlearning,
sosheseekshelpfromotherresources.Whatareheroptions?Shecantrytheproblemsolving
strategiesthathavehelpedsolvecomplexproblemsbefore,shecanconsultwithfellow
classmatesforideas,shecanconsiderherownhistoryofsolvingsimilarproblemsinthepast,
shecanconsulttheinternet,shecanreferencethetext.Alltheseactionsrepresentheragencyand
arebothacriticalpartofthedanceofagencyandsolvingtheproblem(Schettino,2013).
Schettinosdiagrambelowcapturesherunderstandingofthedance.
Asteachers,wemusthelpstudentsunderstandthevalueofdoingmathematics
(strugglingwiththequestions,discoveringthetruths),andalsohelpthemseethepotential
detrimentofteachers(oracleauthority)orotherstudents(adhocauthority)givingthemthe
answer.ByanswerImeanafinalresponse,oranythingthatabruptlyendsthethinkingprocess
ratherthanfurtheringit.Wemustvaluethedanceandgetourstudentstovalueitaswell.

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Ifwearetryingtocreatelearningenvironmentthatdevelopsamathematicalcommunity
whereknowledgeisconstructedandwhereideasareanalyzed,thenweneedtofoster
environmentswherestudentsareempoweredtodeterminethevalidityoftheirownideas.
Teachersandstudentsplayaroleinfosteringanenvironmentwhereauthorityissharedand
studentsfeelempoweredtoact.ButasJohnsonandJohnson(1989)suggest,Simplyplacing
studentsingroupsandtellingthemtoworktogetherdoesnotpromotegreaterunderstandingof
mathematicalprinciplesortheabilitytocommunicatemathematicalreasoningtoothers.Group
effortscangowronginmanyways(ascitedinAmit,Friedp161).Isummarizedfromthe
researchofothers,thatthereisstillmuchwecandotoimprovethepracticeandtheartof
teachinginthisway.
AlternativeViews

Isthedefinitionofmathematicsindispute?Isthedefinitionofwhatitmeanstodo

mathematicsindispute?Thereisstillatendencyamongstmanyparents,teachersand
mathematicians,toviewthevalueofmathprimarilythroughthealgorithmsandprocedures
createdbymathematicianstosimplifycomplexcomputations.Ina2013NewYorkTimesOpEd
article,AliceCrary,anassociateprofessorofphilosophyattheNewSchoolforSocialResearch
andStephenWilson,aprofessorofmathematicsandeducationatJohnsHopkinsUniversity,
describethemajorcontributionsofmathematicsinthisway:Attheheartofthedisciplineof
mathematicsisasetofthemostefficientandmostelegantandpowerfulalgorithmsfor
specificoperations.Themostefficientalgorithmforaddition,forinstance,involvesstacking
numberstobeaddedwiththeirplacevaluesaligned,successivelyaddingsingledigitsbeginning
withtheonesplacecolumn,andcarryinganyextraplacevaluesleftward(Crary&Wilson,

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np).Theauthorsgoontoarguethatthemasteryofthesealgorithmsshouldbetheprimarygoal
ofaK12mathematicseducation.Thisviewofmathematicsfocusesonalgorithmsandtheir
practicalapplications:mathiswhatweusetobalanceourcheckbooks,tocalculatetipsat
restaurants,toassessandunderstandour401Ks.Theapproachiseasytoassessonstandardized
tests,anditiseasiertoteachteachershowtoteach.
Inmyownpractice,whenIhavechosentofocusonteachingthisway,therearesome
studentswhopickuptheseproceduresquicklyandotherswhoneverseemtomemorizeor
masterthematall.Thisistruewithothermathteachersinmyownorganizationwhooften
expressfrustrationwhentheyhavetheseproceduresexplicitlywrittenontheboardoronposters
andstudentsstillseemtostruggletounderstandthecontent.Thisapproachtoteaching
mathematicsissimilartothegoalsofamilitarybootcamp.Studentsaretrainedtobefamiliar
withaprocessuntiltheycandoitautomatically,withoutthinking.
Thefocusisnotoncreativity,choiceorexploration.Instead,thesetraditionalpedagogies
rewardcompliance,obedienceandrepetition.Thelearningisnarrowandritualistic(Boaler,
Greeno2004).Oftenextrinsicrewardsaregiventostudentsforsubmittingandengaginginwhat
isseenasanecessary,butdrearyprocess.Inthesetraditionalclassroomsmathematicalidentityis
characterizedbyalossofagency,decreasedopportunityforchoice,andaneedforobedience
andcompliance.
Theimplicationsofastrongfoundationinmathematicsextendsbeyondtheclassroom.
Mathematicsisapowerfulvehicleforsocialaccessandsocialmobility(Shoenfeld,2004,p.3).
RobertMoses,acivilrightsleaderdescribedaccesstomathematicsasthemosturgentsocial
issueaffectingpoorpeopleandpeopleofcoloriseconomicaccess.Ibelievethattheabsence

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ofmathliteracyinurbanandruralcommunitiesthroughoutthiscountryisanissueasurgentas
thelackofregisteredBlackvotersinMississippiwasin1961.(ascitedinShoenfeld,2004).
Thetraditionalapproachtoteachingmathatleastpartlyassumesthatthisisthebestwecando
forthisgrouporthatgroup.Itisasortofmisplacedpragmatismbuildonunspokenideasabout
intellectualpotentialoflessadvantagedstudents.Andwhentheresultsoftheapproachare
subpar,theyareusedtofurtherjustifythemethodseetheycan'tevendothis!
Butaprogressiveapproachtoteachingmaththathonorstheagencyofthestudentand
considerstheirauthorityasakeyingredientofthatagency,isnotalimitingapproach.Itisnot
truetosaythatastudentwhohasnotmemorizedanalgorithmandapplieditin15differentways
cannotdomathjustasitisnottruetosaythatastudentwhocannotpointout15principlesofart
anddesigninamastersworkcannotcreateart.Memorizingtheworksofgreatmathematiciansis
notdoingnecessarilydoingmathinthesamewaythatmemorizingimportantelementoffamous
worksofartisnotmakingart.Recognizingthebeautyandcreativitythatisaninherentpartof
doingmathisnotanimpracticaltakeonteaching,itprovidesstudentswithamotivationtodoit.

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SettingDescription
Location
HighTechMiddleChulaVistawasestablishedin2011.Locatedontheedgeofavast
andundevelopedcanyon,withrattlesnakesandcoyotesarefoundinabundance,theschoolsitsat
oneofthesouthernmostpointsofSouthernCalifornia.Thenorthendoftheschoolissurrounded
bythefamiliarmarkingsofsuburbanSouthernCalifornia.Thereisamalldownthestreetanda
housingdevelopmentsitsdirectlyacrossfromtheentrance..
Thebuildingistwostoriesandhousesbothamiddleandelementaryschool.Thetwo
schoolsshareacommonentrance.Hallwaysserveasgalleriesofstudentwork.Theclassroom
wallsfacingthehallwaysaremadeofglass.Theyprovideasenseofopennessandencourage
workthatisworthseeingaswellasdoing.
Demographics
Ourstudentbodyisadmittedbylottery.Thissystemallocatesanumberofspotsforeach
zipcodebasedonitsmiddleschoolagedpopulationcomparedtothecorrespondingpopulation
ofthecommunity.Inthiswayourstudentpopulationcloselymirrorsthepopulationofthe
surroundingcommunities.Fortytwopercentofourstudentsareeligibleforfreeorreduced
lunch.Theethnicityofourstudentbodyisshowninthefollowingchart.

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Foundations
Thethreeschoolsonourcampusshareacommonsetofguidingprinciplesthatdriveour
work.TheseprinciplesaresharedbyalloftheHighTechschools.Theideasarenotstatic,but
ratherinterpretedandmanifestedindifferentwaysacrossclassroomsandschools.Despitethe
variation,theyremainthefoundationofoursharedvisionandformthebasisofourcommon
language.
TheHTHprinciplesofdesignarepersonalization,adultworldconnection,common
intellectualmissionandteacherasdesigner.Theideasareinfusedintoallaspectsofour
educationalapproachatthemiddleschool.Theseprinciplesofdesignhighlightthreekey
integrations,whicharethesignatureofaHighTechschool:

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Personalizationandcommonintellectualmission.
Personalizationismanifestedinour
schoolsprojectbased,fullinclusionanduntrackedmodelofeducation.Projectsallowstudentsa
widevarietyofchoiceintheirlearningallowingthemtotakeonrolesthatplaytotheirnatural
strengthsaswellexploreareaswheretheyarehopingtoimprove.Typicallystudentshavea
significantroleinchoosingprojectsandasaresultarehighlyinvestedintheprocessandproduct
oftheproject.Wedonottrackourstudents.Thiscreatescomplicationsandstruggles,demands
andcompromise,andis(alongwithourmodeloffullinclusion)oneofthebestthingswedo.A
fullinclusionmodelisexactlythat.Wedonothaveseparateclassroomsforstudentswithspecial
needs.Wedonotseparatechildren.Inadditiontoafullyinclusiveandintegratedclassroom,in
ourschoolwehavebeguntolookatwaysofhandlingtraditionaldisciplineissuesinwaysthat
focuslessonremovingstudentsfromclassrooms(suspensions,inschoolsuspensionsand
expulsions)andmoreonmakingthecommunitywholeafterdisruptionoccur.
Adultworldconnection.
Throughprojectworkweconnecttheclassroomwiththeadult
worldworld.Theconnectionstakemanyformsbutcommonimplementationsincludeteachers
andstudentsconsultingexpertsduringthedesignphaseofaproject,invitingguestspeakersand
expertsfromthecommunitytoassistonprojectsanddesigningproductsthatbenefitorreflect
thecommunity.

Wealsoholdmanypublicexhibitionsofourstudentswork.Thesesexhibitions
offerstudentsawideraudiencefortheirwork.
Teacherasdesigner.
Teacherswithinmyschoolaregivenahighdegreeoffreedomto
designandimplementprojects.Teacherscollaboratewithstudentstodesignexhibitionsofwork,
presentationsoflearningsandclassroomnormsandculture.Teachersareencouragedto
collaborateacrossdisciplines.Theschedulesupportsteamteaching.

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Mathematics
FormanyyearsMathandScienceatHighTechSchoolweretaughtbythesameteacher.
Integratingmathandsciencetogetherwaspartoftherationaleofthisapproach.Becauseofthe
complicationswiththisapproachandasensethatmathstudyneededmorespecificattention,
somehighschoolsnolongerexplicitlyintegratethetwo.
Thisisnotthecaseatthemiddleschools.Mathscienceistypicallyhowstudents,
teachersandparentsspeakabouttheintegratedtwo.Acompleteintegrationofthetwohasnever
beenachievedbyanymiddleschoolteacherthatIamawareof.Imnotsurethatisthegoalnor
amIsurewhatthatwouldlooklike.Formostifnotallintegratedmathscienceteachersthough,
thismeansthatthereareessentiallytwoparallelprocessesgoingoninourclassrooms.Thereis
projecttimeandthereismathtime.Thisdoesnotmeanthatmathisnotintegratedintoprojects
orthattherearenotmathprojects,butthereismathworkthatoccursoutsideofprojectwork
onaregularbasis.
Nooneatmyschoolusesasingletexttoteachmath.Thereareavarietyofreasonsfor
this,butonecomplicationofthisisthatteachersdonothavereadyaccesstoteachingresources.
Thereareseveralteacherswhouseanapproachtoteachingmathbasedonthephilosophiesand
structuresofajudodojo.Teacherswhousethisapproachdohaveregularcurricularresourcesto
drawfrom,theprogramdoesnotuseatextbutdoesuseaseriesofpacketsassociatedwith
differentcontentandachievementlevels.

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Thereisalsoasenseamongstthemiddleschoolmathteachersacrossourorganization
thatIhavespokenwiththatitisessentiallyimpossibletorunaprojectbasedscienceandmath
classandaseparatemathclassatthesametimeanddobothofthemwell.Imnotsurehow
accuratethesentimentis.Iamsurethatatmanyschoolsteachersfeelliketheyaremissingthe
markonwhattheyhopetoachieveintheirclassroomsandthatcompromiseandacceptinglimits
ispartoftheprocess.However,muchofwhatisdoneinmathclassroomisoftennotwhatis
seenatexhibition.Thebeautyoftheworkisnotalwayseasilyaccessible,andasanorganization
wearestillstrivingforalternativewaystodefineandexhibittheaestheticofdeepmathematical
thinking.
IhaveusedtheJudoMathprogram,Aleks,KhanAcademy,STmath,allofwhichhave
comeinandoutoffavorwithintheHighTechcommunityaswecontinuetodefineandrefine
whatwewantoutofmathematicsclassrooms.Throughoutmysevenyearsofteaching8thgrade
atHighTechIhavecontinuedtoseekwaystoteachmathinwaysthatstressproblemsolving,
deemphasizealgorithmicthinking(whileatthesametimerecognizetheimportanceofbeing
fluentwithcertainprocedures),focusonmathforitsownsake,instillajoyofmathematicsin
studentsbygettingthemtoviewmathasacollaborativeactivityandusingwellestablished
intellectualtoolsofthedisciplinetoinvestigateandplaywithpatterns.IdonotfeelthatIhave
evertaughtinawaythatfullyrealizestheidealandvisionthatIhopetoachievebutIhave
moments.Additionally,Iseeimprovementfromyeartoyear,bothintheabilityofmystudents
toproblemsolveandintheirdispositionsregardingmathematics.
th
Iteach8
gradeintegratedmathandsciencetoateamof52studentsbrokeninto2

classesof26.Isharethese52studentswithahumanitiesteacher.Ispendabout2hourswith

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eachgrouponmostdays.ThisyearmymathclassbeganwithJoBoaler'sweekofmath.A
programdesignedtohelpstudentsimprovetheirdispositionsaroundmath,theirabilitytobe
successfulinmathandtheirsenseofwhatmathisandwhatskillsarenecessarytobegoodatit.

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Methods

ImprovementScience
MyresearchtookplacewithintheframeworkofImprovementScience.InLearningto
improve:howAmerica'sschoolscangetbetteratgettingbetter,authorsBryk,Gomez,Grunow,
andLeMahieu,describeImprovementScienceasanapproachtoproductivechangewithin
organizationswhichfocusesonasystematicapproachtodefininggoals,relateddriversand
changeideasthatcouldpotentiallyaffectoutcomesGoalsarestatedasAIMstatements,meaning
theyarespecificstatementsthatexpressameasurableoutcomethatyouarehopingtoachieve.
Driversarefactorswhichmightimpactyourfinalgoal.Changeideasarespecificactionsthat
mightimpactthedriversandpotentiallygetyouclosertoyourgoal.Theprocessplacesaheavy
emphasisonthemeasurabilityofprogresstowardyourgoals,andlearningabouttheimpactof
changeideasthroughaniterativeprocessoftryingideasoutandmeasuringtheirresults.This
processoftryingoutchangeideasandcollectingdataontheresultsiscalledaPDSA(Plan,Do,
Study,Act)cycles(Bryk,Gomez,Grunow,LeMahieu,2015.).

MyAIM/ResearchQuestion
Whatteachingpracticeswillincreaseagencyandauthorityofstudentsinmy8thgrade
mathclassroom?
WhatIDidandWhatIMeasured
Majorphases.
Myresearcharoundagencyandauthorityinthemathematicsclassroom
tookplaceover4majorphases.EachphasebuiltonthelastandeachhadelementsthatI
suspectedmightresultinproductivechangesinagencyandauthority.Asdescribedinmy

20

LiteratureReviewandSettingDescription,Iteachwithaproblembasedapproachandeach
majorphaserepresentsaslightlydifferenttakeonthisapproach.Themajorphasesare
summarizedas:
1. Theculturebuildingphase
2. Introducingpatterns
3. Collaborativeproblemsolving
4. Theproblembased,projectbasedhybrid
Salientpractices.
AlongwiththemajorphasesIalsotriedtoidentifypracticesacrossall
phasesthatimpactedstudentagencyandauthority,suchus:
Honoringtheideathatstruggleisakeyelementofdoingmath.Ididthisbygivingthe
problemsthatrequiredstruggleandthatdidnothaveasingleanswer.
Usingcollaborativeteamstoattackproblems
Answeringstudentquestionsinwaysthatareproductive,thatsuggestdirectionstogoin
butdonotgiveawaytheanswer,thatimplicitlyhonortheirabilitytodothemaththe
danceofagencyandauthority
DataCollection
Iusedavarietyofdatacollectionmethodstoassesshowthemajorphasesandsalient
practicesimpactedagencyandauthority.
TheCarnegieStudentAgencySurvey.
OnesurveyIamusingwasdesignedbyThe
CarnegieStudentAgencyImprovementCommunity(SAIC).Theyareanetworked
improvementcommunitywhichstrivestoimprovestudentssuccessinpersistingthrough

21

difficultchallenges(StudentAgencyImprovementCommunity)1.Thesurveymeasures
indicatorsofacademicagencyincluding:academicconfidence,meaningfulnessorvalueofwork
studentsareaskedtodo,belongingness,andgrowthmindset.
StudentInterviews.
AfterreviewingSAICSurveyresultsIchoosefourstudentsto
interview.Ichoosestudentswhorepresentedarangeofexperienceswithmath.Onestudent
(Raymond)hadpositiveexperiencewithmathinthepastanddidnotseeminitiallyenthusiastic
aboutourapproachtolearningmath.Anotherstudent(Byron)hadstrongpastexperienceswith
mathanddidseementhusiasticaboutourapproachtolearningmath.Twostudentshaddiscussed
negativeexperienceswithmathinthepastanddidnotseethemselvesasmathpeople.One
(Tiffany)wasinitiallyexcitedaboutthenewapproachandtheother(Alicia)expressed
ambivalenceinitially.Irecordedtheseinterviewsandtranscribedtouseinmyfindings.Ibroke
statementthatintervieweesmadeintocategoriesandthemesandthesethemesbecamethemajor
areaofmyfindings.
StudentObservations.
ThroughouttheresearchperiodIkeptnotesofchangeideasI
triedintheclassroomandstudentsreactionstothem.Iorganizedthesechangeideasintoones
thatfitwiththethemesthatcameoutofthestudentinterviewstohelpdescribethethemesandto
provideadditionaldatapointsforaparticularthemeoridea.

CarnegieStudentAgencyImprovmentCommunityWebsite:
http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/inaction/studentagencyimprovementcommunity/

22

FindingsFromTheSAICSurvey
TolookforchangesinstudentagencyandauthorityovertheyearIusedtheSAICsurvey
amongothermethodsofdatacollection.ThistoolwasdevelopedbytheCarnegieInstituteto
measurechangesinareasassociatedwithstudentagency.Studentstookthesurveyinthesecond
weekofschoolandthenagaininFebruary.TheSAICsurveyfocusedon4indicatorsofstudent
agency:value,belongingness,mindsetandlearningstrategies.Theresultsfrommyclassroom
showthemostsignificantchangesinareasofbelongingnessandmindset.Thestudywasgiven
tomultipleHighTechHighclassrooms,acrossallofthehightechhighschoolsapproximately
550studentsand20classroomsparticipatedinthestudy.Theinclusionofmultipleclassrooms
allowsustocomparetheresultsfrommystudentstoresultsofstudentscampuswide.
GrowthMindsetandBelongingness
ThequestionsonthesurveyrelatedtoMindsetwere:1.Beingamathpersonornotis
somethingaboutyouthatyoureallycantchange.Somepeoplearegoodatmathandother
peoplearent.2.Whenyouhavetotryreallyhardinmath,itmeansyoucantbegoodatmath.
Beingamathpersonornotissomethingaboutyouthatyoureallycantchange.Some
peoplearegoodatmathandotherpeoplearent.
Atthebeginningoftheyearoverhalfofmytwoclassesbelieved,tosomeextent,that
onesabilitytodomathwasfixedyouwereeithergoodatitorwerenot.Whensurveyedagain
inFebruary,asignificantnumberofstudentsseemedtohavechangedtheirminds65%of
studentsnowdTiffanygreedwiththeideathatonesabilityinmathwasfixed.18%ofmyclass
changedtheirmind(seeFigure1.)FromtheseresultsIcaninferthatbetweenFebruaryand
Augustasignificantshiftinstudentsthinkingaboutwhatitmeanstobegoodatmathoccured.

23

Figure1.Beingamathpersonornotisnotsomethingaboutyouthatyoucanchange.
StackedResults.

Figure1.StackedbargraphofmystudentsresponsetotheSAICsurveyquestionBeingamath
personornotisnotsomethingaboutyouthatyoucanchange.Somepeoplearegoodatmath
andotherpeoplearent.Thegraphontheleftshowstheresultsfromthefirsttimestudents
tookthesurveyinAugustof2015andthegraphontherightshowstheresultsfromthetime
studentstookthesurveyinFebruaryof2016.

Bycomparingtheresultsfrommyclassroomagainstotherparticipatinghightechhigh
classroomsitappearsthatthistypeofmindsetshift,whilepresentinmanyclassroomswasseen
occurredinasubstantiallyhigherbystudentsinmyclassroom.18%ofmystudentssawthis
kindofmindsetchangecomparedto12%ofallparticipatingHighTechHighclassrooms(see
figure2.
)

24

Figure2.Beingamathpersonornotisnotsomethingaboutyouthatyoucanchange.
PositiveResponseResults.

Figure2.SAICSurveyQuestionResults.ComparisonofAllPositiveResponsesAcrossAll
ParticipatingHighTechHighSchoolsQuestion:Beingamathpersonornotisnot
somethingaboutyouthatyoucanchange.Somepeoplearegoodatmathandotherpeople
arent.Graphhighlightsdifferencesinpositiveresponsesovertimebetweenhowmystudents
andhowgenerallystudentsrespondedtothesamequestion.

25

Whenyouhavetotryreallyhardinmath,itmeansyoucantbegoodatmath.
Atthebeginningoftheyear25%ofmystudentsfeltthatifyouhadtotryreallyhardat
maththatitmeantthatyoucouldntbegoodatmath(seefigure3.)Bythetimewetookthe
surveyagaininFebruaryjustoverhalfofthosestudentschangedtheirminds.Only12%of
studentsindicatedthatstrugglingwithmathmeantthatyoucouldnotbegoodatit
Figure3.Whenyouhavetotryreallyhardinmath,itmeansyoucantbegoodatmath.
StackedResults.

Figure3.StackedbargraphofmystudentsresponsetotheSAICsurveyquestionWhenyou
havetotryreallyhardinmath,itmeansyoucantbegoodatmath.Thegraphontheleft
showstheresultsfromthefirsttimestudentstookthesurveyinAugustof2015andthegraphon
therightshowstheresultsfromthetimestudentstookthesurveyinFebruaryof2016.

26

This12%changeismoresignificantwhenyoucompareittothegeneraltrendin
responsestothisquestionovertimeinalltheschoolsthattookthesurvey(seefigure4.)Overall
participatingschools,thenumberofstudentswhoagreedthatifyouhavetotryhardinmathit
meansthatyoucantbegoodatactually
increased
ratherthandecreased

Figure4.Whenyouhavetotryreallyhardinmath,itmeansyoucantbegoodatmath.
PositiveResponseResults.

Figure4.SAICSurveyQuestionResults.ComparisonofAllPositiveResponsesAcrossAll
ParticipatingHighTechHighSchoolsQuestion:Whenyouhavetotryreallyhardinmath,it
meansyoucantbegoodatmath.Graphhighlightsdifferencesinpositiveresponsesovertime
betweenhowmystudentsandhowgenerallystudentsrespondedtothesamequestion.

Comparingtheseresultsacrossallparticipatingschools,itseemsthattheseresultsare
significant.Lookingattheresultsfromallschoolsasawholeshowsthatbytheendoftheyear

27

slightlymorestudentsassociatedstrugglewithalackofabilityinmath,whereasthemajorityof
mystudentsactuallydTiffanygreedwiththisnotion.FromthisIcaninferthatmostofmy
studentsbegantoseeeffortorstruggleaspartoftheprocess,insteadofanegativereflectionon
theirownabilities.
Howconfidentareyouthatyoucanbesuccessfulinyourmathclass?
Inresponsetothisquestiontherewasanincreaseinthenumberofstudentswhofeltat
leastsomewhatconfidentthattheycouldbesuccessfulintheirmathclass(seefigure5.
)
Atthe
beginningoftheyearapproximately10%ofmystudentsfeltliketheywerenotconfidentoronly
slightlyconfidentthattheycoulddowellintheirmathclass.ByFebruary,therewerenostudents
whoreportedfeelingnotconfidentandthenumberwhofeltonlyslightlyconfident
decreasedbyclosetohalf.Idarguethatthestudentswithlittletonoconfidencearethemostat
riskinthiscategory,tocomeintoaclassroomandbelievethatyouhavelittletonochanceof
successisarguablyselffulfilling,infact,PERTS,StanfordUniversity'scenteronlearning
mindsetsreportsthatthereisagrowingbodyofresearchthatsuggeststhatthesenegative
mindsetscanbeselffulfillingpropheciesthatundercutacademicsuccess(PERTS,n.p.).
Figure5.Howconfidentareyouthatyoucanbesuccessfulinyourmathclass?
StackedResults.

28

Figure5.StackedbargraphofmystudentsresponsetotheSAICsurveyquestionHow
confidentareyouthatyoucanbesuccessfulinyourmathclass?Thegraphontheleftshows
theresultsfromthefirsttimestudentstookthesurveyinAugustof2015andthegraphonthe
rightshowstheresultsfromthetimestudentstookthesurveyinFebruaryof2016.

Whileitsown,a7%improvementinpositiveresponsetothisquestionsitisnotahuge
increaseitisstillsignificantwhencomparedtogainsacrossallschoolsparticipatinginthe
survey.Acrossallschoolstheincreaseinpositiveresponsestothisquestionhoveredwasabout
1%(seefigure6.)
29

Figure6.Howconfidentareyouthatyoucanbesuccessfulinyourmathclass?
PositiveResponseResults.

Figure6.SAICSurveyQuestionResults.ComparisonofAllPositiveResponsesAcrossAll
ParticipatingHighTechHighSchoolsQuestion:Howconfidentareyouthatyoucanbe
successfulinyourmathclass?Graphhighlightsdifferencesinpositiveresponsesovertime
betweenhowmystudentsandhowgenerallystudentsrespondedtothesamequestion.

Belongingness
ThequestionrelatedtoBelongingnessthatreturnedinterestingresultswas:How
comfortableareyouaskingyourteacheraquestionwhenyou'reconfusedinmathclass?
Howcomfortableareyouaskingyourteacheraquestionwhenyou'reconfusedinmathclass?
Whileincreaseinpositiveresponsestothisquestionwasabout7%,therewasa20%
increaseinthenumberofstudentswhoreportedthattheywereverycomfortableaskinga
questionwhentheywereconfusedinclass.(SeeFigures7and8.)Lookingatthestudentsacross
30

allparticipatingschoolsthepercentageofstudentswhofeltverycomfortablestayedalmost
unchangedfromAugusttoFebruary(Seetable1.)Icaninferfromthisthatduringthistime
periodsomethingsignificantoccurredtoincreasethecomfortlevelofafull20%ofstudentsin
myclassroom,andthatthechangewasnotseenatthislevelacrossallparticipatingclassrooms.
Figure7.Howcomfortableareyouaskingyourteacheraquestionwhenyou'reconfused
inmathclass?StackedResults.

Figure7.StackedbargraphofmystudentsresponsetotheSAICsurveyquestionHow
comfortableareyouaskingyourteacheraquestionwhenyou'reconfusedinmathclass?The
graphontheleftshowstheresultsfromthefirsttimestudentstookthesurveyinAugustof2015
andthegraphontherightshowstheresultsfromthetimestudentstookthesurveyinFebruary
of2016.

31

Table1:ChangesinpercentageofresponsesfortheQuestion:
Howcomfortableareyou
askingyourteacheraquestionwhenyou'reconfusedinmathclass?
Howcomfortableareyouaskingyourteacheraquestionwhenyou'reconfusedinmathclass?

MyClassroom

AllParticipatingClassrooms

VeryComfortable

+20%

+1%

SlightlyComfortable

16%

0%

NeitherComfortableor
Uncomfortable

0%

0%

SlightlyUncomfortable

9%

2%

VeryUncomfortable

5%

1%

32

Figure8.Howcomfortableareyouaskingyourteacheraquestionwhenyou'reconfused
inmathclass?PositiveResponseResults.

Figure8.SAICSurveyQuestionResults.ComparisonofAllPositiveResponsesAcrossAll
ParticipatingHighTechHighSchoolsQuestion:Howcomfortableareyouaskingyour
teacheraquestionwhenyou'reconfusedinmathclass?Graphhighlightsdifferencesin
positiveresponsesovertimebetweenhowmystudentsandhowgenerallystudentsrespondedto
thesamequestion.

33

LookingforExplanations
TherearefivethemesandrelatedactivitiesorideasthatIwillexaminetoaccountforthe
changesseenintheSAICsurvey:buildingaculturethatcelebratespatternseeking,reframing
andcelebratingstruggle,beingauthenticallyunhelpful,usingacollaborativeworkprotocol,and
addressingstatusissues.
BuildingaCulturethatCelebratesthePatternSeeking
AtthebeginningoftheyearIbeganbuildingculturebydoingtheWeekofInspirational
Math(WeekofInspirationalMath,n.d.)aseriesoflessonsandshortactivitiesputtogetherby
JoBoalertohelpstudentsframetheirthinkingaboutwhatmathisandwhatitmeanstobegood
atmath.Wedidtheactivities,talkedaboutthem,journaledaboutthemandlookedatproblems
thatemphasizedtheideas.Theactivitiesencouragestudentstothinkofmathasabroadareaof
studythatrequirescreativethought,andthatcanbeenhancedbyusingdifferentpartsofthe
brain.Theyemphasizethatspeedisnotacrucialcomponentofgreatmaththinkers,andoffer
problemswithlotsofsolutions,withlowfloorsandhighceilings.
Foroneoftheproblems,webrokeupintogroupsandexaminedwhichnumbersbetween
1and100couldbeexpressedasconsecutiveintegersums.Welookedforpatterns:couldall
numbersbeexpressedthisway,orjustsome?Itwasauniqueopportunityforcollaboration
becauseoncestudentswereclearaboutwhatwemeantbyaconsecutiveintegerssumthenthey
coulddistributethenumbersbetweengroupmembersandstartlookingforpatterns.Ihadnt
donetheproblemeither,whichwasanimportantelementIwilldiscusslater.Iwasequally
intriguedandchallengedbytheproblem.Afterdiscoveringthatthenumbers2and4were

34

consecutiveintegersumsstudentsstartedtogetexcited.Onestudentcouldnotlimitherselfto
hergroupsconversationandapproachedmewithsomethoughts:
Tiffany:Mr.Harms,Ivegotit,itsallthetwos!
Me:Tellmemore,whatdoyoumeanbyallthetwos?
Tiffany:Well2,4,6,810.
Me:Howisthatallthetwos?
Tiffany:Well,like2,4,6,8.
Me:Lookingconfused.
Tiffany:Paulettetellhim!
Paulette:Liketwoplustwoisfourplustwoissixplustwoiseight.
Tiffany:Yeahor,2times1,2times2,3times3.
Byron:ButIcanmake6:!3+2+1is6soitdoesntwork.
Andthepatternsearchingcontinued.Twoandfourcouldnotbemade,sixcould,eight
couldnot,buttencould.Thenextmultipleoftwothatcouldnotbemadewassixteen.Eventually
wesawthatitwasnotallthemultiplesoftwothatcouldbemadebutallthepowersof2.We
talkedaboutwhatexponentswereandwhatitmeanttosaythatit
looked
likewecouldntmake
anyofthepowersoftwowithconsecutiveintegers.
Howcome?Andwasittruepast100?Howmanynumberswouldwehavetolookat
beforewewereconvincedthatitwasanypowerof2?Howcouldwereallysaywehadproved
it?Thereweresomanyquestionstoexplore.
Atonepoint,IvanrememberedaproblemthathadsomethingtodowithGaussand
addingconsecutiveintegersbetween1to100.Hebroughtitupandseveralotherstudents

35

rememberedittoo.Whatwasit?Howdidwedoit?WeallworkedonitandIvanshowedaway
tovisualizeit.Astheteacher,itwasexcitingformetolookaroundtheroomandseestudents
withsmilingfaces.Iwonderedaboutageneralsolutionforanyconsecutivesum,notnecessarily
startingat0.ThatnightIwenthomeandworkedonitwhenIshouldhavebeendoingother
work.ThenextnightIworkedonaprooffortheideathatnopoweroftwocouldbeexpressedas
aconsecutiveintegersum.Ispentalongnightatacoffeeshopthinkingabouttheproblem.I
workedwithaspreadsheetofnumberstofindpatternsandIgotinaconversationwithanother
curiouscoffeedrinkerwhohappenedtobeaneconomicsprofessor.Hegotexcitedbyit.
Itoldmystudentsaboutthepreviousnight,showedthespreadsheetandthework,
explainedhowIshouldhavebeendoingotherwork.Iwantedthemtofeelhowmathcouldbe
likeanescape,somethingrebelliousorjustfun.Iwantedthemtoknowthatmathcouldbelike
videogamesoranythingelsethatpullsyouinandwontletyougo.ItoldthemIwantedtoshare
mysolutionbutIwouldntbecauseIhopedtheywouldfigureitout.Itoldthemthatinorderto
figureitouttheyneededtobeabletotalkaboutnumbersgenerallyratherthanspecifically,
Thatsoneofthethingsthatalgebraletsusdo.Itletsustalkaboutnotjusthowsomething
workswithonenumber,buthowitworkswithallnumbers.
Thesekindsofframingsareimportanttheplannedones,liketheJoBoalerweekof
Math,andtheunplannedones,liketheconsecutiveintegerproblemdiversions.Severalweeks
later,myteachingpartnertoldmeabouthowAlicia(astudentwhohadpreviouslyspokenabout
howmuchshehatedmathandhowboringitwas)hadgottenintoanargumentwithanother
studentaboutme.Shehadsaid,Dude,hesawesome,Imserioushedoesmathinhisfreetime,
likehegoestocoffeeshopsandworksonmathproblems!IlikeitwhenstudentsthinkIm

36

awesome,butespeciallywhentheythinkImawesomebecauseIgohomeandworkonmath
problems.Comingfromastudentwhousedtothinkthatmathsucks,Ithinkthecomment
indicatesapossibleparadigmshift.
ReframingandCelebratingStruggle
MathematiciansStruggle
Whatsthelongestyouhaveeverworkedonaproblem?ThisisthequestionIstarteda
lessonwithearlyintheyear.Everyyearthereisarangeofanswers,typicallybetween2and30
minutes.Thisyearaparticularlyavidmathstudentsaid:Thirtyminutes.Anotherresponded:
Dude,justgiveup!Helaughed,andotherslaughedwithhim.Itsnotmeanspirited,everyone
seemstogetwhatismeantbyit.Ifyouspentthirtyminutesontheproblem,yourekilling
yourself,youdontgetit.Theunderlyingassumptionisthatifyourestruggling,theproblemis
toohardoryourenotgoodenoughyet.
Somestudentshavepositiveassociationswithstruggle,butitisadifferentkindof
struggle.Theytalkaboutpracticeandrepetition.Doitagainandagainuntilyougetit,until
youcandoitwithyoureyesclosed.Thisisastart,aspersistenceissomethingIwanttoinstill
inmystudents,butthatsnotallofit.Iamnottryingtoteachdribblingabasketball,Iamtrying
toexplorethescienceofpatternswiththem.Mathisaboutfiguringthingsoutbecauseyouthink
theycanbefiguredout.Itsnotaboutfiguringthesamethingoutoverandoveragain.Idont
wanttopromisestudentsthatwithtimemathwillgeteasier.Instead,Iwanttopromisethemthat
withtime,itwillgetharder.Thattheywillgettojumpintoharderproblems,deeperpools.Ina
veryrealway,doingmathisalwaysanintellectualstruggle,andifyourenotcuriousaboutthe
question,ifyourewaitingforittogeteasy,itsnotgoingtobemuchfun.

37

So,IbroughtupAndrewWiles.Wewatchedashortvideo(
FermatsLastTheorem,
2011
)thatstartsoffwithablackscreen.Thereisnothingbutthetickingofametronome,much
likethetickingofaclock.Andthenhisvoice,slightlylispy,beginsavoiceover.Thereisa
delicatenessabouthisvoicethatgrabsstudentsimmediately.Theyarelisteningintently,every
eyeisonthescreen:
PerhapsIcanbestdescribemyexperienceofdoingmathematicsintermsofajourney
throughadarkunexploredmansion.Youenterthefirstroomofthemansionandits
completelydark.Youstumblearoundbumpingintothefurniture,butgraduallyyoulearn
whereeachpieceoffurnitureis.Finallyaftersixmonthsorso,youfindthelightswitch,
youturniton,andsuddenlyitsallilluminated.Youcanseeexactlywhereyouwere.
Thenyoumoveintothenextroomandspendanothersixmonthsinthedark.Soeachof
thesebreakthroughs,whilesometimestheyremomentary,sometimesoveraperiodofa
dayortwo,theyaretheculminationofandcouldntexistwithoutthemanymonthsof
stumblingaroundinthedarkthatprecedethem(FermatsLastTheorem,2011).
Hestalkingaboutmathasaprocessofbeingtemporarilyblind,stumblingandbumping
intothings,momentaryclarityandthen,boom,itsdarkagain.Thishappensoverandoveragain.
Thereisnotakidintheroomwhocantrelatetothis.Onekidscallsout,Yeah,Ifeelyou.
Mathisblindnessandbruisesandstumbling.Iwanttostopthevideorightthereandscream,
Butyeahhesamathematician,hesasgoodatthisasitgets,helovesit!ButIrefrainandlet
Andrewdothetalking.
Thereisaframewherethefilmcutstohimsittingatadeskandtheshotsaysitall.Heis
surrounded,nearlyovertaken,bythepilesofpaperaroundhim.Thereisthismassofideas

38

aroundhimthatheisnotquitesurewhattodowith.Heissittinginthemiddleofthemand
speakingtoanintervieweroffcamera.Heistalkingaboutthemomenthesawwithclaritya
problemhehadbeenworkingontheentirethirtyyearsofhiscareer:
...suddenly,totallyunexpectedly,Ihadthisincrediblerevelation.Itwasthemost
importantmomentofmyworkinglife.NothingIeverdoagain...itwassoindescribably
beautiful,itwassosimpleandsoelegant,andIjuststaredindisbelieffortwenty
minutes,thenduringthedayIwalkedroundthedepartment.I'dkeepcomingbacktomy
desktoseeitwasstillthereitwasstillthere.(FermatsLastTheorem,2011)
Andthenhedoesit.Hecries.Heiscompletelyovercome.Heapologizesandcantgoon.This
brilliant,softspokenman,surroundedbypapers,growsoverwhelmedbyemotionwhiletalking
abouttheindescribablebeautyandthesimpleeleganceofmathematics.Iwantstudentstosee
thatthisiswhatmathis,andthisiswhatmathematiciansdo.
Afterthevideowehaveadiscussion.Thefirstquestionis,Whatwastheproblem?The
studentsareeagertoknowbecausetheyfeelthatitmusthavesomehugeimplicationsforthe
world.Iexplainthatitisarelativelysimpleproblem,butthatpeoplehavebeentryingtosolveit
forover400years!ThenDerrickasks,Ifittook400yearsthenhowcoulditbesimple?
Irespond,Itwassimpletounderstand,butnottosolve.Wellnotreallysolve.Hewas
tryingtoprovesomethingthatpeoplealreadybelievedbuthadntbeenabletoprove.Then
Lizziechimedin,Whatdoyoumean?Iftheyalreadyhadtheanswer,thenwhatdidhedo?I
hadtostoptothinkaboutit.Idshownthevideoforafewyearsandtheconversationsalways
wentindifferentdirections.SometimesIshowthetheoremandsometimesIdont.Idecidedto
showittothem,butitsadelicatething.Theyareallcuriousrightnowandtheyallwantto

39

understandwhatthisguyiscryingabout.Howcouldhehavespentanentirelifetimefiguring
somethingoutthateveryonealreadyknew?ButwhenIthrowanequationontheboardandI
starttalkingaboutit,Icanlosethem.Icanforgetthedifferencebetweenwhattheyknowand
whatIknow,especiallyatthebeginningoftheyearwhenIhaven'tbeenaround8thgrademinds
allsummer.
Illputitupontheboard,itlooksalotlikethepythagoreantheorem.Someofyoumight
haveheardofthat,right?Triangles,legs,hypotenuse,asquaredbsquared.Itdoesntmatterif
youknowit.Ifthislooksforeigntoyoudontstressaboutit.
AndIputitupontheboard:

an
+bn
=cn

Wilesistryingtoshowthatthisisonlytruewhennislessthanorequaltotwo.Idont
knowhowmanypeopleIvelostbynow,soIbackitup.WhatImtryingtosayisthattheidea
wassimple.Justlikeourconsecutiveintegers.Wecouldntmakethepowersof2,butwedidn't
tryallofthem,sowecouldntsayforsureiftherewereanythatwouldntwork.Therestoo
manynumbers.Thatstheproblem,therestoomany.Iwishweonlyhadahundrednumbers.
Student:Metoo.
Me:Butthatswhywehavealgebra,sowecantalkaboutnumbersgenerally.Theres
toomanytotalkaboutallofthem.
Thediscussioncontinued,halfsilly,halfserious.Itriedtomaintainthesenseof
incredulityamongthestudents.Thensomeoneasked,Sohesolveditwithalgebra?I
explained,Well,thatwaspartofit,buthealsoinventedanewmathtosolveit.
Whatdoesthatmean?

40

Imnotsure.Idon'tknowmuchaboutit.
Thenhowdoyouunderstandthesolution?
Idontunderstandthesolution,yet.Maybeyoucanexplainittomesomeday!
Thetakeawaysarethatmathisaboutstrugglingtofindthelight,foreveryone.Thatisthe
essenceofmathematics.Furthermore,doingmathdoesnothavetobeforpracticalreasons.If
youwanttospend400yearsprovingsomethingthateveryonealreadyknowsisprobablytrue,
youshould.Itmaybringyoutotearsandpeoplewillcelebrateyouandbeproudofyouforit.Of
coursemathcanhavepracticalimplicationstoo,butitisnotalwaysnecessary.Also,Iwant
studentstoknowthatarelotsofthingsthatIdontknowaboutmath.Inthisdiscussiontheyget
toseethattherearewholerealmsofmaththatIknownothingabout.
AStudentsReframingofMathandStruggle
AtthebeginningoftheyearIaskedRaymondwhathethoughtoftheclasssofar.Itwasbefore
wehaddonetheWilesactivity.Iwasfeelinginsecureaboutmyapproach.Raymondwasa
studentwhohadalwaysdonewellatmath.Myapproachtoteaching,withmultipletypesof
problems,littleupfrontlecturingandlotsofreflectingandfiguringthingsoutinsmallgroups
wasnewtohim.
Me:Whatdoyouthinkofclasssofar?
Raymond:Itsalright...
Isensedhewashedging.Hehadthoughtsbutwasntsureifheshouldsharethem.
Me:Wellwhatdoyoulikeaboutit?
Raymond:Well
Thatwasntquitewhathewantedtotalkabout.
Me:Orwhatdontyoulike,whatwouldyouchange?
Raymond:Well,Ithinkinagoodmathclasstheteacherintroducesaskill,andthen

41

showsyouhowtouseit.Thestudentspracticeit,andthentheteachergivesthemaquiz
oratesttoseeiftheylearnedit.
ThiswasnotwhatIwasdoingwithourclass.ItriedtoexplaintheapproachIwastaking.
IvaluedwhathewassayingandIagreedthattherewasvalueinthatapproachforsomethings.
However,Ialsoknewthatthiswasntallofmath,itwasntevenmostofit.Ifelthewasthe
kindofstudentwholikedtosaythatmathiseasyforme.Theunspokenpartofthatisbutit
isntformany.Itfeelsgoodtobegoodatsomethingthatothersarent.Itsvalidatingandit
buildsyouridentity.Butsodoesbeingbadatsomethingothersaregoodat.Moreover,allofthis
isoutsidetherealmofwhetheryoulikeit.Beinggoodatsomethingisnotthesamethingas
likingthething.Peoplecompetetoseewhocanholdtheirhandtoahotflameforthelongestbut
notbecausetheylovecandlelight.IwantedRaymondtolovecandlelight.
Afewweeksago,Raymondcalledmeoverafterclass.Hehadbeenkneedeepina
problemwherehehadtobudgetforafamilytravelingalongtheOregonTrail.Hehadtobuy
enoughsuppliessothathisfamilywouldsurvivethejourney.Biscuits,flour,gunpowder,bacon,
beansthesewereitemsonthelistofthingstheycouldchoosefrom.Theyknewhowmanymiles
theyhadtotravel,andtheyhadapricelist.Butthatwasntmuchinformation.Howlongwilla
poundofbaconlast?Raymondthrewhimselfintoit.Itwasntbecausehewouldbethefirstone
donewithit,orbecauseotherswouldaskhimfortherightanswer.Iaskedhimaboutthe
problem:
ThesearethekindofproblemsIloveMr.Harms.
Howcome?
Becausetheressomuchtoit.Becauseitmakesyouthinkandbecauseeverybodycan
getdifferentanswers.Thereareparameters,butyoucanworkwithinthemanddolotsof
differentthings,andstillcomeupwithgoodanswers.
42

IhadseenthisbeforewithRaymondinhisprojectwork.Whenwehadengineeringchallengesin
thehiscreativityreallykickedin:crazyeggdropcontraptions,unusualballoncars.ButIdont
knowwhenhemadethatconnectiontomath.WhenIinterviewedhimaboutstruggleinmath
laterintheyearhetoldmethis:Whenyouarestrugglingwithmath,thatmeansthatyouare
learningsomething.Youarepayingattentionandbeingpushed.Youarentjustlearning
somethingyoualreadyknowandgoingnowhere.
Strugglingwithproblemsissomethingthatmathematiciansdo,andnotjust
strugglingbecausetheydratherbedoingsomethingelseorbecausetherepetitionoftheirwork
becomessotediousthatcontinuetodoitbecomesastruggle.Bystrugglewearetalkingabout
puzzling,figuringoutsomethingthatfeelsinherentlysolvable,digginginandnotgivingup
easily.Thatiswhatismeantwemeanbyreframingandcelebratingstruggle.Asmystudent
TiffanyputitwhenIinterviewedheraboutthevalueofstruggleinmathclass:Idontthink
strugglingisabadthing,itsagoodthing,youarentstrugglingbecauseyouaregivingup,you
arestrugglingbecauseinmaththatiswhatyouaretryingtodo.
BeingUnhelpful,SometimesAuthentically.
Inmyliteraturereview,Iwroteatlengthaboutthedanceofagencyandauthority.One
ofthecriticalmomentsinthisdanceiswhenastudentcomestoateacherwithaquestionaimed
atendingthefrustration,thebumblingaroundinthedark.Theymightbeonthevergeofgiving
up.What,asateachercanyoudowhenastudentwantstheanswer?Youcanseetheirfrustration
anditshardtoresistthetemptationtoofferananswerandrelievethem.IgotanideathatItried
outthisyearfromamathteachernamedJazmineWalker.ShecoinedthetermAuthentic
Unhelpfulnessforatechniqueofdeflectingauthoritybackontothestudentbysimplynot

43

knowingtheanswer,oratleastthefinalanswer.Whenyoudontknowtheansweritseasierto
suggestthewrongplacestolook.Thatshardtodowhenyoualreadyknowtheanswer.When
youknowtheansweritfeelsdisingenuoustosuggestdeadendsthatyouwantstudentstogo
down,justtofigureoutwhytheyaredeadends.Itshardtolookperplexedwhenyourereally
not.Whenstudentsarestucktheyarenotalwayslookingforthefinalanswer.Ultimatelythat
maybewhatweallwant,butthereisareasonwetakethepuzzleapartfirst.Nobodygetsakick
outofotherpeopleputtingtheirpuzzlestogetherforthem.Sure,apiecehereandthere,butstart
doingtoomuchand...wellnogoodcancomefromit.
Butifyoucandeflectauthorityproductively,andprovidegoodplacestolook,oreven
incorrectplacestolook,thenyouhelptoinstillasenseofmeaningfulstruggleanddiscoveryin
thestudents.Moreover,ifyoudontknow,thenyouarereallypartofthecommunity.Youare
doingthethingthatyoulove,andhopefullyitisrubbingoffonthestudentsandfeelsauthentic.
Itriedthisearlyintheyearbyaccidentasdiscussedabove,andIcontinuedtouseit
regularly.Igavemystudentsaproblemrelatedtolinearrelationshipsandestimatesthathad
startedaproductivedebatebetweentwostudents.Imovedintolistenandperhapslingeredtoo
long.
Brianna:Mr.Harms,whosright,SelinaorMe?
Me:Idontknow.
Selina:Youknow,justtellher,Imright.
Me:No.Ireallydont.Ididntevendotheproblem.

44

TheywerebothlookingatmelikeIwasjoking.Theteacherknowstheanswer,the
teacherdoestheproblem.Thisishowstudentsthink.Butagain,Iwasnottryingtocreateaclass
thatisanswerdriven,norwasItryingtosetmyselfupastheauthorityintheclassroom.
Me:Ididnotdotheproblem,andIdontknowtheanswerbecauseIdontwantto
know.Idontwanttoanswerit,Iwantyoutotrytoanswerit.Iwantyoutodoexactly
whatyouredoing.
Brianna:Butwhosright?
Me:Maybeyourebothwrong.
Bothgirls:Mr.Harms!
Itwasanestimationproblem,howmanystepsinathousandmiles,soaskingaboutright
andwrongwasprobablythewrongquestion.Questionsthatseekestimatesdonthaveasingle
rightanswer,theyhavegoodanswersandbetterones,onestimationquestionscanbesubjective
aswell,myjourneyof1,000milesmighthavemorestepsthanyours.Itgivesussomethingto
talkabout,tocomparethinkingandtechniques.Suggestingtheywerebothwronggotthemto
lookattheproblemfromadifferentperspectiveforabit.Theyimmediatelytriedtoshowthat
theywerebothright.Andthatwasagoodstart.
Ibelievebeingunhelpfulandsometimesauthentically,alongwithgivingproblemsthat
sparkcuriosityanddefysimplesolutionswas,somewhatparadoxically,whystudentsfelt
comfortablecomingtomewithquestions.Ididnotendthemysteryforthem.Ididnothaveto
feignignorance.SometimesIreallywasntsure.Wheninterviewingstudentsaboutwhytheyfelt
comfortabletalkingtomeandothersabouttheirapproachesandquestions,Tiffanysaidthis:I
think,whenyoudidthequestionofhowmanypuffballsareinthepanorhowmanybeansarein

45

thejar,youdidn'tevengiveusawaytosolveit.youwerejustlike,heresaproblemandsee
whatyoucandowiththisproblemandweallgottoexperimentwithourownwaysandseewhat
wefoundintheend.
WhenIinterviewedByron,heofferedthefollowing:YougaveusproblemsthatIve
neverseeneverbefore,andkeptinspiringustofindtheanswer,andshowmy
evidence...sometimesIdidnt100%solveit,likethehaybaleproblem...Ienjoyediteventhough
Icouldntalwaysfindthesolution.
Aliciatalkedaboutturningshynessintocuriosity,andhowfeelinglikesheunderstood
moreleadhertoaskmorequestions:Ihadtroublewithmathbeforethisyear,causewejustgot
agiantpackettherewasallthispressure,morelike,youwereonyourown.Beforethisyear,I
wouldkindoffeelshytoaskquestions,becauseIwouldrepetitivelyaskhimthesamequestion,
IwouldfeellikeIwasbuggingtheteacher,butthisyearbecauseIfeltlikeIunderstandmath
more,soIfeelmoreconfidentaskingaquestion.WithyourclassImcurioustoseewhatitis,
Imopenmore,Imnotlike,oh,mathclass!Morelikewondering.
WhenIspeakaboutunhelpfulness,authenticorotherwise,whatImeanisprioritizing
studentsauthorityandagencyaboveafinalsolutionbynotgivingawayafinalanswerIdont
crushtheprocessofdiscoveryIamtryingtogetstudentstovalue.Asateachersometimesnot
havingtheansweroftenmakesiteasiertobevulnerable,toevenmakemistakes.Andeven
whenIhavetheanswersthatsenseofbeingonevoiceamongmanyoftryingratherthananall
knowingoracleissomethingItrytoholdonto.

46

UsingaCollaborativeWorkProtocol
Fora2monthperiodthisyearIusedacollaborativeworkprotocolalongwithasetofproblems
thatweredesignedusingthefollowingparameters:
Requirelittleupfrontlecturingfromme
Havevaryingdegreesofdifficulty
Buildonearlierproblems
Addressmultiplestrandsofmathematicswithinasingleproblemset.
Beworthtalkingabout.
The
protocol
isrelativelysimple.Studentsworkindependentlyonaproblemandeach
beginsacolorposteronan11x17paper..Thepresentationcanbeanythingtheywant,butit
shouldbesomething,questionsarefine,solutionsarefine,partialsolutionsarefine.Afterabout
fifteenminutesstudentsworkwithasmallgroupofstudentswhohaveallselectedthesame
problem.Andtheytalk.
IusedseveralImprovementChangeideastorefinethispartoftheprotocol.Itriedroles
fortheconversation.Itriedgiving
graphicorganizers
toguidetheconversation.Sometimesthe
organizersworked,sometimestheydidnt.Isuggestedthatstudentschooseproblemsthatwere
challengingtothem.Studentsreportedthatencouragingthemtodothathelped,seefigure9.

47

Figure9:Resultofencouragingstudentstochoosemorechallengingproblemswhileworkingin
collaborativegroups.

ButIalsofeltthatsometimestalkingaboutandpresentingsolutionswaschallengingenoughfor
somestudentssowhileIwantedtopressstudentstochoosechallengingproblemsIalsowanted
themtochooseproblemsthattheyfeltcomfortabledebatingandpresentingon.
Inthesesmallgroupstheywereaskedtosharetheirworkwitheachother,tolookatthe
questionsthatpeoplehad,andtoaddressthevalidityofeachother'swork.Iaskedthemtocreate
ashortpresentationofwhattheytalkedaboutandtoexplainwhattheylearnedtotheentireclass.
Thiswasthethirdpartoftheprotocol.Thepresentation.Studentswenttothefrontoftheroom
andtalkedtotheclassabouttheproblem.Otherstudentsaskedquestions.Itriednottopipein,it
washardnotto.Iwouldtrynottolookupatthepresenterssotheywouldntlookatme.Isatat
thebackoftheroomsoIwouldbelessobtrusive.ButIfeltmypresencemostofthetimeandI
thinkthestudentsdidtoo.GettingoutofthewayisapartoftheprocessIreallywanttoimprove.
ThereareotherstudentsinmycohortworkingoncollaborativeconversationsandIhopetowork
onthiswithnextyear.

48

Finallythestudentswouldchooseaposterortwothattheywantedtouseasapartofthe
solutionset.Wewouldputallthesolutionsonthewall.Therewereusuallysolutionstothelast5
problemssetsonthewall.Descriptive,postersizesolutionsthatstudentscouldreturntoifthey
wished.
Couldthishavehelpedstudentschangetheirviewsaboutwhatitmeanstodomath,and
whatitmeanstobegoodatit?Ithinkso.WhenIinterviewedByronabouttheresultsofthe
SAICsurveyheofferedthis:
Whenwehadthatwhenwestartedworkingonthehomeworkandwehadtopresentit
infrontofeverybodyeverypersonlearnedeverytimesomeonepresentedwelearned
somethingnewfromthemorfrompresenting.Ifeellikethat,somepeople,their
perspectivechangessolike,ifapersonthinksthathesnotamathpersonandthenweget
intogroupsandpresenttotheclass,theystartthinking,ohIactuallyunderstandthis..
Tiffanysharedthis:
WhenweworkedingroupsIgottoseemultipleapproaches,itwascooltoseewhy
differentapproachesworkandwhichoneisthebestformeInthebeginningofthe
yearIalwayslikedbeingbymyselfbutIvebeenbetterabouthavingpeopleengageand
askingpeopleabouthowtheygottheiranswerandnowIknowtheresmorethanone
answerfordifferentproblemsandthenIliketoseehowpeopledothem.
Raymondofferedthistakeonthecollaborativeworktime:
Ilikedthegroupwork,itfeltlikeeveryonecandothisandwecanalllearnhowtodo

49

thistogetherandwecanalldothistogether.Itslikeyoudidnthavetojustsayit,was
like,teamworkandstuff,justlikeletscollaborateonthisanddothistogether,thatshows
wecandothisbutwecandothistogetherandhelpeachother.
Aliciatalkedaboutpreconceivednotionsshehadaboutwhatitmeanttobeamathperson,and
howthosewerechallengedintheworkgroups:
Especiallythemedia,theyputthispictureoutthere,thenerdsarethesmartpeople.I
kindofthinkthatfromlikewatchingtvandstuffIthinkitsjustlike,ourperspective
fromwhatpeoplehaveputoutthere.Butwhenwedoittogetheritchangesourminds
becausewevelearnedaboutitandstudieditandlearnedwhywecouldallbegoodat
math.
Intheliteraturereview,Idiscusstheideathathowwedefinemathanddoingmathdrivehowwe
shouldteachitanddriveshowstudentsdefinewhatmathisandwhatitmeanstodoit.Whenwe
definedoingmathematicsintheclassroomasacommunalactionwhereideasaresharedand
builtonandwherethequalityofthatsharingisimportantastheanswerstoourproblemsthen
wecreaterolesandresponsibilitiesthatstudentscanfeelownershipover.
AddressingStatusIssues
Ifastudentdoesntgettheanswerfromme,theywilloftenjustmoveonandask
someoneelseforasolution.Justastheteacherisoftengivenahighstatusintheclassroom,so
aresomestudents.Statusisusuallygrantedtoteachersandstudentsbecauseofassumptions
aboutourabilitytoprovidetheanswer.Inaclassroomwherewearetryingtoemphasizethe
importanceofdiscoveringanswerstogether,andvalidatingthoseanswersthroughdiscussion
andthought,itiscounterproductivetohavestudentssimplysupplyinganswerstootherstudents.

50

Counterproductivebecauseitendstheprocessofinvestigationandcounterproductivebecauseit
involvesatransactionbetweenstudentswhereonestudentimplicitlyexpressesthebeliefabout
theirinabilitytodomathandanotheraffirmsthisbeliefbysupplyingtheanswerratherthan
offeringdirection,encouragementormorequestionstohelpthatstudentdiscovertheanswerfor
themselves.OnethingItriedearlythisyearwastoaddressthetransactionthattakeplacewhen
onestudentasksanotherfortheanswer.
Earlyintheyear,somestudentswouldshoutoutaresponseevenwhenothershadthe
floor.Thesestudentareoftentheoneswhoaremorethatarehappytogiveawaytheiranswers
withoutexplanation.Whileitisimpossibletobesureofallofthecomplexitiesofaninteraction
whereonestudentroutinelygivesawayanswers,whatItoldtheminthefirstmonthofclassthis
yearisclosetowhatIbelieve:
WhenyouaskmeorthepersonnexttoyoufortheanswerwhenyousayIcantdo
this,Idontgetit,whatistherightanswer,whatamIsupposedtodoyouareexpressing
abeliefaboutyourselfinrelationshiptomath.Youaresayingyouarenotcapableofit.
Youarealsoexpressingabeliefaboutyourselfinrelationshiptothepersonyouare
asking.Youaretellingthemthattheyarecapableofit,thattheyarebetterthanyouin
thisrespect,thattheyarecapableinawaythatyouarenot.WhenIoranotherstudent
respondswithouranswerweconfirmandaffirmthatforyou.Weessentiallytellyou
Hereistheanswer,youarerightaboutmeandyouarerightaboutyourself,andIwill
helpyoubecauseyouarenotcapableofdoingitonyourown.
Idontbelievethatyouareincapable,andwhenyourefriendsgiveyouanswers
itislikelythattheyaresoattractedtotheaffirmationoftheirowncapabilitiesthatthey

51

donotstoptolookatthemessagetheyaresendingtoyouaboutyourcapacitytodothis
stuff.Ourgoalinthisclassroomisnottogettheanswerbuttostrugglewiththe
questions,theanswerisoftenahappybiproduct.
Sohavefaithinyourclassmates,whenyouhearsomeonegivesomeoneelsethe
answer,remindthemthattheyaresmart,andthattheydonthavetogiveawayanswers
toproveit,andremindthemtohavefaithintheirclassmatesability.
Forweeksafterthis,Havefaithinmewasacommonjokingrefrainwhenstudents
yelledoutanswers,andIbelieveinyouwhenotherswerelookingforanswerswithout
explanations.Couldthatbeareasonstudentsbegantofeelmoreconfidentintheirabilityto
succeedinmath?Possibly.Didtheyhavetostrugglewithproblemsmore,oraskbetterquestions
whenwhatstheanswer?didntworkanymore.Alsopossible.Thethingsstudentsjokeabout
areoftenonlyhalfjokes.

52

Conclusion
Thegoalofmyresearchwastoexplorepracticesthatmightsupportstudentagencyand
authorityinthemathematicsclassroom?Inamathclassroom
MathematicalAgency
referstoa
studentsabilitytoactproductivelywithinthatenvironmenttodomath.Whenwelookfor
indicatorsofagencywealsolookatstudentsdispositionstowardsmathematicsandtheirbeliefs
abouttheircapacitytobesuccessfulinamathclass.
Mathematicalauthorityisaboutones
abilityandopportunitytovalidateonesownmathematicalthinking
.MathematicalAuthorityis
anecessarycomponentofmathematicalagency.
Mathematicscanbedefinedasthescienceofpatterns(Hoffman,1989).Doing
mathematicscanbeseenasaninherentlycommunal,handsonprocesswherepractitioners
engageinthisscienceofpatterns(Schoenfeld,1994).Akeycomponentincreatingthistypeof
learningenvironmentinvolvesnavigatingthedanceofagency(Pickering,1995)inthe
mathematicsclassroom(ascitedbyBoaler,2000).Thedancecanbeseenastheprocessofthe
teacherdeflectingauthorityontostudents,alongwithsuggestionsabouthowastudentmightuse
theirownauthorityortheauthorityofthedisciplinetomakeprogresswithinthecontextofa
mathematicaldilemma(Schettino,2013).
Myresearchledmetobelievethatchangesinagencyandauthorityhaveoccurredinmy
classroom.UsingtheSAICsurveyalongwithstudentobservationsandinterviews,Ifoundfive
themesinmypracticethathelpaccountforthesechanges:buildingaculturethatcelebrates
patternseeking,reframingandcelebratingstruggle,beingauthenticallyunhelpful,usinga
collaborativeworkprotocol,andaddressingstatusissues.

53

Thereisnoonewaytoteachmath.Thereisnotonerightanswertohowtobestserve
studentswhohavebeenhistoricallyunderservedbyatraditionalapproach.Therearearguments
forteachingproficiencyincertainarithmeticskills.Knowinghowtomultiplysmallnumbers
quickly,strongmentalmathskillsthesemakethelessenthecognitiveloadofproblemsolving.
Butmathematicsisaboutmorethanspeed,itisaboutmorethancompetition.Itisnotadreary
processthatoffersonlytherewardofincreasedcharacterforgettingthroughit.Andtreatingit
thatwaydoesnothelpmoststudents,itarguablyhelpsafewattheexpenseofmost.
Ifweembraceadefinitionofmathematicsasthescienceofpatternsandweseethat
doingmathisaninherentlycommunalactivitywherepractitionersstrugglewiththequestions
anddecidetruththroughinvestigationanddiscussion,thenthatishowweshouldteachit.Ifnot
onphilosophicalgroundsthanonpracticalones.Theideasabouthumanagencyandauthority
touchonourbasicneedsandmotivationsashumanbeings.Theyrundeeperthanthescoreson
testsandstatusandapproval,whenyousparkcuriosityyoutouchthesoul.
IamencouragedbythechangesIvetriedthisyear.Gettingstudentstoseemathina
differentway,toembracestruggle,tovaluetheirownthinkingandtostrivetounderstandthe
thinkingofotherswillalwaysbeastruggle.Butlookingattheinteractionsaroundthedanceof
agency,andcreatingenvironmentsthatencouragepositivedispositionstowardsmathhasbeena
goodplacetostart.
Therearealwaysquestions.Iwanttoteachproblembasedmathematicswithinprojects
buthowcanIdoit?Ivestartedtoaddressthisquestionwiththekiteproject,aninterdisciplinary
projectheavilymathfocused.Idontthinkthatteachingmathprogressivelymeansthatwe
cannotscorewellonstandardizedexamsorabandonscopeandsequence.Farfromit,Ibelieve

54

thisapproachwillleadtostrongermathstudentswhocanshowproficiencyonastandardized
exams.Shoenfeldandothersarehavedevelopedformativeassessmentsandothercurriculathat
movesmathematicsintheclassroominthisdirection.Ilookforwardtointegratingmoreofthose
materialsinmyownclassroomandmeasuringtheresults.
ImprovementsciencefascinatesmeandnextyearIwillbeworkingwithaninternwho
hasdoneextensiveworkwithimprovementscienceandmathematicsatthecommunitycollege
level.Howcanweuseimprovementsciencetoimproveourteachingpractices?Howcanweuse
ittomeasureoursuccessonthedepartmentalandorganizationallevel?Howcanourstudents
useit?Ilookforwardtodelvingmoredeeplyintoallofthesequestions.

55

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