(1)

I.

DEFINITIONS, LINES PLAN

( Answer Sheet)

Aft and fore perpendicular

Fore Perpendicular :
waterline and stem.

It is the perpendicular drawn from the intersection of

Aft perpendicular : Perpendicular drawn from the intersection of water line and
Rudder post, or perpendicular from the center line of rudder stock if there is no
Rudder post.
II.

Breadth extreme: Breadth moulded + Fenders + Shell plating thickness

Breadth moulded: Dist. From the inner side shell of port to the inner shell of
starboard.

III.

Port Side : Left side of ship when looking from aft.

Stbd side : Right side of ship when looking from aft

IV.

Entrance: Forward part of the ship with varying cross section.

Run: Aft part of the ship with varying cross section
Parallel Middle body: Middle part of the ship with constant cross section.

V.

Camber: Curve applied to the deck transversely

Sheer: Tendency of a deck to rise above the horizontal in profile.

VI.

Draft: It is the vertical distance from the keel to the designed water line. Denoted
as T
Free board: Difference between the Depth and Draft
Depth Moulded: It is the vertical distance from the top of flat keel to the bottom
of deck plate

1.

Lines Plan: It is a Geometrical representation of 2D form of a 3-D complex shape

of the hull of a ship through descriptive Geometry.

3.

Different views of lines Plan:

Profile, Body plan and Half breadth plan

4.

Lines Plan

5.

Offset table: It is a rectilinear tabulation of the following vertical distance

- from the keel to the bottom of each section where they are crossed by buttock
lines.
- half breadth of each stations where they are crossed by waterlines.

6.

Lofting: Fairing of lines plan in 1:1 scale

Lofting is done mould loft, which are big workshops.

7.

Archemedies Principle:
The apparent loss in weight of a body when it is fully or partially immersed in
liquid is equal to the weight of the water displaced by the body.
Law of floatation:
A body is said to be floating, then weight of the water displaced is equal to the
weight of the body or weight of a floating body is equal to weight of volume of
water displaced by immersed prt of body.

8.

Buoyancy: It is the upward force which keep the things afloat, which is equal
to weight of water displaced by the body.
Center of buoyancy: Is the center of gravity of the vol. of liquid displaced by the
body (Hull in case of a ship).

9.

Dead weight: It is the maximum amount of cargo which a ship can carry.
Displacement: Weight of the ship in the floating condition.

10.

Reserve buoyancy: It is the difference between the volume under water to the
volume below the lowest opening on which it cannot made water tight.
Six degree of freedom
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

12.

Pitching
Rolling
Yawing
Swaying
Surging
Heaving

Trim: Sinkage of ship in the longitudinal direction.

Heel: Sinkage of ship in the transverse direction

13.

1.

Rise of floor: Distance from the top of the keel to the tangent drawn at
bottom cuts the line of the maximum beam of mid ship.

2. Tumblehome: Tendency of a section to fall towards the middle line plane

from vertical while approaching the deck.
3. Rake: Departure from the vertical of any section in profile.

4. Flare: Tendency of a section to fall out from the middle plane as it approaches
the deck side.
14.

Bernoullis Principle
For an incompressible,steady, Ideal fluid flow, the sum of pressure energy, kinetic
energy and potential (datum) energy are constant along the flow.
P
V2
--- + --- + Z = a const.
W
2g
P = Pressure
W = sp. wt. of water
V = Velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity
Z = datum

15.

Density: It is the ratio of mass per unit volume at standard temp. and pressure.
m
= ----v
Specific gravity is the ratio of specific weight of liquid to specific weight of
water.
Sp.gravity =

Sp.wt. of liquid
-----------------Sp. wt. of water

Sp.weight of water = 1000kg/m3

16.

Viscosity

It is the property of a fluid, which resists the flow of one layer of fluid over the
other. It is the measure of friction offered by the fluid particles to the resistance to
flow. Its unit is Poise or Stoke
1 stoke = 1 Ns/m2
17.

Hydrostatic Pressure: It is the pressure at a point in a liquid which is at

equilibrium. Hydrostatic pressure increases with depth upwards will increase due.
If h is the depth and is density, then Hydrostatic pressure = gh

18.

A1 = 100 x 10
A2 = 50 x 10
A3 = 60 x 10
h1 = 5
h2 = 35
h3 = 65

= 1000
= 500
= 600

CG of I section form x axiz

A1h1 + A2 h2 + A3 h3
Y=
=

---------------------------------------

A1 + A2 + A3
1000 x 5 + 500 x 35 + 600 x 65
---------------------------------------2100

= 29.29

Section I
b1d1 3
---------

MI of (1) at Ix1x1 =

12

100 x 103
-----------12

= 8333.33

MI with respect to neutral axis =

Ia1 =

Ixx1 + A1h12 = 8333.33 + 1000 x 24.292

= 598337.43
Section 2
bd

MI of (2) at Ixx2 =

2 2
---------

12
MI w.r. to neutral axis =

10 x 503
-----------12

= 104166.67

Ixx2 + A2h22 = 104166.67 + 500 x 5.712

Ia2 =

= 104699.27

Section 3
Bd

MI of (3) at Ixx3 =

3 3
---------

12

60 x 103
-----------12

= 5000

MI w.r. to neutral axis =

Ixx3 + A3h32 = 5000 + 600 x 35.712

Ia3 =

= 770122.46
Moment of .. of whole I section,
IG = IG1 + IG2 + IG3
= 598337.43 + 104699.27 + 770122.46 = 60708.564 x 103
Section Modular
IG
ZTop = --- =
Y

60708 564 x 103

---------------------- = 1491244.5
40.71

Ia
60708.564 x 103
Zbottom = --- = ---------------------- = 2072672.03
Y
29.29

(2)
1.

DEFINITIONS, LINES PLAN, SHIP TYPES AND KEEL (Answer Sheet)

Difference between cargo liners and tramp ship
Cargo lines are cargo ships which have specified ports and regular schedules
whereas Tramp ships have no specified routes and schedules Tramp ships can
carry cargo which cargo lines cant handle.

2.

Std. size of container 30ft x 8 ft x 8ft

8.5 x 8 x30

2.

Flared bow is given in container ship is to prevent shipping green water. Usually
Flared bow with high us given.

4.

Cofferdam : They are the void spaces given between tanks to prevent the risk of
leakage of oil and also to prevent osmosis.

5.

Double skin, construction : They are given in ships is to protect the marine
environment collision and to prevent Osmosis. If a collision occurs the inner skin
protects the oil from leakage to the seawater.

6.

Bulk carriers

7.

Special requirements of refrigerated cargo vessels:

They are used to carry food products. It should contain a refrigerated machinery
and should have insulated spaces for carriage of food products like, meat, Daisy
products etc. They are fast vessels, and have less stowage rate.

8.

LNG are carried in prismatic, spherical or cylindrical tanks. They are to be

refrigerated and pressurised.

9.

Different types of Barge carrying ships

1. Seabee Type and 2. Lash Type
In Seabee type elevators are provided to load the barges.
In Lash type crones are provided
In sea bee type vends there are no transverse Bulk heads

In lash type the barges are placed on over the other.

(3) BASIC STRUCTURE, HOLD, FRAMINGS,

LOCKER, FORCE & AFT END CONSTRUCTION

BULKHEADS, CHAIN
(Answer Sheet)

BOTTOM CONSTRUCTION
1.

Two methods of Bottom construction are

i)
ii)

Single Bottom Construction

Double Bottom Construction

2.

Double bottom can contribute longitudinal strength because the cross sectional
area increases and due to this the section module increases, providing longitudinal
strength.

3.

Constructional features of Double bottom

-

4.

Provides extra protection to the vessel

Height of the double bottom vary from 1000 to 1500mm height should not be less
than 650mm
Double bottom extends from forepeak bulkhead to Aft peak bulkhead
Contains inner shell (Tank top) and outer shell (Bottem plate)
Solid floors are fitted every 3 to 4 mt. apart
Used fir carriage of fuel and oil
Different types of keel
1. Bar keel
2. Plate keel
3. Duet keel
1. Bar Keel : - For small vessels less than 90 mt in length
- Solid floors are fitted in every frame spacing
- disadvantage of increased draught for minimum cargo capacity
2. Plate Keel: - commonly used in ships

- extends from forward to aft

- has a breadth to maximum 1800mm
- thickness is equal to the thickness of bottom plate + 2mm
3. Duet Keel: - used in double bottom construction
- can be used for piping
- provides longitudinal strength
- extends from fore peck BHD to Aft peck BHD

Hold framings
5.

Frames are used to protect the ship shell plate from collapsing
- provides good strength to the vessel

6.

Types of framing systems1. longitudinal framing systems

2. Transverse framing system
3. Mixed framing system

7.

Primary supporting members 1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

8.

Solid floor
Bottom CL grinder
Bottom side grinder
Web frame
Side stringers
Deep transverse
Deck side grider
Deck CL girder

Secondary support members 1. Bracket floor

2. Bottom longitudinals
3. Deck longitudinals

4. Side longitudinals
5. Hold frames
6. Deck beams
9.

Transverse framing system

10.

Longitudinal framing system

11.

Mixed framing system

12.

Common Profiles
1. Angles

- equal

- used as stiffeners in shell platings and

BHDsz
- unequal
2. T section
3. Bulb plates

- equal
- unequal

- used in CL Girders and side girders. Also

used as side stringers
- same use as of Angles

13.

4. Flat Bar

- used as face plates in girders are for stiffeners

5. I Section

- used as stringers

6. F Section

- used as stringers

7. Solid bar

- used for pillars and cline roads

8. Hollow pipes

- used for pillars and piping

9. Half round bar

- as stiffners

10. Plates

- for shell construction, BHD, superstructures etc.

11. Chequered plates

- used in engine room

12. Gratings

- used in passengers and on super structures.

Bale Cargo Capacity:-

- Maximum cargo capacity excluding the stiffners

in the cargo area
-

Grain Cargo Capacity :-

Mixed framing system has better bole cargo

capacity
- Cargo capacity including the volume inside the
stiffeners provided in the cargo area

14.

The various framing systems are

1. Tranverse framing system
2. Longitudinal framing system
3. Combined or Mixed framing system

1. Transverse framing system

-

Side frames fitted at every frame spacing

Bracket floors are fitted at every frame spacing
Frames are bracketed to bracket floors
Solid floors are spaced at every 3-4m frame spacing
A ring like structure includes solid floor, web frame and deck transverse.
Deck transverse are fitted every 3-4m apart
Better Bale cargo capacity

2. Longitudinal framing system

-

Provided better longitudinal strength

Deck longitudinal are fitted on decks bottom
Side longitudinal are fitted at sides
Bottom longitudinal are fitted to bottom.
A ring like structure includes solid floor, web frames, deep transverse are spaced
every 3-4mt apart
All secondary members are longitudinally spaced
Spacing of longitudinal is 750mm

3. Mixed framing system

-

Combination of both Transverse and longitudinal framing system

Provides better bole cargo capacity
Provides longitudinal strength
Mainly used in cargo ships and bulk carriers
Top and bottom are spaced 150mm by longitudinal
Transverse frames are fitted at the sides

Shell Plating
15.

Function of shell plating

-

16.

It acts as a water fight skin

Provides longitudinal strength
Various platings of Ships

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
17.

Keel strake
Garboard strake
Bilge plate
Side shell plating includes sheer stroke adjacent to the deck plates
Deck shell plating includes stringer plates adjacent to the shear strake

a. Gun whale : It is a portion where the sheer stroke and stringer plates meats
b. Seams
: longitudinally welded joints
c. Butts
: Vertically or Transverse welded joints

18.

Constructional features of shell plating

-

plates are laid longitudinally

Thickness of sheer strake and bottom platting are increased because they are
subjected to high stresses
In heavy ships deck plates and bottom plates are used of high tensile steel
Bottom plate thickness depends on the length, breadth and depth and cargo
capacity of the ship
Longitudinally welded joints are called seems
Transversely welded joints are called butts
Thickness of keel plate depends on the bottom plate and carrying capacity
Thickness is increased in the slamming and pounding region.
Thickness is increased near by the stern frame and bossing.

Bulkheads
19.

Functions
-

20

Divides the ship into different compartments

Protects the ship during flooding
Prevents free surface effect
Restrict the entry of fire from one compartment to other
Fore peak collision, BHD arrest the flooding of water to cargo tanker
Longitudinal bulkheads provide longitudinal strength.
Types of BHDs
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

water tight BHD

NON water tight BHD
Oil tight BHD
Gas tight BHD
Collision BHD
Longitudinal BHDs
Transverse BHD

21.

Types of BHD Construction

1. Plain type bulk heads
2. Corrugated type bulk heads

22.

23.

24.

Plain Bulkhead

Corrugated BHD

Bulkhead Construction
Types of BHD construction are:

1) Plain type and

2) Corrugated type

In Plain types the plates are laid in the horizontal direction

In corrugated types the plates are laid vertically.
Stiffeners are spaced 750mm vertically for plain BHDS
If the height is increasing then stringers are provided vertically and horizontally.
Corrugated type BHDs are in the form of corrugations or swedges.
They can be subjected to high bending loads or pillar loads than plain BHDs
The corrugation angle is 450
Stiffeners can be avoided thereby decreasing the steel weight

Diaphragm plates or stringers are added if the height is increased to provide

strength
25.

Cofferdam
provided in vessels carrying various liquidous cargoes
provided between fresh water tanks and oil tanks
cofferdoms BHDs are spaced 760mm apart
prevents the risk of leakage of oil from one tank to other through osmosis.
in some cases used as pump rooms
following tanks are to be separated each other by coffer dam
vegetable oil tank
mineral oil tank
fresh water tank
Fuel oil tank
prevents contamination of liquids of various densities

26.

Minimum spacing of cofferdam 760mm

27.

Typical tanks which needs a cofferdam are

Vegitable oil tanks
Fuel oil tanks
Fresh water tanks
Mineral oil tanks

Chain Locker
28.

Chain locker - Box type structure

- Situated in the fore peak tank
- One side of chain locker is fixed to collision BHD
- Centerline chain locker BHD divides it into two for post and
STBD side
- False bottom is provided, to drain mud from anchor chain.
- Anchor chain cable supporting assembly is provided
- Stiffeners are provided outside
- Footsteps are provided in BHDs
29.

Chain locker

30.

House pipe - pipe through which anchor chain enters the windlass while
taking the anchor on board
Spurting pipe - pipe through which anchor chain goes to the chain locker while
taking anchor on board

31.

Stiffners are provided at the outside of chain lockers to prevent the entackling of
chains with stiffners. Stiffners are provided on the CL BHD with two sides facing
to the CL BHD, to prevent the entackling of chains.

32.

False bottom in chain lockers are provided because the mud in the chain is
collected in the false bottom. The mud can be removed by cleaning the false
bottom.

33.

Force end construction

34.

Fore end : Forward quarters of ship length from the forward perpendicular is
termed as fore end.

35.

Slamming: During slamming the bow suddenly rises and hits the water due to
waves.
Raking: Lateral movement of frames from side to side. This is due to the forces
by waves or wind.
Pounding: It is the upward and downward force acted upon the ship by the
waves.

36.

Hungry horse effects are produced by panting. Panting is carried by the

fluctuating load by waves on the sides of ship. Painting results is the fluctuation
of shell plate like the bellows of a hungry horses stomach. Panting beam and
panting stringers are provided to reduce this effect.

38.

Crown deck: It is the upper most deck of the fore peak which is made made water
light.

39)

Aft end constructions

40.

Aft end: It is the portion which is 25% L of the ship from the Aft perpendicular
including super structure and aft peak

41.

Aft peak tank: It is the aft most tank of the ship

-

42.
-

for ballasting and fresh water tank carriage

consists of centerline BHD to reduce the free surface effect
consists of stern frame and bossing
stern frames are fabricated forged
Brest hooks are provided
Solid floors are provided at every frame space
Rudder tank is situated
Stern tube is situated
Consist of painting stringers and swash plates
Types of stern construction
Cruiser stern
Transom stern

Cruiser Stern
provides less resistance
consists of cart frames spaced at a particular angle to center line
reduced slamming effect
a) Cant frames:-

They are situated in Cruiser stern

Provided to reduce the effect of slamming
Cant framed are spaced at angles towards the center line
Curved structures

b) Parting beams:provided at fore peak and aft peak tanks

to reduce the effect due to panting
to distribute the force developed in the transverse directions
-

panting stringers are corrected by panting beams to distribute the load.

c) Wash plates:- also called as non water light BHDs or perforated BHDs or swash
BHDs

to distribute the load developed in the transverse direction

situated in fore peak and Aft peak tanks
In some cases they are also used to reduce surface effects
Difficult to construct

Transom stern
-

43.

provides greater deck area

prevents squatting of high speed small crafts
reduces resistance from 3 to 5% at high speed
reduced slamming and pounding effects
easy to construct
Squatting: It is a phenomenon by which a negative pressure is created at the aft
end of high speed small crafts, which tends the aft end to touch the bottom in
shallow waters.

2) Breast hooks:
-

Panting stringers are held in position together by Brest hooks

Brest hooks also provides strength to stem bar and stern frame
Brest hooks are equally spaced
They supports the plates at the fore end from post and stbd side

Basic Structure
45.

Welding imperfections

46.

Different grades of steel

IS 2062 MS Allowable stress - 235N/mm2
A Grade
B Grade
ABS AH Grade- Allowable stress - 400 N/mm2
ABS Grade

47.

Testing methods to identify welding imperfections

1. Visual inspection
2. NDT (Non Destructive Testing)

48.

Welding techniques

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
49.

Down hand welding (1G)

Horizontal welding (2G)
Vertical welding (3G)
Over head welding (4G)
Cylindrical welding (5G)
Spiral welding (6G)

Underwater appendages
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Speed log
Stabilizer
Bow thruster
Skeg
Propeller
Rudder
Echo sounder
Bilge keel
Sea chest

50.

a) Bilge keel
b) skeg :

- To arrest the movement of ship during rolling

- To support the ship in docks
- For good directional stability
- act as a supporting member at the over changing portion on aft

c) Rudder

- To control the direction of ship

- For directional stability
- Situated at aft

d) Echo sounder - to measure the depth of the sea

e) Bow thruster - to turn the ship in a limited space, usually fitted at forward side
52.

Doubler plate: Plates are laid one, over the other provided where compressive
loads are generated.
Mainly provided under the pillars
Insert plate: Plates of high thickness are inserted between plates of standard
thickess.
Provided where compressive and Tensile loads are coming.

Outfittings
53.

Mooring Fittings
1. Bollards

single bollard
doublar bollard
for tieing the ships in ports
for toeing the ship using tugs.

2) Rolling fair leads

Situated at Bull warks for the passing and directing the tie ropes
3) Capstan

for the ropes to pay through, while mooring

It can rotate and move by its own

4) Chokes
54.

For the passage of ropes without any obstruction

Panama chokes are fitted at the forward side on bull warks

Ventilators are mainly two types - Natural Ventilators & Forced Ventilators
Subdivided into

1. Cowl head type

2. Mushroom head type
3. Goose Neck type

Natural Ventilators: functions on the natural draught of air with any mechanical
input
Forced Ventilators: functions on the forced draught of air by motor driven fans
provided inside it.
Superstructure: structures having a breadth greater than or equal to 98% of the
breadth of ship
Deck house: is of lesser breadth than super structure
-

56.

It can also come under cranes

It can also come under other access in deck which leads to cargo tanks etc.
Sounding: Sounding pipes are provided to measure from the depth of cargo tanks
and to find the volume of cargo inside the tanks.
Ullage: is to measure from the top of the liquid level and to find the volume of
cargo inside it.

57.

Striking plates: During sounding plumbs are inserted through sounding pipes to

check the level. At this time the plumb will hit the shell plate. As this procedure
is continuous there will be chances of having holes on the shell because of the
striking of plumbs. To avoid this striking plates are provided under sounding
pipes.
58.
a) Forecastle: - To prevent shipping green water
- Usually provided in fast vessels like container ship
- Ships with well flared bows have a tendency for shipping
green water, to avoid this fore castle is provided.
- Height depends on the speed and flared bow.
- Plates supported by stays
b) Funnel:- - vertical structures above deck
- Housing of air vents from sea hearts and other lines
- Stiffeners are placed vertically
- If the height is increased stringers are provided
- To fixing owners logo
- For good appearance
- Shape can be according to owners style
- Shape are cylindrical, rectangle etc.
- Sufficient height should to provided to get smoke
and grit cleared off the deck
Height can be reduced if uses forced draught.
d) Engine Casing:
Height of 760mm should be provided above weather deck
Protect various openings from auxiliary engines which comes directly above the
engine
Size should be sufficient to take the engine and auxiliary engines out of engine
room
Vertical member extending throughout the super structure
e) Guard rails
For protection of crews and passengers
Height should be 1 mtr
Consists of shell rods and hallow pipes
Shell rods are also called stanchions
Hollow pipes are used as rails
Supported by stays
f) Sea chest
High sea chest :
-

In shallow water, high sea chest is used

Sea chest are box type structures
Provides the inlet for seawater for engine coiling, deck water etc.
High sea section is used in shallow water is to prevent the mud from entering

Low sea chest:

- used in deep sea because the high pressure itself cause pumping action.
g) Pillar: are used where consentrated loads are acting
-

d)

Are vertical members

They are also used when tension loads are coming
They are supported at bottom by doubler or inserted plates
Supported at top by header plates
Hatch corner pillars are avoided damages during cargo loading and unloading
Pillars can be used to avoid deep section beams
Insulation is provided to prevent heat and noise
FRP and GRP with steal plates are used as insulators
Provides supports for various decks
Main engine seating:

e)

Provides a good platform for the engine

Rudder plates are supported by vertical and horizontal members for engine
seating
Faceplates are drilled in correct line of engine bolts provided
Spacing can vary depending on the engine size
Shaft tunnel

Provided if the engine room is at mid ship

Protects the shaft from contact with cargo
Can be used for pipelines

On the top it is a round like structure

Stiffeners are provided inside
Stools are provided to support shaft

f)

Can be useful during maintenance

Connection of intermediate shaft to tail shaft
Bulwark and Guard rail

Bulwark
For protection of the crew and cargo on deck
For fitting radar out fittings and latching of cargo
Supported by stays
Situated above the force castle

59.

Hatch side pillars are corner placed to avoided damages during cargo loading and
unloading

60.

Insulations is provided in the engine room to prevent excess heat and noise from
the engine and auxiliary machines.
FRP and GRP with steel plates ones used for insulating engine room.
FRP Fiber reinforced plate are also used.

61.

Pillar
Header plates are provided at the top and double plates are provided at the
bottom. Heavy brackets are provided if the load is tension and simple brackets
for compressive loading.

63.

Types of Manholes:

Rise with high coming

Rise with low coming
Flush type

Rise with high comings raised to 100mm above the deck rise with low warming
raise to 10mm above the deck flush type are on the level of the deck.
64.

Purpose of intermediate shaft is to remove the tail shaft easily during repair or
maintenance.

65.

Purpose of bulwark: for protection of crew and cargo on deck, for fitting radar
out fittings and lashing of cargo, height should be 1m.
Purpose of Guard rail: for protection of crew and cargo on board. It should be 1m.
Freeing post: openings on the bottom side of bulwark for the drainage of water.

(4)

HYDROSTATICS

1.

(Answer Sheet)

Hydrostatic Particulars
- Volume displacement
- Mass displacement
- Longitudinal center of floatation (LCF)
- BMT and BML
- Longitudinal center of Buoyancy (LCB)
- Vertical center of Buoyancy (VCB)
- Form coefficients
- Tones per centimeter immersion (TPCI)
- Moment to change trim by 1inch (MCTI)
- Wetted surface area

2.Law of floatation states that for a floating body, the weight of the body is equal to
weight of fluid displaced by the body is which it floats.
3. Different rules of integration
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Simpsons first rule

Simpsons second rule
Simpsons third rule (5,8, -1 rule)
Trapezoidal rule
Trapezoidal rule

4.
a. Simpsons first rule
h
Area = -- (1y1 + 4 y2 + 1y3)
3
Where h = dist. Between to full stations or ordinates, y1, y2 are ordinates
b.

Simpsons Second rule

h
Area = -- (1y1 + 3 y2 + 3 y3 +1y4)
8

c.5,8, -1 rule
h
Area = -- (5y1 + 8 y2 - y3)
12
d.

Trapezoidal rule

h
Area = -- (1y1 + 81y2)
2
5. Tchebycheffs rule differ from other rules in that the ordinates are not equally spaced
-

There are no internal multipliers

Curve is parabolic
Is found out by summing up the ordinates and dividing by the no. of full stations
and then again multiplying by the length
(y1 + y2 + y3 +- yn) L
-------------------------------N
End ordinates are not taken.

A=
-

6.

Displacement can be calculated by

-

Integrating area along the water planes in longitudinal direction

Integrating area along the stations in vertical direction
Better way is to calculate by integrating area along the water planes because
number of stations are greater than number of water planes

7.

Formulas
a. TPCI - Tones per centimeter Immersion
TPCI = (A*d)/ 1000
A= area of water place
d = density of seawater
b. MCTI moment of charge trim by 1inch
MCTI =

BML x W
-----------100 x L
BML = longitudinal metacenter from center of Buoyancy
W = weight displacement
L
= length of ship.

c. BML Dist. From longitudinal meter center from center of Buoyancy

BML = IL
-------

IL = longitudinal moment of inertia with respect to transverse axis

= volume displacement
d.

BMT = Dist. From Transverse metacenter from center of Bougancy

BMT = IT
-------

IT = Transverse moment of Inertia with respect to longitudinal axis

= Vol. displacement
e.

Cb Block coefficient
Cb =

------LBT

L = length of ship
B = Breadth of ship
T = Draft
f. CP - Prismatic coefficient
CP =

-------------Am x L

Am = area of midship
L = length of ship
g. Cm = Midship section coefficient
Cm

Am
-----BxT
B = Breadth
T = Draft
=

h. Cw = water plane area coefficient

Cw = Am
-----LxB

8.
1

St.
0
0.5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
9.5
10

/2B
0
5
8
10
12
13
13
12
11
8
3
1
0

A=

SM
0.5
2
1.5
4
2
4
2
4
2
4
1.5
2
1

F(A)
0
10
12
40
24
52
26
48
22
32
4.5
2
0
272.5

Lever
0
0.5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
9.5
10

F(M)
0
5
12
80
72
208
130
288
154
256
40.5
19
0
1264.5

Lever2
0
0.25
1
4
9
16
25
36
44
64
81
90.25
100

f(IL)
0
2.5
12
160
216
832
650
1728
1078
2048
364.5
180.5
0
7271.5

h
--- x f (A) x 2 = 2180m2
3

IL =

h
--- x h2 x f (IL) x 2
3

IT =

h 1
--- x --- x f (IT) x 2
3
3

IL - Iaft Ax2
X = LCF = h. f (M)
------------- f (A)

12 x 1264.5
--------------272.5

= 55.68m

Here we got I(aft)

Iaft = 123
----- x 7271.5 x 2 = 8376768
3
IL

= 8376768 2180 x 55.682

= 1618195.968m4

y3
0
125
512
1000
1728
2197
2197
1728
1331
512
27
1
0

SM
0.5
2
1.5
4
2
4
2
4
2
4
1.5
2
1

f(IT)
0
250
768
4000
3456
8788
4394
6912
2662
2048
40.5
2
0
33320.5

12
IT = ---- x 33320.5 x 2 = 88854.66 m4
9
a)

IT
---

BMT =

Cb = 0.75

Cb

----LBT

88854.6
---------7200

BMT =

b)

c)

IT
---- =

BML =

TPC

= 0.75 x 120 x 10x 8

Ax
------100

= 7200 m3

= 12.34 m

1618195.97
------------7200

2180 x 1.205
---------------100

BML x W
= -----------100 x L

= 224.75 m

= 26.26 T

224.75 x 7200 x 1025

--------------------------- = 138221.25 kgm
100 x 120

d)

MCT

e)

weight of ship in sea water = weight of ship in fresh water

sw x sw x g = fw x fw x g
fw = 7200 x 1025
--------------- = 7380
1000

Cb = ---= 0.75 =
LBT

7380
------120 x 10 x T

T = 8.2m

f)

Trim

50 x 1000 x 90
= ------------------138221.55

= 32.55cm

9.
a)

LCF - Longitudinal center of floatation

- It is the centeroid of the water plane
- It can be referred from aft or midship
- for calculation of trim forward and trim aft
- point through which the trimmed water line panes
LCF = h x f(MA)
----------- f(A)

b)

LCB - Longitudinal center of Buoyancy

- It is the longitudinal position of the center of buoyancy of the volume
under the design waterline
-longitudinal position of the center of buoyancy through which buoyancy
force acts
- To calculating the total trim and resistance of ship
- can be referred from aft or from midship
LCB =

c)

h x f(MV)
----------- f(V)

VCB - vertical center of buoyancy

- It is the vertical position of center of buoyancy of the volume
under the design water line
- It is the vertical position of center of buoyancy through which
buoyancy fore cuts
- For calculating stability of ship

LCB =

h x f(MV )
----------- f(V)

- Referred from base line or 0th water line

d)

IT

It is the transverse moment of Interia along the longitudinal axis

IT =

2h
1
---- x --- x f(IT)
3
3

- can be referred from center line

- for calculating BMT
e)

IL is the longitudinal moment of Inertia along the transverse axis

IL

10.

2h
= ---- x h2 x f(IL)
3

Can be referred from aft or mid ship

For calculating BML
a) TPCI is defined as Tonnes per centimeter immersion
TPC = A x
--------100
A = Area of water plane
= density of sea water
It is the weight added or reduced to change the mean draft by 1 cm
TPI is defined as the Tonnes per inch immersion
TPI = A x x 2.54
---------------100
It is the weight added or deducted to charge the draft by one inch.
b) LCF - Longitudinal center of floatation
- centroid of water plane
- can be referred from aft or midship
LCF = h x f(M)
-------------f (A)

- Calculating trim Aft and trim fore

LCB - Longitudinal center of Buoyancy
- longitudinal position through which the buoyancy force acts
- can be referred from aft or mid ship
- calculating total trim and resistance of ships
LCF = h . f(M)
-------------f (V)
c) Vertical prismatic coefficient

CPV =

-----AWL x L

= Vol. Displacement
AWL = area of water line
L = length of ship

(5)
1.

STABILITY

(Answer sheet)

For stability at small angles GM, metacentric height is the stability criteria
For stability at large angles Gz, Righting lever is the stability criteria
Small angle means upto 5o
Large angles means greater than 5o
GZ= GM sin for small angles
GZ = BOR BG sin - for large angles
M Metacenter is fixed for small angles

M charges for large angles

2.

3.

Righting lever: If a ship is inclined at constant displacement, the point B o moves

to B1, a new Point. So the buoyancy force and downward fire which is acting
upwards will be not in the same line and if a perpendicular drawn to the new
waterline intersects the original WL at M called metacenter. Then a restoring
couple is generated, GZ x W which tends to bring book the ship to original
position, and GZ is called as the Righting lever.

4.

Metacenter: It is the point at which a floating body begins to oscillate, when it

tilted by a small angle.
Metacentric height: If a line drawn through the new buoyancy point B 1 which is
perpendicular to the new water line W1L1, the line will meet at the vertical at M
called metacentre (M).
Metacenteric height: The distance between the metacenter and center of graving
is termed metacentric height (GM).
GM = metacentric height

5.

Different condition of equilibrium

M above G GZ & GM is +ve - stable equilibrium
M is at G - GZ & GM = 0
- Neutral equilibrium
M below G - GZ & GM = -ve - unstable equilibrium

6.

7.

Stability of Circular Section

Consider a circular section with Radius R, lying in the horizontal axis with section
O. So the buoying force will always acts through the point O, even if the
water level is above or below the section O. So here the stability is depends on
radius R. If KG < R, stable
If R = KG, neutral
If R < KG, unstable
Stability can also be obtained by adding weight.

8.

Trim It is the difference between draft forward and draft aft.

Center of rotation LCF is the centeriod of the water plane area. It is the point
through which the trimmed water line passes through. If a weight is placed above
this point, the ship sinks with no trim.

9.

Diff. Reasons for trim to occur

- Due to movement of weight
- Loading and unloading
- Ballasting
- Fresh water consumption
- Fuel consumption etc.

10.

Volume displacement
Mass displacement
Tones per centimeter immersion.

11.

If ship is entering from low density to high density the draft is decreased since
buoyant force increases

12.

Fully submerged submarines

First of all they have no water planes, so there is no metacenter. Care should be
taken during fast sub mergence to keep G and B nearby at same point, otherwise it
will capsize. As they go to higher depths, its body shrinks due to high hydrostatic
forces, thereby reducing the volume displaced. So the buoyant force decreases
and submarine begins to sink. So to keep the submarines stable it is to be pump
out water from inside or using force provided by hydroplanes etc.

13.

w.h = GG1 (i)

GG1 = GM tan
tan = t/L
GG1 = GM. t/L (ii)
Substitute (ii) in (i)
W = GML x t x
-------------Lxh
W = t . GML x
------------ ..(iii)
Lxh
So the moment to cause and charge trim is
GML x
--------L
The moment to charge trim by 1 cm = x GML
----------------

100 L
So, t = Wh
-----MCT

from (iii)

14.
LCB of a ship can be found out from Hydrostatic curves, if we know the
corresponding draft
16.

Wall sided formula = sin (GM + BM tan2)

Ship sides in way of water lines all over are assumed to be vertical here. So it is
formed as wall sided formula.

17.
18.

Free surface effect is the effect on main tanks carrying liquid cargoes which
affects the stability of ship or it is the virtual reduction in GM.
Free surface effect = f If
-----
Where f is the density of fluid
If is the second moment of area of liquid surface
is the density of fluid in which strip is float
is the displacement

19.

Free surface effects can be reduced by reducing the breadth of cargo tanks by
centerline bulkheads and wing bulkheads.

20.

Inclining experiment is conducted to find

1. CG of the ship
2. Light ship weight

21.

Condition of inclining experiment is called Asinclined condition.

condition of ship with 95% of its structure is completed.

22.

Preparation for inclining experiment

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

It is the

Get approved the agenda of experiment from class and owners

Clean the ship
Check the whether conditions
Find the place to do the experiment dry dock
Loose the mooring rapes
Fixing of materials pendulum, oil tray, scale etc.
Tanks are to be completely filled in case of any trim problems to avoid free
surface effect.

23.

Inclining experiment is conducted by placing two set of weight each on port and
stbd side. At the first stage set 1 is moved to the stbd side and the indination is
noted. Then set 2 is moved to stbd side and inclination is noted. Then the two sets
are moved back to port and the inclination is noted from the set up provided. The
same is done on the port side for set 3 and set 4 and the inclination are noted.
density of water is noted for two to three position of ship.

24.

Accuracy of inclining experiment is ensured by ploting a graph with deflection Vs

weight moved. The accuracy is ensured, when the graph retraces its path during
port and stbd movement of weights.

25.

w x h = . GG1
We know GG1 = GM tan
W x h = .GM tan

x
tan =
--- from inclining experiment
L
w x h = . GM . x
--L
KM = KG +GM
- KM from hydrostatics
- GM calculated from above eqn.
26.

Total Weight required is estimated as the weight which will give an inclination of
1.5 to 2o when it is moved from stbd to port side.

27.

Pre survey

28.

Weight of the block while docking

- Condition survey
Tank survey
Draft survey
Post survey - Draft survey
Condition survey.

w.x = t.* MCTI

w is the weight to be calculated
t is the trim
MCTI is moment to charge trim by 1cm
x is the distance aft from LCF
29.

During docking, righting moment = (GM w .KM)W sin

-W
If the solution inside the brackets becomes ve the ship will tip over.

30.

GZ is the measure of stability of large angles

GZ = BoR-BoG sin

31.

Curve of statical stability

GZ curve is the also called curve of statical stability
GZ = GM sin
dGZ
------ - GM cos
dQ
dGZ
GM
------- = ----- (cos=1)
dQ
1

It is a curve with GZ along the y axis and the angle of inclination along the x axis.
Positive value of GZ with the angle gives the range of stability.
32.

IMO Criteria
Area upto 30o = 0.055 mrad (not less than)
Area upto 40o = 0.09 mrad (not less than)
Area between 40o and 30o = 0.03 mard (not less than)
GM value should be greater than 0.15mts
At 30o GZ should not be less than 0.2mts.
GZ should be maximum after 30o
33.

Angle of loll: When GM is ve initially, ship is inclined to either part or slbd side
and at some point it will reach in equilibrium and remains is that point. This point
is now the equilibrium condition of the ship and the angle is called angle of loll.
It can happen during weight shift in the ship permanently.

34.

Value of GM in the lolled condition is twice as compared to initial GM but

negative in sign.

35.

.
36.

37.

GZ = KN -KGSM (i)
GZ = BoR-BoG sin
In the above equation (i) the value of
- KN can be found from knowing the displacement from cross waves
- KG can be found from inclining experiment
And with there, values GZ can be plotted with respect to

38.

Stability information booklet

It is a booklet which contain the stability of ship for all condition of loading.
Other datas
It contains Hydrostatics datas

It contains a figure showing the profile of ship from which areas and moment can
be calculated
It contains the GM values.
39.

Minimum conditions shown in stability information booklet are stability at

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Light ship conditions

Fully loaded departure condition
Fully loaded arrival condition
Ballasted departure condition
Ballasted arrival condition
Other conditions

40.

Additional condition required for a tug is to avoid towing at athwart angle

41.

Additional condition required for a ship with crane is the maximum load that can
hang and extended on the ship and point at which load acted on the tip of crane is
to be noted at same time.

42.

GZ curve, when weight is permanently moved

In this condition BC is the new range of stability and C is the new angle of
varnishing stability.
43.

Angle of Repose: It is the angle at which the bulk cargoes mainly grain cargoes
starts repositioning its state, such that it does not come back to its initial state.

44.

By adding centerline Bulkheads and shifting boards the prevention of cargo in

bulk carriers. Provision of feeders will fill the void spaces after setting down the
cargo also helps to avoid shifting of cargoes.

45.

Dynamic Stability: It is the measure of energy ship absorbs to resist fore exposed
by wind and waves or it is the work done is heeling the ship to an angles and
is given by the product of displace, GZ and

46.

When a wind moment is applied, slowly the ship start to heel to an angle
represented by A and in theis condition the range of stability will be from A to B.
If the moment is applied suddenly like a gust of wind, the amount of energy
absorbed by ship as it heels is represented as area DACO. The ship would absorb
energy reprented by area OAC and the remaining energy would carry it beyond a
starts to some angle F such that area AEF = area DAO. If F is beyond B, the ship
will capsize, assuming the wind is still acting.

A severe case for a rolling ship is if it is inclined to its maximum angle to

winword and about to return to the vertical when the gust hits it., let it be the
position GH.The energy put in to the ship by the wind up to angle L is now
represented by area GDKLOH. The ship will continue to heel until this energy is
absorbed, perhaps reaching angle Q.
47.

Angle of heel due to turning: When ship is turned by self with rudder the rudder
holds the ship at an angle of attack with-repositions the path. As a result of this
the force developed in the hull which is the hydrodynamic force tends to move the
hall towards the center which is turns the ship to new position and then outwards.

48.

Additional stability condition taken into consideration while designing passenger

ship is the crowding of passengers to one side.

49.

GZ = KN-KG sin
GZ = BoR-BoG sin

50.

Boot Topping area : The area reach to the draft designed which come frequently
in contact with air and wakes tends to corrode very fast than other areas. So there
areas to be painted with corrosion resistant paints.
(6)

LAUNCHING - (Answer Sheet)

1.

Requirements of end-launching a ship

The ship sterns should slides first to water because this part of the ship is more
buoyant.
Slide ways are to be provided under the ship
The gap between the slide ways and ground ways are provided, with grease to
avoid friction
Usually two to four ways are provided
Ground ways are to be cambered to acquire buoyancy faster
Waterfront is to be cleared
Slide ways are to be cleared
Tide is a major factor to be taken into consideration
Tugs are to be provided to tow the ship if any frictional resistance arises
Drags are to be provided in restricted waterways to decelerate the movement,after
ship is become waterborn.
Fore poppet is to be provided

2.

Problem associated with launching

- The grease is too slippery or not slipping enough
- The grease may get squeezed out due to excessive pressure
- Tipping and dropping can occurs
- local strengthening of the ship is a major factor
- Tide which a major factor is taken into consideration

3.

Tipping
If the moment of weight about Aft end way is greater than moment of buoyancy
about aft end way the ship will tip and is termed as tipping.

To avoid tipping the moment of buoyancy about aft end way should lie above the
moment of weight about aft end way. The difference (least) between them gives
the least moment against tipping.
4.

Pivoting
When the moment of weight about fore poppet equals the moment of buoyancy
about fore poppet the stern lifts and ship pivots on fore poppet and is termed as
pivoting.

5.

Dropping:
If the buoyancy is less compared to the weight after the ship crosses the aft end
way the ship drops and is termed as dropping. To avoid dropping, make sure that
the buoyancy exceeds weight before ship must pass over the aft end way.

6.

Different launching curves

Weight
Buoyancy
Moment of weight about fore poppet
Moment of buoyancy about fore poppet
Moment of weight about Aft end way
Moment of buoyancy about Aft end way

7.

Launching Curve

Analysis
When the moment of weight about fore poppet equals the moment of
buoyancy about fore poppet the stern lifts.
Weight Buoyancy at time of pivoting is the maximum force coming on the fore
poppet.
Moment of buoyancy about Aft end way should lie above the moment of weight
about Aft end way to avoid tipping.
The least difference is the least moment against tipping when weight equals
buoyancy the ship is fully water bone weight and buoyancy should pass before the
aft end way to avoid dropping.
Grease pressure can be determined at the tipping point. Height of tide also can be
determined.
8.

Step by step procedure of calculating the launching curves

First approximate LCG and weight can be calculated from shell expansion
drawing.
Then Buoyancy and LCB at any position can be found from Bonjeans and Auto
ships
Upto the stern lift the trim is constant. So LCB and Buoyancy can be found from
Bonjeans.

X = Initial slop of K
L = LBP
h = Initial height of Fore poppet above water
e = Distance of fore poppet abaft FP
= Declivity of ground ways
= camber of ground way
= radius of center
Center of arc, F = K2/8R
(f-y) = (K-2x)2
---------8R
Y = K2 (K-2x)2
--- - ------8R
8
=

K2 K2 + 4 kx 4x2
--- - ------------------8R
8
4kx 4x2
-----------

(k x)
---------

2
======

At a dist. x the height of FP above water is

x decrease in height due to slop of ground way
y - increase in height due to camper
So at any dist. Of abaft the FPP, the height above water
h-x + y

= h-x+y-t(+x/)
h--x + x(kx)
------- - t ( + x/)
2
If there is no camber = infinite
So, height above water = h - x - t
If t = -ve gives height of keel at FP above water
If t = L-e gives draft of AP
After the stern lifts occurs the condition charges because trim changes.
calculation can only be done to stern lift.

So

Then the condition to be Is

Moment of act about fore poppet = Moment of buoyancy about FP
Wxh =xa
A = approximation value of us
Buoyancy and moment is calculated for several trim. Find the trim at which two
curves meet
9.

Dynamics of launching with diagram

The force accelerating the ship at any instant can be found by

(w-) - way friction water resistance drag force
W = weight acting downwards
= buoyancy acting upwards
= slop of ways
(w - ) = way friction
= coefficient of friction 0.02
K2/3V2 = water resistance
V = velocity of travel
K = Constant = 0.001
Drag fore = w
W = weight of chain
, = 0.4 0.8
Curve 1 : This is the net weight of ship (weight buoyant force) and it becomes
zero when the ship becomes water born.
Curve 2: curve obtained by reducing way friction from weight component. This
also becomes zero when ship floats.
Curve 3: Curve obtained by further reducing water resistant component which
begins from when stern touching the water to ship comes to rest.

Curve 4: Is drag component, only comes into play when ship floats. The
remaining momentum of ship is reduced to zero by drag component and water
resistance component after the ship is becomes water borne.
10.

Side launching

Side launching is done when the water front is limited. Ship slide down
the ways so there is possibility for tipping and dropping. Ships are built on piles
which are collapsible. The ship can roll up to 30 o, so stability at large angles to be
considered. Due to this the waves can change the adjacent shore. Declivity can
be from which to 8 inch and grease pressure vary from 2.5 to 3Tforce
10. Docking

Docking is done for any repairing works in ship. The factors considered while
docking area.

Ensure the blocks are under primary members

Strength of floating docks is to be considered
Stability is a major factor
Strength of docks to be considered
Local distribution between dock and ship
Make sure that the openings on the hull are clear
Make sure that hull fittings are cleared while docking (like echo sounder,
stabilizer, speed loge etc)
Ship should have a slight trim by aft.
Docking is done based on the docking plan
Docking can be in (i) Dry Docks and (ii) Floating docks
Blocks can be selected depending on block pressure and crippling pressure
Block pressure 40 Tf/fb2
Crippling pressure = Total load/Total blocks.* Area of blocks
2. Ships weight
No. of blocks =
--------------------x. block stiffeners
x = mean deflection of stacks

(7)

FLOODING (Answer sheet)

1.

Flooding is caused due collision, grounding, sprinkling of leak due pitting,

welding defects and fatigue

2.

After effect of flooding: results in the reduction of stability and loss of buoyancy
If the reduction in stability is large the ship will turnover or cap size.
If the reduction in stability is not much large the ship will has to an angle, which
will be difficult for launching life boats.

3.

General consideration is given to ships while flooding but importance is given to

passenger ships; get the passengers out off the ship within the limited time. It
means not only to get the passengers on board but also to launch the life boats
with passengers in them. Emergency illumination stickers showing the way to on
board is to be pasted. Limiting the heel, if the heel is large by counter flooding
for the easy launching of lifeboats. Time consideration is a major factor so that
time allowance from collision to the acceptance damage is considered.

4.

During flooding the ship will sink first and then trims until it acquires loss of
buoyancy. So LCB shifts to a new position and the ship trims until the value of B
reaches vertically below G. If the reduction in stability is large the ship will
turnover or capsize. If the reduction is small the ship will heel to an angle. The
hydrostatic behavior can be found by two methods.
(1) Lost buoyancy method (2) Added weight method.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Lost buoyancy method

Added weight method

Displacement remains constant

Water plane area changes
LCG does not change
LCB changes and rechanges back
to the position vertically below G
BML, IT, MCT changes

Displacement changes
No change is water plane area
LCG changes
No change in LCB
Since no change in water
Plane area BML, IT, MCT are
constant.
Sinkage due to added weight

Sinkage due to lost

Buoyancy

5.

Permeability: It is the ratio of the floodable volume to the actual volume of the
compartment.
Floodable volume
Permeability = ---------------------Actual volume

6.

Spaces

Permeability %

Accommodation space
Machinery space
Cargo holds
Stores
7.

Two methods of flooding calculations are

8.

1) Lost Buoyancy method

2) Added weight method
Lost buoyancy method

95
85
60
60

First the volume of the damaged compartment is calculated with respect of

original water plane and then area of the damaged water plane is calculated. If A
is the area of the intact water plane, the lost volume due to buoyancy is 1 and
the area cost is a. So parallel sinkage, z occurs,
1
Z = -------- where = permeability

A-a
Second consideration is taken as the draught is changing with respect to water
plane, newly formed. So trim and MCT are taken into consideration, where

z/2 is the distance taken for the intermediate water plane area formed. Sinkage
will happen till the volume of the lost buoyancy lost is regained from the new
water plane.

Sinkage =

---Am

and

x
t = -----MCT

Where Am is the area of the inter mediate water plane. This process is repeated
until the desired volume are obtained. If the values are greater, the process is to
be repeated. The volume can be checked by Bonjeans for allowable floodability
and damageability. Here G is constant.

9.

Added weight method

Here weight is considered added to the ship to the damaged compartment. Firstly
the calculation is same as for the added weight, then as the water is entering to the
compartment weight is again added with respect rate of entering and can be stop
when the further sinkage becomes negligible.

10.

Damaged stability by lost buoyancy method

The buoyancy lost is regained from the intact water plane as a result of which the
buoyancy in the original position is shifted above the original water place. This
vertical shift of Bo to B1 is the new buoyancy can be given by , v.bb1
-------

bb1 is the distance between centroid of water planes. As Bo shifted to B1 there is a

reduction in BMd. If Id is the damaged water plane inertia, BMd can be calculated
as,
Id
--
So damaged GM,
GM damaged = GM intact + vbb1
Id
-------- - --

Here G is assumed as constant

11.

Damaged stability by Added cut method

In damaged condition the force surface effect is taken into consideration. Here
the position of G varies ad weight is changing. So KG varies depending on the
draught.
GMdamaged = GMintect + bb1 Id
--------- - --- - free surface effect

12.

Asymmetric flooding

For ships with longitudinal bulk heads the water may not flood right across the
ship. The damaged of penetrations is limited by BHDS to 20% of the breadth of
the ship. So the ship will Heel lesser due to BHDS. If is the volume lost due
to flooding.
GM sin = z
GM sin = z
sin = z
-----

GM
If heel is large due to flooding the opposite side compartment are flooded which is
known as counter flooding. This only sinks the ships by linking the heel there by
easyness for bunching life boats.
13.

Floodable length : Floodable length at any point along the length is the length of
an imaginary comprtment.with that point as center, When
allowed to flood,
such that no part of the margin line the is immersed, provided no list.

14.

Bulkhead deck:
It is the uppermost weather tight deck to which water tight transverse BHDS are
connected.

15.

Margin line: Water line drawn tangent to a line 76mm below the bulkhead deck
is termed ad margin line

The significance is that it is the line upto which the ship can be flooded without
any list. The ship is considered lost if water line goes above margin line.
16.

Taking water lines WoLo and W1L1 for intact and damaged condition. Loss of
buoyancy = V1 - Vo
Centeroid of the lost buoyancy is given by
V1 x BoB1
X = -----------V1 - Vo
It is possible to convert this into length that can be flooded, The calculation can

be repeated for a series of water lines until a reasonable figure, is obtained which
gives a curve of floodable length.
17.

18.

Factor of subdivision
It is the ratio of permissible length to floodable length.
Inverse of factor of safely
It is a function of length and criteria numeral
Factor of sub division is low for passengers ships compared to cargo ships.

19.

Criterion numeral is defined as the criterion of the service of ship taking into
account, number of passengers, machinery volume, Accommodation spaces and
total volume of the ship.

(8)
1.

PROPULSION

(Answer Sheet)

The lift and drag forces on a blade section are generally represented by non
dimensional terms where are the coefficient of life (CL) and coefficient of Drag
(CD)
L
CL = --------- AV2
= density of fluid
A = Area of plan form of section
v = velocity of flow
D
CD = --------- AV2

2.

L = lift force
D = drag force
F = Resultant force
V = velocity of flow
Lift force is perpendicular to velocity of flow and drag force is parallel to
velocity of flow and is the angle of attack.
3.

4.

Lift generated on an aerofoil section:

Consider an aerofoil section with a velocity of flow v. According to
Bernoullis equation there will be corresponding decrease in pressure at back and
increase in pressure at the face. Due to this a circulation is created around the
aerofoil which will results in the lift of aerofoil.

The net pressure on the face and back gives the lift generated in aerofoil.
5.

Aspect ratio = span / chord

It is the ratio of span to chord of a propeller blade or rudder.

6.

Stagnation Point

Considering a fluid flour around a circular section. At points A and B the velocity of
fluid is zero and these points are called stagnation point.

At the stagnation point kinetic energy of the fluid is fully converted to potential
energy.
6.

KT (thrust coefficient)
It is the non-dimensional coefficient of thrust
T
KT = ---N2D4
KQ (Torque coefficient)
It is the non-dimensional coefficient of torque produced by propeller
KQ =

Q
---N2D5

J (Advance Coefficient)
It is the ratio of axial velocity (Va) of the propeller to ND
Va
J = --ND
8.

If subscribe S represents ships propeller and m models propeller and are

geometrically. Similar operating at same advance coefficient
s
3
---- = ----
Tm m
Ts

a)

Ds
---- (ratio of linear dim.)

where =

Dm

Tm = Ts. m
--------3
s

b)

ND
---- = is also const. so,
Va

Ns
Vas
Dm
---- = ------- x -----Vm
Vam
Ds

1
=

-- 0.5

Nm = Ns 0.5

c)

Thrust power = T.Va

Ps
s
--- = ---- 3.5
Pm
m
Pm = s. m
------s . 3.5

d)

9.

Ratio of torque
s
s
---- = ---- 4
m
m
s. m
m = -------s . 4

Open water efficiency = o = PT

----

PD
It is the ratio of thrust power developed by the propeller to power delivered when
propelling the ship in open water.
o =

PT
=
---PD

T.Va
-----2N
= torque
N = rpm
Va = axial velocity
T = Trust by propeller

10.

We have Vw = Vs Va, but Vs the velocity of ship remains same and there only a chance
of increase in Vw means Va will have to reduce. Since J = Va / ND, there is chance of
reduction in J in actual case. So we take a point slightly forward (4 to 8 % )to maximum
propeller efficiency point as the design point

11.

Different series diagram for propeller

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Frodues methodical series

Taylors methodical series
Gawn methodical series
Troost methodical series
Van Lammersen series

12.

Open water test: are used to determine the work and relative rotative efficiency.
It is carried out in towing tank. The propeller is fitted head of the stream lined
housing and pushed ahead with the carriage in undisturbed water. Records of
thrust and have taken for a range of carriage speeds and rpm. The test provides
data of propeller in uniform flew, which eliminates cavitations. The result
obtained as series data is used for design purpose, making allowance for actual
floor conditions. The different series data are provide, Taylor, Gawn series data
etc.

13.

Wake: The relative velocity of water to that of ship in propeller location is termed
as wake.
The three elements of wake are:
1.

Velocity of water as it passes round the hull varies being less than average at
ends
2. Due to viscous effects, hull drag a volume of water along with it.
3. Due to waves, created by hull, water particles moves in a circular orbit.

The first two components will reduce velocity into propeller. The next component
will increase or decrease depending on wave crest or trough. Wakes varies across
the disc of propeller so average is taken for design.
14.

Froudes wake fraction = Vw

---Va
Taylors wake friction = Vw
---Vs
Va = Speed of advance of propeller
Vs = Speed of ship
In preliminary propeller design before detailed wave pattern is known, an
average speed over the whole disc is taken and it is usually expressed in fraction
of speed of volume of propeller or ship
Wake velocity, Vw = Vs- Va

15.

Range of wake fraction : for a single screw ship is from 0.25 to 0.3

16.

Relative Rotative efficiency : R is the ratio of efficiency of the propeller working

to that of propeller. It is often taken as unity for design calculations.

17.

Thrust deduction factor

T = (T-R)
-----T

T = Thrust reg.
R = Resistance of base hull

Thrust of the propeller will always be more than bare hull resistance.
18.

Open water efficiency (0) = PT

--PD
It is the ratio of thrust power developed by the propeller behind the ship to power
delivered in open water.
It is the ratio of power delivered by propeller in open water to power delivered by
propeller, behind the ship.
Hull efficiency (H) = PE
--PT

It is the ratio of effective horse power of ship with appendages to thrust power
developed by propeller.
19.

Quasi Propulsive coefficient (QPC)

QPC = H . 0 . R
-----------------Appendage coefficient
QPC =

22.

Propeller theories
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

23.

Propulsive coefficient
----------------------------Transmission efficiency

Momentum theory
Blade element theory
Lifting line theory
Surface vertex theory
Vortex lattice theory

Concept of Momentum theory

Concept of based on Newtons second law and Newtons third law of motion.
ie., rate of change of momentum equals force acting and for every force there is
an equal and opposite reaction.

Here the propeller in replaced by an actuator disc.

Velocity of water entering the disc Va is increased to Va(1+b) as it leaves the

disc means there is a change in momentum.
The thrust is produced by the momentum change taking place along the disc.
24.

Concept of Blade element theory

Propeller thrust is obtained by the force acting on the blades, and
integrating this over the propeller radius.

Thrust and Torque can be calculated by considering the flow condition on a blade
element and then integrating from hub to tip.
25.

Need for special propeller

The ships are becoming larger and faster, but propeller diameters remains limited
by draft and other factors. The aim of propeller design is to achieve high
propulsive efficiency at reduced noise and vibration, along with minimum
cavitation. In the case of conventional propellers it is difficult to attain this aim.
So special propellers are needed to satisfy this aim.

26.

Types of special propellers

1. Vertical axis propeller
2. Controllable pitch propellers
3. Contra rotating propellers
4. Ducted propellers
5. Super cavitating propellers
6. Surface propellers
7. Tandem propellers
8. Overlapping propellers
9. Water jet propulsion
10. Paddle wheels

27.

Two types of vertical axis propeller

Kirsten-Boeing
Voit-Schneider

28.

CPP are used in Tugs, Trawlers, Fire boats, Ferries, Fire boats, Ice breakers and
small warships
Advantage of CPP are
-

29.

Full power of main engine can be utilized in also loading conditions (ie. in static,
towing, free running, ice breaking, rough weather, shallow water conditions etc.)
Can produce a higher astern thrust at maximum efficiency
Produces better acceleration, stopping and maneuvering characteristics
Reduces weight and space because of non reversing engine
Speed of the ship can be varied without changing engines speed
Speed of ship can be directly controlled from navigational bridge
Propulsion can be done at max. efficiency over a range of ships speed.
Ducted propellers are used in heavily loaded ships and high speeds ships to
reduce cavitation.

In the case of accelerating ducts (Kort nozzles) circulation is developed around

the duct section. Here the thrust developed is equal to thrust of propeller and duet
together. This is usually greater than thrust produced by open propeller, whereas
torque is smaller. Therefore the efficiency of propeller is greater than open type.
In the case of decelerating ducts (pump jets) it reduced the inflow velocity
towards propeller thereby reducing pressure. This type also has a circulation
around the duct which produces an outward directed lift with a component
directed aft. Here the duct thrust is negative. Therefore, the efficiency is
decreased, but the cavitations properties are increased with respect to an open
propeller. So they are used in high speed hydrodynamic to minimize cavitations
and noise.
30.

Principle of super cavitating propeller is sheet cavitations. Here pressure drops

below vapor pressure along the whole back of the propeller blade. So they are
used in propellers where unacceptable limits of cavitations cannot be avoided.
30. Surface Propeller: is a screw propeller which operates in shallow water. This
types of propellers are semi submerged in water so that propeller blades enter
and leave the surface of water for every one revolution. They are fitted behind

the hull instead of placing under the hull. Under water appendages, which
support the propeller like shaft bracket, A bracket can be avoided thus by
reducing the appendage resistance. The main advantage is that it can have
large diameters since they are located behind the hull and can operate in
shallow water. They are also not affected by cavitations. The main
disadvantage is the hydrodynamic forces on blades unsteady are blades enters
and leave the water.

31. Contra rotating propellers: Consists of two propellers rotating in opposite

directions on co-axial shaft, one being place close behind the other. They
impacts directional stability and reduce rotational energy losses in the slip
stream. They are generally use din torpedoes.

The main advantage is that the thrust load required is distributed between the two
propellers there by increasing efficiency. The propeller diameter and blade area
ratio can be reduced. Main disadvantage is greater weight and complicated
gearing system and coaxial shafts.
32. Tandem propellers: consists of two propellers mounted on the same shaft and
rotating in same direction. The total thrust required is divided between the
two propellers provided that propellers are of same diameter and same number
of blades. The main disadvantage is that rotational energy loss is higher and
greater weight.

33. Overlapping propellers: Consists of two propellers located at longitudinal

position of a single conventional propeller, but with a shaft at a transverse
separation less that the diameter of either propeller. If the two propellers are
in the same transverse plane the two shafts must be interlocked, if they are at a
small dist. apart along the length of ship, the shafts must be independent. The
main advantage is that load is distributed by the two propellers. They work in
a region of high wake, therefore hull effects is higher.

Main disadvantage is increased noise, vibration and cavitation due to mutual

interaction. They are usually designed for out board turning.
34. Water jet propulsion: consists of pump with an impeller inside the ship which
draws water from outside, imparts an acceleration to it and discharges it in a
jet above the water line at the stern. This jet reaction provides the thrust to
propel the ship. They are used in high-speed ships.

Advantages

Appendage resistance can be reduced since there are no appendages.

They can be used in shallow waters
Good maneuverability, backing and stopping are obtained
No reed of reversing the main engine, because .. is no reversing gear in
propulsion plant
Less noise and vibration
Torque of the water jet unit is constant over the complete speed range. Ie.,
engine is not overloaded because full water is maintained at low speed
Speed of ship can be controlled without altering rpm of engine.
Disadvantages
Unit occupies large space inside the hull and water passing through caused a
decrease in buoyancy
Creating provided to prevent . Getting into the system decreases the
efficiency as it gets clogged.
36.

Cavitation
It is the phenomenon which occurs on objects having aerofoil blades in a medium
at high speeds..

Net force on the face and back side gives the lift force, this is due to the reduction
in pressure on back and increased pressure on face. As the pressure in back is
reduced, water vapor pressure is reached, then water boils and bubbles are
formed. These bubbles get into area outside water vapour pressure area along the
flow and implodes. This phenomenon is termed cavitation. This results is erosion
and high local force.

37.

Cavitation number:

 = (P0 e)
--------1/2 AV2
e = water vapour pressure
P0= pressure at center of hub
v = velocity
- cavitations number reduces as velocity increases.
38.

Different forms of cavitation

Depending on nature of cavitation
- Bubble cavitation
- Sheet cavitation
Depending on where it occurs
- Tip vortex cavitation
- Force cavitation
- Hub cavitation
- Bock cavitation

39.

Cavitation Tunnel :

Cavitation tunnel is a closed channel through which an impeller at the lower

section circulates water and model is placed inside the glass viewing ports, at the
upper section. Uniform flow is provided to the test model which is tested in open
water. Vaccum pump provided before the propeller producer negative pressure.
De-aerator is fitted for reducing the amount of dissolved air and gas. In the case
of propeller fitted to hull large tunnels are used. Artificial wake is provided by
fixing grid ahead of propeller.
40.

Cavitation test results.

41.

Bucket diagram
They are used to design propeller. The design point should be inside the bucket
which is the no-cavitation region. During operation the cavitation number and
angle of attack of the designed propeller must be inside the no cavitation region of
the diagram

42.

Isotachs:

Isotachs represents the amount of axial flow on a propeller or lines of constant

velocity. It we integrate all velocities and taking average we will get wake
velocity, Vw.
43. Sample velocity vector is a representation of resultant of tangential and radial
velocities at a point along the radial length.

44.

Different views of propeller:

Projected view is a projection on a plane normal to the shaft.

Developed view is a projection on a plane normal to the trust of the blade
Expended view is a projection on a plane after the blade is mode flat.
44. A surface generated by a line rotated about an axis normal to itself and advance
in the axis of rotation in constant speed.

46.

Blade area ratio

It is the ratio of blade area to the area of circle circumfrensing the propeller.

47.

Skew is the circumferential displacement of the blade tip from normal

Rake is the distance in profile from the normal to the axis

48.

Different blade sections:

cambered force

are flat face circular back, Aerofoil section and

49.

Right handed propeller: propeller rotation is clockwise and moving ahead when
looking from aft. In twin screw stbd propeller is right handed propeller.
Left handed propeller: propeller rotation is anticlockwise and moving ahead
when looking from aft. In twin screw, port propeller is left handed propeller.

50.
51.

52.

Pitch distribution is given in order to accommodate the change in wake velocity

radially. The wake velocity is maximum at hub and minimum at tip so that that
the pitch is maximum at hub and minimum at tip.
In twin screw ships propellers are out board tuning.

Q is the angle of pitch

Pitch is the distance at which a propeller advances for each complete one
revolution.
When it rotates in a solid medium

Pitch angle, Q = tan-1 2r

----P

53.

54.

Skew is given to propeller to vary the circumferential velocity.

Rake is given because there is a good clearance between hull and propeller so that
noise and vibration transmission from propeller to hull can be reduced..

(9)

1.

RESISTANCE - (Answer Sheet)

Reynolds number, Rn = VL
---
It is connected with viscocity and so with frictional resistance.
where, V = velocity
L = length
= kinetic viscosity
Rn2000 - Laminar flow
Rn 4000 turbulent flow
Froude number, Fn = V2
--gL
where g = gravity
It is connected with wave making resistance.

2.

If Fn is constant

If Rn is constant

Vm
----gLm

Vm Lm = Vs Ls

Vs
----gLs

Vm = Vs Vs
----------

Lm
Vm = Vs
Vm = Vs.

----

Ls/Lm
Vm = Vs
--

Take

Ls
--- =
Lm

So both the laws cannot be achieved simultaneously

3.

Rn is connected with frictional resistance.

4.

Fn is connected with wave making resistance

5.
6.

Resistance of a ship is the power required to tow the ship at a particular velocity.

For a stream lined body spacing of the stream line changes. Velocity changes
because the mass flow is constant.
The Bernoullis equation for stream line is
P
V2
-- + --- + gh = a constant.

2
7.

Mach number is connected with air resistance

Mach Number = V
--

8.

9.

Free surface is having constant atmospheric pressure. A pressure variation on the

free surface results in waves on the surface. Energy is needed to maintain the
waves and this leads to resistance which is the above making resistance and it is
controlled by gravity. It decreases as depth from free surface.
Fluids are viscous and resistance is produced by that is called frictional resistance.

10.

Components of Resistance:
Wave making Resistance
Frictional Resistance
Viscous pressure Resistance or Form resistance
Eddy making resistance
Appendage resistance
Air resistance

11.

Kelvin wave pattern:

12.

Interference effects:
In the case of ship stem and stern pressure points produce waves of their own.
The forward wave start with a crest and aft wave start with a trough. When the
stem waves reach the sterm waves and interact the crest coinciding with crest
forming high magnitude of the crest coincides with trough which is get
neutralized. As a result of this humps and hollows are formed in resistance
curves. This effect is formed interference effect.

13.

Viscous pressure drag:

Viscocity modifies the flow around the hull which leads to built up of pressure at
aft termed as viscous pressure resistance or form resistance, which depends on the
hull.

14.

15.

Boundary layer:
Volume of water which moves with the body is termed Boundary layer. Boundary
layer thickness is the dist. from the hull at which relative water velocity is 99% of
ships speed.

16.

Laminar flow:
The flow is laminar for Rn 2000. Velocity of liquid element in laminar flow
remains const. in magnitude and direction.
Turbulent flow:
The flow is turbulent is Rn 4000. Flow is unsteady and non uniform velocity
fluctuations and violent.

17.

At critical Reynolds number the flow changes from laminar to turbulent.

18.

Critical Reynolds number:

It is the number at which flow changes from laminar to turbulent flow. Below
critical Rn, resistance is proportional to velocity. Above critical R n resistance is
proportional to V1.723

19.

Turbulent stimulators are used in towing tanks which is used to convert flow from
laminar to turbulent.

20.

Eddy making Resistance

Formed as a result of abrupt change in the shape of the hull form. The effect can
be minimized by stream lining the body. Appendages such as bilge keel, rudder
create eddies. Rudder on activation create eddies. In the case of multi shaft ships
shaft brackets creates eddies. Here the flow breakdown on well rounded from due

to viscosity and pressure distribution in boundary layer. Further form the effect is
more.
21.

Different appendages
Bilge keel
Rudder
Skeg
Stabilizer
Echo sounder
Speed log
Propeller
Shaft bracket

22.

ITTC method
Steps for calculation of resistance of ship from model test:
1.
2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.
8.

RTM is found which is the total resistance of model from the measuring tank.
Total resistance coefficient , CTM = RTM
----is found
sv2
where = density
s = wetted surface area
v = velocity
Frictional resistance coefficient of method can be found from ITTC formula
Cfm = 0.075/ (log10Rn-2)2
Viscous resistance coefficient = Cvm = (1 + K) Cfm
where K = form factor
Residuary resistance coefficient of model
Crm = CTm - Cvm
Equating Cr for model and ship
Crm = Crs
Friction resistance coefficient of ship is found , Cps from ITTC formula
Viscous resistance coefficient of ship is found
Cvs = (1 + K) Cps + Cf
Where Cf is the roughness allowance

9.

Cfs = Crs + Cvs + Cta

Cts = Total resistance coefficient of ship
Cta = Air resistance coefficient
= 0.01 AT/S (AT = Tr. Projected area)

23.

Froudes Method: of calculation of resistance of a ship from model test.

Steps
Total resistance of model from model test at corresponding Froude number
1.
(RTM)
Calculate the frictional resistance of the model on the basis of a flat plate
2.
equivalent surface = Rfm
Residuary resistance of model is found out by frictional
3.
resistance of model from total resistance of model
Rrm = RTM - Rfm
Residuary resistance of ship is found out by
4.
Rrs = Rrm s
---m
Frictional
resistance of ship is found out on the basis of a flat plate
5.
equivalent surface - Rfs
Total resistance of ship is the sum of Residuary resistance of ship and
6.
frictional resistance of ship
RTS = RFS + RRS
7.

Appendage resistance and air resistance we found and added to total

resistance of ship

24. Specific Resistance coefficient = R

--- SV2
R = Total resistance
= density
S = welted surface area
V = velocity
25.

Wetted surface area can be found out by plotting girth length of ship at various
points along the length to base of ship length and integrating.
Wetlted surface area can be calculated by two formula (approx)
i)

Dennys formula, S = L (CB.B +ITT)

Where L = Length
B = Breadth
T = Draft
CB = Block coefficient

ii)

Taylors formula
Where in tones

S = C(L)0.5

L in m.
C = 15.2 to 16.5

26.

Methodical series tests starts with a parent form. In this test a number of
significant form parameters are varies and results obtained shown as graphs.
Resistance varies with the form parameters. This test is very useful in estimating
the power requirment for new designs. One of such test is by Admiral Taylor.

27.

Two series data of methodical series tests are

BSRA - British Ship Research Association
DTMB - Dutch Towing Model Basin

28.

Roughness: It is a major factor in determining frictional resistance. Structural

roughness depends on design and method of construction and waviness between
frames. Roughness also depends on corrosion and pitting. Roughness is also by
fouling by weeds and barnacles. Roughness allowance usually given is 0.0004

29.

Ahead Resistance coefficient (ARC)

= Fore and Aft component of wind resistance
------------------------------------------------------ VR 2AT
Where VR = Relative velocity
AT = transverse cross sectional area
For tankers ARC = 0.7 wind ahead up to 500 (LS 0.85m)
ARC = 0.6 0.7 wind ad tern upto 400

30.

Effects of ship parameters on Resistance

1.

2.

3.

Length : increases means frictional resistance increases because welted

surface area increases and wave making resistance decreases. C p is the effect
of wave making resistance.
Form: represents Cb or CP. Fullness increases means resistance increases.
Further ships have greater disturbance Cb decreases means dead weight
decreases. So both of them should be taken into consideration.
Slimness: L3
----
Slimness means high L/B value greater means steeper angle of entrance
and run. For high-speed ship 1/3/L is kept low. Increase in volumetric
coefficient increases resistance.

4.

5.

6.

7.

31.

B/T - Increase in B/T increases resistance. In very high B/T ratio, the flour
will go vertical and can reduce resistance. B increases means disturbance
increases.
LCB : Governs the fullness the end of ship 10% forward of midship for
slow ships and 10% aft of midship for fast ships. LCB at aft of midship will
create eddies and forward of midship will allow smooth floar.
Section shape : For slow and moderate ships U sections at forward and V
sections at aft
Bulbous bow : bulb reduces the wave making resistance. They are fitted for
high speed ships. For slow speed ships bulb changes the four pattern and
reduces frictional resistance.

Model Experiment
Model experiments are done in towing tanks. Towing tanks have greater length
but breadth is small. Models are attached to carriage which slides over the tank.
Models are made of wood, FRP or paraffin wax. Resistance test are done in
smooth water. Tanks are fitted with wave makers or turbulent stimulators. The
platform has a dynamometer attached to measure the speed. Here we can measure
various motions and resistance. Models attached to the carriage should be free to
pitch and heave. Model basins are used to study model performance when
maneuvering in waves.

32.

Full scale test are conducted to find the scale effect. Scale effect means the
predicted value of model and value of actual ship gives a small difference. So to
find this full scale tests are done. For doing full scale trials the shape is towed or
moved by jets high on ships.

33.

Laws of comparison

34.

Equipments used in towing tanks are

-

Carriage to which model is attached

Dynamo meter attached to platform for speed measuring
Turbulent stimulators and wave makers for making regular and irregular waves
Camera to records the path of model and various motions

(10)

1.

- (Answer Sheet)

Maneuvering is the ability of a ship

-

2.

MANEUVERING

To maintain dynamic and directional stability

Response to movement of control surface
Ability to turn in a specified space
Ability to maintain constant depth for submarine
Ability to change depth in submarines
Case with which ship can be controlled in a horizontal plane
Principle of directional stability

Considering the arrows with large tail area, whose path of travel represented by
path of travel of its CG. If a small disturbance deflects the arrow by , a lateral
force F is produced at its tail since lateral surface area is more towards tail. This
force can be converted to F acting on CG and a moment. F will to by to charge
direction and M will try to decrease. So arrow will defect to a new path with a
direction similar to initial path. If this principle is applied to ship so that if there
is a deviation in its path of travel, hydrodynamic force will acts on centroid of
wetter surface area on one side which will tend to move the ship to a new path
and reduces . The resultant force must act in centre of lateral resistance which
is aft of G
3.

Center of Lateral Resistance

It is the centeroid of lateral surface area which makes the angle of attack during a
turning.

4.

Ships can be made more directionally stable by using large skegs, using a large
area rudder, increasing slenderness of ship (increasing T/L ratio)

5.

Neutral point is the point along the length of the ship, in which an applied force
does not cause the ship to steer from its constant heading. This point is 1/6 L of
the ship from bow. That is if we place a rudder at neutral point, the rudder
movement will not cause to steer the ship.
Or Neutral point is L forward of CG of ship.

6.

Rudder is fitted aft because it is the farthest distance from the neutral point for
directional stability and also in propeller stream for directional stability because
rudder lateral force increases due to high stream velocity from propeller.

7.

Various forces acting on a ship

8.

Factors affecting lift are

Cross sectional shape
Area of Rudder
Aspect ratio
Square of velocity
Density of water
Angle of attack
Rudder force, Fr = ArV2 f()

9.

Stall angle of rudder

If angle of attack increases rudder (lift) force also increases. At a particular angle
the lift reaches its maximum value and suddenly reduces and is termed as
stalling. This stalling occurs usually at 35-450 and is termed as stalling angle.
ie. the rudder angle is usually limited to 350
It is the angle of attack of rudder of which lift fore on rudder suddenly falls.

10.

CP of Rudder: It is the point on the surface of rudder at which the ruddar lateral
force acts, which the rudder is put to an angle or it is the centeroid of lateral
surface area of rudder through which net resultant hydrodynamic force acts.

11.

Geometry of a turning circle

12.

Drift angle is the angle between the center line of ship and tangent to the path.
Drift angle is measured at the CG of the ship. Drift angle is zero at pivoting point.

13.

Advance is the distance travelled by CG in a direction parallel to the original

course after the rudder is put over.

14.

Transfer: is the distance travelled by the CG perpendicular to the original course

after the rudder is put over.

15.

Tactical diameter is the value of transfer when the ships heading changed by 180
degree. It is the dist. Travelled by CG of ship perpendicular to original course
after rudder is put over till heading changed by 1800.

16.

Pivoting Point is the foot of the perpendicular from the center of the turning circle
to the middle line of the ship extended if necessary. This is the point at which the
drift angle is zero and is about 1/6 L from bow.

17.

Angle of heel when turning: The ship heels inwards when the rudder is initially
applied. The moment is by the athward component of the net rudder force and the
hydrodynamic force acting at CG of hull and the centrifugal force.
Fh Fr = V2
----Rg

Fn = Fr + V2
----Rg

R = radious of turn, V = speed of turn

Moment which causes heel is
(Fh Fr) KG + Fr KH - Fh KE
(Fh Fr) (KG KE) + Fr (KH KE)
EH is very small and can be ignored
So moment causing heel =
(Fh Fr) (KG KE) + Fr EH
(Fh Fr) GE
Initially Fr vets when rudder is pit over and Fh slowly builds up and ship turns
inwards.
The effect of Fr is to reduce heel. If Fh builds up and overcomes Fr then ship
heels outwards. So if Fr is suddenly taken off or put to opposite side the ship will
heel more towards outwards.
For small angle of heel GM sin = (Fh Fr) GE
= V2
------- GE
Rg
GE
---- = Rg sin/V2
GM
================
18.

ZIG-ZAG maneuvering (Kempf maneuvering)

Is used to find out initial response of the ship towards rudder movement.

Ship will go at a steady speed on a straight course

Rudder is out to 200 P and held constant
When the ships heeling charges to 200, the rudder is put to 200 stbd and held
constant, till ships heading changes to 200in opposite direction.

Repeat the experiment

Time between the successive rudder movements is noted.
Overshoot is the amount by which ships heeling exceeds 200 before it reducing
after the rudder is reversed. Experiment is repeated for different speeds, different
values of rudder angle and heading deviation.
Overshoot decreases with increased stability and rudder effectiveness.
19.

Spiral maneuvering
-

Indicates directional stability or instability

From a steady speed and straight course rudder is out to say 15 0 stbd. Then ship
setters to a steady rate of heading and is measured. Then rudder angle is changed
to 100 stbd and steady rate of heading is measured. Then successive rudder
angles of 50 stbd 00 , 50 P, 150 P etc. and rate of heading is noted.

For a stable ship, there will be unique rate of turn for each rudder angle.
For an unstable ship, the graph has two arms for smaller rudder angle, depending
on whether rudder is approached from above or below the value.
The ship is unstable inside the loop. It is impossible to predict the ships way
during turning and depends on disturbing faces of ocean. This gives the range of
rudder angle over which the movement of ship is indeterminant.
20.

Pullout maneuvering: to determine the direction stability of ship.

Rudder angle is put to predetermined and held. When the ship is turning at a
steady rate, rudder is returned to midship and change of rate of turn is noted.
If stable rate of turn reduces to zero and if unstable the ship will take a new path.
If the area under the graph is small the ship is more stable.

21.

Standards of Maneuvering
Large Rudder can increase directional stability and turning moment.
Increase of T/L will improve directional stability
Increase of B/L improves turning but reducer the directional stability
Large skes will improve directional stability, but poor turning ability.
Technical diameter/Length : 3.25 4.5 at 350 rudder angle
Turning rate : 30/sec. for naval ships
0.50-10/sec. for other ships

Speed on turn = 60% of straight course

Angle of heel = very important in passenger ships
For directional stability there should not be loop in spiral maneuvering
For pull out maneuvering, when rudder in centered
15-200 change is good stability
35-400 average
80-900 not good
For ZIG ZAG maneuvering 200P - 200 stbd
80-30 sec for t-20 knots for a ship of 150m length
Overshoot5.50 for 8knts and
8.50 for 16 knts
22.

Selection of Rudder
Based on - shape of stern of the ship
- size or area of rudder required
- capacity of steering gear available

23.

Conventional Rudder have stream lined shape. They are double plated structures
Conventional rudders are classified, based on degree of balance Balanced,
unbalanced and semi balanced rudders
Based on suspension simplex and spode rudders

24.

Different between balanced and unbalanced rudder:

For balanced rudder center of pressure is on the rudder axis
For unbalanced rudder the center of pressure is at a large dist. From rudder axis
Balanced rudders require less torque to turn it.
Unbalanced rudder regwire large torgue to turn the rudder.

25.

Simplex Rudder Conventional rudder with .. supports or support from hull.

Rudder is fitted to stern frame by rudder post. In most case simplex rudder is
unbalanced.

Spade rudder conventional rudder with in a suspended condition from stern

frame. Rudder is filled to stern frame by rudder stock.

26. Bow rudder is fitted at the forward point of .. at the bow. It is fitted to
control path and heading independently. In war ships it acts as a stand by to aft
rudder. It is less effective compared to aft rudder.
27.

Controllable pitch propellers are used for . Thrusters. They are used
because they reduce the turn around time and enhances economy of operation.

28.

Special Rudder : are used to improve lift to drag ratio conventional rudder are of
limited use at low speed i.e. special rudders are used to improve response at low
speeds.

29.

Flap rudder
In this an additional flap is provided at trailing edge of rudder which is capable to
move to a greater angle than main portion. One third of total area of rudder is
used as flap. Angle of flap is twice that of main rudder. Provides better lift
characteristics system is complicated because flap is moved independly.

30.

Flectner Rudder : an example of flap rudder. Flaps of quite small area at trialing
edge can be moved .. as to induce hydrodynamics forces on the main rudder
assessing the turning it. It reduces torgue required for steering gear.

31.

Other types of rudders:

-

Active Rudder
Kitchen rudder
Balanced reaction rudder
Lateral thrust units
Voith Schneider propeller

32.

Simplex Rudder
-

33.

Double plate construction

Lift tube to lift rudder for repairing works
Vertical and horizontal stiffners
to drain water.
Main Basin / Quay Trials :

34.

All piping systems and pumps

Electrical power plants with all lights and electrical load
Main and auxiliary machines and associated alarms
Ventilation and air conditioning
All main engine control systems
Cargo pump capacity trial
Navigational and radio equipments
Deck machinery
Alarms and controls
Steering system
Bilge and balast system
Fuel oil system
Fire fighting, CO2 and foam systems
a) Speed Trial
Trial speed is to be measured at a certified mile course or by GPS
Speed trial consist of a double run and speed ..be obtained by the average
of these two consecutive runs.

Two parallel posts each at a distance of 1 knotical mile is placed store.

Experiment structs when ship reaches in line with the posts and ends when it pasts
the post. Time to travel between these two posts are taken for speed calculation.
Experiment is done 2 to 3 times because of disturbances.
Two such runs are conducted at 90% MCR condition and one double run at 50%,
75%, and 100% MCR.
b) Crash stop astern
This is carried out commencing with full ahead when the vessel is running full
ahead to MCR and shall be continued till the vessel runs to full astern at normal
asbern.
c) Turning Test
Measurement of tuning circle at MCR out put of main engine, taking 35 0 of
angle to port.
d) Zig Zag test
Test is carried out at 90% MCR of main engine by setting the rudder angle to 20 0
port and 200 stbd and also at 100 P and stbd.
e)

Endurance test

Four hours endurance trial at maximum conditions out put of main engine using
HFO, including two hours fuel oil consumption measuring shall be carried out.
Bunker consumption to be found is service speed and at max. conditions rating of
main engine for full load and ballest conditions.
f) Stopping inertia test
carried out by stopping the engine when the ship is running full heat at 90%
MCR. The ship is continued to run till the speed comes down to five nots.
35.

Model experiments in maneuvering

-

A model with geometrical and dynamical similarities are mode

Battery electric motors to drive propeller

36.

Radio control links for rudder and motor controlled

A Basin with 122m x 61m is needed
Overhead corner as are fitting to photograph the path of model
Models are radio controlled and fitted with . to sense heel.
Lights are provided at bour and stero, so that model moves is a known datum
plane
Lights are photographed using a multiple exposure technique
The print is superimposed on a grid to enable the light positions to be reed off and
drift angle deducted
Speed and turning path are deducted
Heel angle recorded inside the model
Rudder forces and movement are recorded
Results from model experiment for maneuvering

Speed and turning path

Heel, rudder force and moments
Drift angle
Results from model experiment for directional stability

37.

In obluguw tour best, derivatives of forces and moments with respect to your
angle measured
Viscous effect on forces both with and without propeller are found out
Rotating arm facility is used to measure forces at various your angles for a range
of speeds and path of
These data obtained can be used to study situations of non-linerities
RMM to study liner directions of velocity and acceleration
..and . Motions is obtained by force oscillating
the
Turning circles, Zig-Zag maneuvering are predicted.
PMM Test : (Planar ratio mechanisom test)

38.

Used to study the linear derivatives of velocity and acceleration

Model is force oscillated in towing condition
.. swaying and motions are carried out
CPMAC
The rate of turns or curvature that can be applied in PMM tests are limited and
test do not provide good information. I computerized planar motions carriage
system have the features to do obligue . Test, rotating arm test and PMM

39.

Ship Trials

For model ship .

Actual ship has not an exact trajectory compared to model test. So there should
be sufficient between model and ship to believe that model behavior
respects ship

(11)
1.

SHIP DESIGN TEST I

(Answer Sheet)

Design is an arrangement of elements that go into human production. It is an

activity that integrates the existing bodies of knowledge. In Design field
Designers create and Engineers analyse.
Design process is a series of operations leading to an end. Here a step by step
description is needed for completing an activity. Design documentation provides
-

2.

Important issues
Process is explicit
Known to every one
A record of decision is mode for future reference
Standardised in companies

Safety aspects in Design

Plimsol mark to limit the loading of ship
IMO requirements to be satisfied for stability of the ship
Safety margins or safety factors
Faculty free analysis to break down the problems into parts
Risk analysis to analyze the risk and to overcome it
Use of statistics and probability in design for risk assessment

3.

Risk factors

4.

The major risk factors are

Not achieving contract speed
Not achieving dead weight
Structural failure
Collision in a crowded sea
Mitigation or Risk management
It is the use of Risk analysis to identify ways to reduced the identified risks

5.

Fire main categories of world fleet

1. Cargo ships
2. Passenger vessels
3. Naval vessels
4. Other self propeller vessels

5. Barges and other Inland water vessels

Types of cargo ships

6.

Tankers (liquid cargo carriers)

Dry bulk carriers (grain, Coal and ore carriers)
General cargo carriers (Containerized, R0-R0, Packaged, Palletized)
7.

Different liquid cargo carriers

Oil carriers (Crude oil and refined petroleum products)
Chemical carriers (phosphoric acid, Methanol, etc)
(Gas carriers (LPG & LNG)
Other carriers (water, fruit juice, molasses, vegetable oils, wines, asphalt, motton
sulphur etc)

8.

Different general cargo ships

They are of four types based on configuration
1.
2.
3.
4.

9.

Container ships
Roll-on/Roll-off ships
Refrigerated ships
Packages or bundles type ships

Different passenger ships

They are also four types based on service
1. Cruise ships
2. Deep sea ferries
3. Short sea ferries
4. Fast ferries

10.

Different offshore industry vessels

-

Anchor Handling Tugs

Supply boats
Crew boats
Stand by / Rescue boats
Other offshore vessels
a. Offshore drilling equipment
b. Offshore construction equipment
c. Offshore production equipments

11.

Different offshore drilling equipments

Drill ships
Jock ups
Drilling barges
Semi submersibles
Submersibles

12.

Different offshore construction equipments

Derrick barges
Pipe lay barges

13.

Different offshore production equipments

Floating production unit (FPU)
Floating storage .
Floating production storage and offloading (FPSO)

14.

Main categories of marine industry

The main five categories are
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

15.

Ship design firms

Ship construction firms
Marine manufacturing firms
Ship operation firms
Ship repair firms

Supporting Industries
Supporting industries which comes under marine industries are
Marine surveyors
Pilots
Terminal operations and stevedores
Ship brokers
Shipping agents
Port Authorities
Ship breakers
Marine Insurance brokers
Marine lawyers
Bunkering companies and ship chanallers

16.

main manufacturing firms

1. Engine manufactures
2. Propeller manufactories/bour thrusters
3. Steering and mooring systems manufactures
4. Cargo handling system manufactures
- This includes communication system Alarms, Systems and
Controls Collission avoidance system integrated bridge systems
17.

Different ship operations : This includes

Govt. owned ship operators
Navies and other governmental agencies
Major multinationals
Independent ship operators
Owner operators
Ship managers

18.

Different Registeries (For registration of ship)

Panoma
Liberia
Honduras

19.

Initial cost
This includes building costs
Spare parts costs
Owner furnished materials
Plan approval
Owners supervision
Administrative and legal expenses

20.

Operating costs : mainly includes Fuel costs

Also

21.

Voyage costs
Port and canal costs
Tug service costs
Cargo tendling costs
Cargo damage claims
Hold celeings
Dunnage
Pilotoge

Daily costs
Includes

crews wages
Insurance

Benefits
Overheads and miscellaneous expenses
22.

RFR - Required Fright Rate is the ratio of average annual cost to tons of cargo
that carried each year

23.

IMO - International Maritime organization

Main functions are
-

To provide machinery for cooperation among governments

Deals with technical matters of all kinds affecting shipping engaged in
international trade
To encourage, facilitate and adopt high standards concerning maritime safety,
efficiency of navigation and prevention and control of marine pollution from
ships
It is an international forum not a government body
It consists of an assembly, council and four main committees
It has a permanent representative from IACS
It developes and adopted nearly 40 conventions and 100s of codes and
recommendations.

24.

Four committees of IMO

25.

1. Marine safety committee (MSC)

2. Marine environmental protection committee (MEPC)
3. Legal committee
4. Technical co-operation committee
5.
Marine safety committee (MSC) deals with
Maritime safety procedure
Maning from a safety stand point
Construction and equipment of vessels
Matters within the scope of navigation
Rules to prevent ship collision
Handling of dangerous cargoes
Hydrographic information
Log book and navigational records
Salvage and ..
Marine causality investigation

26.

Marine environmental protection committee (MEPC) deals in considering any

matters with prevention and control of pollution

27.

Main conventions :SOLAS - safety of life at sea

MARPOL - marine pollution
ICLL - International conventional load lone
International convention of tonnage measurement of ships

28.

IACS International Association of classification Society

It is not a governmental body
IMO develop rules and IACS implements the rules
IMO has a permanent representative from IACS
This society will have a permanent qualified staff

29.

Functions of classification society

To maintain close co-operation with worlds maritime industries
-

30.

To promote improvement of standard of safety at sea

To co-operate and consult with relevant international and maritime organization
Main classification societies
ABS
BV
CCS
DNV
GL
KRS
LRS
IRS
NKK
RINA
RCS

31.

American Bureau of shipping

Bureau veritas
Chinese classification society
Det Norske veritas
Germanisher lloyed
Korean Register of shipping
Lloyds register of shipping
Indian register of shipping
Nippon Kaijee Kyokai
Royale Italino Novale
Russian classification society

DG shipping
Directorate general of shipping
MMD - Mercantile Marine Department

32.

DG shipping deals with implementation of shipping policy so as to ensure the

safety of life and ship at sea
-

Prevention of marine pollution

Promotion of maritime edveation and training in international maritime
organization

Examination and clarification of merchant navy officers

Development of coastal shipping

MMD deals with registration of ships and all related matters

-

Surveys of cargo and passenger ships coming under conventions like SOLAS,
MARPOL, ICLL etc.
Survey during construction of ships
Inspection and approval of statutory equipments like FFA and LSA, navigational
aids etc.

(12)
1.

SHIP DESIGN TEST II

Components of dead weight are

- (Answer Sheet)

Mass of cargo
Mass of stores
Mass of crew
Mass of water ballast

Dead weight, DW = MCA + Mstores + MCR + MWB

2.

Components of cargo mass are

-

Mass of Dry cargo

Mass of Refrigerated cargo
Mass of fluid cargo
Mass of passenger cargo

MCA = MCD + MCR + MCF + MCP

3.

Components of stores are

-

4.

Mass of Heavy Fuel Oil

Mass of Marine Diesel Oil
Mass of Lubricating Oil
Mass of boiler Fuel
Mass of Fresh water
Mass of provisions

MST = MHF + MDF + MLD + MBF + MFW + MPR

Fuel store depends on
- Power of main engine
- Radius of action of ship
- Sailing or working hours

5.

Fuel oil tank capacity

Capacity of Fuel oil tank mainly depends on the
- power of engine
- radious of action
- working hours
Mass of Heavy fuel oil
MHF = bHF - PB . DSE
bHF = specific fuel consumptions of mane engine (HFO) = gms/kwhr

PB = Power of main engine in KW

DSE = No. of days at sea
If RA is Radius of action then MHF = bHF . PB . RA
----- + 10% Reserve
V.24
V = velocity in knots
-

Capacity of HFO tank = MHF

------ m3
PHF

Capacity of MDO, MDO = (bdf . PBA . RA

------ + bDF . PBA .DPO/24 RH) + 10% reserve
V.24
PBA = power of auxiliary engine
DPO = Days loyed in posts
Capacity of MDO tank = MDO
------ m3
PDO
6.

Fresh water tank capacity

Fresh water required = Drinking water + wasting water
Vol. of FW required =
VFW = 20 L x (no. of officers + crews + passengers) + 60L x (no of crews) + 120
L x (no. of officers) + 200 L x (no. of passengers)

no. of days at sea +

10% reserve
If the ship has a desalination plant then Fresh water is needed to be stored for 3 to
4 days.
7.

Basic owners requirements

Type of ship

Service speed
Cargo carrying capacity
Radius of action
8.

Dead weight carrier : is the one in which the main dimensions are fixed
depending on the weight of cargo that can be carried
Eg. Tankers
= Cb x L x B X T X 1.025(HS) = WD + WL
S = Shell, stern and appendage expressed is fraction of modulded

9.

Capacity Carrier : is the one is which main dimensions are fixed depending on
the volume of cargo that can be carried.
Ef. R0 R0 ships, Fishing vessels etc.
VH = Cbd x L x B x D
Cbd = moulded depth block coefficient
D = capacotu depth = depth + mean camber + mean sheer

10.

Linear dimension ship: are one in which dimensions are primary fixed other than
dead weight and capacity. Here we are considering the internal and external
factors. External factors example is, in container ships, the no. of containers to be
considered while choosing linear dimension of ship.

11.

L/B ratio is related to slimmers and so the resistance on ship

If L/B value is small then it is a bulky ship
Therefore higher resistance
If L/B value is large then slim ship, so lower resistance
Ex. Ship with L 130m. , L/B = 6.5
L30m., L/B = 4
30L130, L/B = 4 + 0.025 (L-30)

12.

B/D ratio is primary related to stability of ship

For dead weight carriers = B/D 1.9 (Tankers)
For volume carriers
= B/D 1.65 (fishing vessels)

B/D is also related to hull weight, machinery weight and deck cargo.
13.

L/D is related to strength of ship

Depth is related to deflection and structural strength of hull grider
L/D 10 for General cargo carriers
L/D 12 for bulk carriers
L/D 14 for tankers

14.

T/D is related to free board or reserve buoyancy of ship

T/D 0.7 for general cargo
T/D 0.8 for tankers

15.

Displacement coefficient : is the ratio of dead weight to displacement

CD = Dead weight
------------------------Light ship + Dead weight
CD is related to no. of bulk heads
no. of decks
size of ship
Forces on ship
Standard range is of 0.3-1

16.

Admiralty coefficient : is used to calculate power requirement of a new ship from

the parent ship data.
Admiralty coefficient, Ac = V3.2/3
------PB
V = Velocity in knots
= mass displacement in ones
PB = power required in HP

17.

Displacement from displacement equation

 = LS + DWT
= (SE + ou +EP) + (CA + VCR + FU + FR + SO)
Where,

SE
SEO
------ = ------- = SE = MSE
O

(MSE represents the relative mass of parent ship = SEO

------ )
O

ou = Mou .
EP = MEP . PB
PB can be found from admiralty coefficient
AC = V3 . 2/3
-----------PB

V3 . 2/3
PB = ----------AC

EP = MEP . V3 . 2/3
---------AC
Also, FU = MFU . PB . RA
------ MFU . V2 . 2/3
RA
V
--------- . ----AC
1
= A + B2/s + I
I = (1-A) - B2/3

= known value

So if we draw a curve with and I on x and y axis

We can find the of newship for required I value
Further the displacement equation is modified by Harwald and known as
Harwlyd equation. He introduces a factor called normands factor to find out the
increment of new ship for parent ship.
18.

Two methods of subdivision of light ship

- subdivision of manes according to production
- subdivision of groups according to function preferable for design
Purpose

Usually the subdivision is done in three groups

1.
2.
3.

19.

Steel mass, SE
Outfit mass, OU
Engine plant mass, EP

Two methods of finding the steel mass

For this we need to have a parent ship, from which we can assume the
steel mass depending on the main dimension of the ship. This is done by the two
methods or relations:
1. Cube number
1.

2. Square number

Cube number ; steel mass depends on cube bumber (L.B.D)

SE1 = SEO x L1C

--------L0B0D0

0 represent parent ship

1 represents new ship

If L/D and CB values are different for parent and new ship then correction
is to be given.
For brg ships, steel mass calculated by Eube number will be very high, so another
relation square number is used.
2.

Square number : steel mass depends on square number L (B + D)

SE = SE0 . L1(B1D1)
------------L0(B0D0)
The calculation according to square number is approximately proportional
to shell plating of ship.
20.

Factors depending on length

- Displacement
- Resistance of ship
- Building cost
Length increases means resistance decreases but building cost increases
Length depends on the shape of bour also

21.

Factors depending on Breadth

22.

Increase in Breadth increases the stability of ship but building cost increases
B is a function of L and depends on L/B ration, which represents the slimness of
ship
KM should be increased for higher standers of stability
Superstructures, Deck cargo, Cargo handling equipments depends on B, since KG
value can change affecting stability
External factors like Lock gates or canals
Breadth influence free board and stowage capacity
Factors depending on Depth

23.

Is related to strength of ship

L/D ratio represents strength of ship
Increases the cargo hold capacity
Increased stability as G moves down due to increased depth
For inland vessels depth of canal, height of bridges is affected
Depends of free board regulation
D - T + D Freeboard
Factors depending on Draft

24.

T increases means resistance increases

B/T determines initial stability, since T determines VCB
Large B/T value is favorable in connections with initial stability
Depends on depth of canal, Harbour fecilities
Std. size of containers
TEU - Twenty Fect equivalent units = 20 x 8 x 8.5
FEU - Fourty Fect equivalent units = 40 x 8 x 8.5

25.

Five loading conditions for stability analysis of IMO

-

26.

light ship condition

fully loaded departure
fully loaded arrival
ballast departure
ballast arrival

External conditions of stability analysis

-

Crane loading
Towing condition for Tags
.. of deck
Heeling due to turning
Heeling due to cargo movement

- Heeling due to crocuding of passengers to one side

- wind moment
27.

Static loading condition is the critical case of loading analysis done in the
preliminary design stage
In this case GM is minimum always 100% cargo and
100% stores ie. fully loading condition is the critical case

28.

Approximate method of stability calculation at the initial stage is prohaksas

method

29.

The CG of a ship can be determined by detailed mass calculation after fixing the
settings of the ship.
The CG value depends on mass distribution of the ship
CG also depends on type of ship, supers .. sheer, engine plant
and out fittings
CG is also found from inclining experiment
First we assume KG as a functaion of depth
So, KG = C3D3
Where, DE = DE + (Vss + VDH)
-------------LB
VSS = Vol. of super structure
VDH = Vol. of deck house
C3 varies according to type of ship.
CG of the engine plant is assumed to be at CG of main engine
LCG of the ship can be found from

(13)
1.

AG/LBP 0.875 (AB/LBP) + 0.049

SHIP DESIGN TEST III - (Answer Sheet)

Stowage factor is defined as the inverse of density

Stowage factor = 1/ = m3/t
Cargo hold capacity depends on stowage factor

2.

Depth is the dimension parameter affecting capacity. Depth increases means

cargo hold capacity increases and also the strength.

3.

Tankers have less freeboard because density of cargo (fluid) carried is less than
that of water. So already its having a freeboard. i.e. freeboard is less for tankers

4.

Grain capacity is the capacity of cargo hold including the volume between the
frames of cargo hold.
Grain capacity of cargo hold is 98 to 98.5% of whole volume

5.

Bale capacity is the capacity of cargo hold excluding the volume between the
frames of cargo hold.
Bale capacity of cargo hold is 88 to 88.5% of whole volume

6.

In capacity plan the location and capacities of various tanks like FO tank, LO
tank, FW tank, Ballast tank, Dirty oil tank, etc, are shown. It also show the cargo
tanks and its capacity for tankers. LCG and VCG are shown in the capacity plan.

7.

Capacity curve : is a curve showing the capacities of different sections of the ship
as a curve. It is drawn using bonjean curves. The area of each sections upto the
main deck + vol. of hatch trunk + vol. of cember + vol. of sheer + vol. of cargo
hold in superstructure is taken vertically and joined by a smooth curve at top. It is
used for trim and stability calculator.

8.

Factors influenced by lines are :

Decisive influence on
- resistance increase in a seaway
- course-keeping stability
- sea keeping ability
- maneurability
- roll damping
- size of under deck volume
During Hill shaping
- shape of sectional area curve
- midship section area coefficient and midship section form
- . Forms, forward section forms and FWD water lines
- special bour forms
- stern forms and Aft sections

9.

Factors influenced by LCG and LCB are speed and trim

10.

Various methods of lines design:

- Designed freely or form scratch

- Derived from existing lines by distortion
a. simple affine distortion
b. Modified affine distortion (Interpolation method)
c. Non-affine distortion
- from graph
11.

Free design of lines

-

Fine LBP. Cm, CP, Cb, B, T

Draw a trapezium as follows
Height of trapezium = Am = B x T x Cm
Length of base of trapezium = LBP
Length of top of trapezium = L of parallel middle body
Ratio of trapezium area to rectangle Am x L is CP
Ratio of trapezium area to rectangle B x T X L is Cb
Fix LCB according to resistance and trim calculations
since centroid of trapezium is LCB, distort the trapezium to move the
centroid LCB of ship to fixed position as calculated
- Fair the top edges of trapezium
- Extent the trapezium to fore of FP and aft of AP to get length overall
12.

Lines designs using design curves

-

13.

using Cb and Cw, fix U,V or normal section from Cw, Cb graph
using Cb, fix AB/LBP depending on U normal or V shape
using Cb and L/B, fix iE half angle of entrance
using Cw and iE, fix the load water line
using Cb, fix LE, LP and LR
using AB/LBP and CP, fix the CPA and CPF
from CPAand CPF, fix the area of each station
using area of each station, fix the shape of each station by trial and error

Angle of Entrance : It is the twice of angle made by a tangent to load water line
with the centerline of ship at FP and generally given as half angle of entrance, iE/2
Angle of Run : It is twice of angle made by a tangent to centerline of ship and
load water line at AP and known as half angle of run ir/2

14.

Simple affine distortion method

This method is used on existing design of lines of ship
-

Length, Breadth and Depth are multiplied by a standard ratio

Dimensions on each coordinate axis changed proportionately
Dimension can be L1B1D or all

15.

Scaling for each dimensions may be same or different

Non dimensional values like L/B, B/T, /L3, Cb, LCB
------, Aw, Cm etc remains
LBP
Unchanged
Fore and aft contour can be changed, CBF = C + (0.0211 + a
--- - 0.027Cb)
44
CBA = CB ()
Rearrange the lines of design according to calculation
Modified affine distortion

16.

Using interpolation of two ships design liner to generate a new one

stations of two ships are interpolated
Seeking intermediate values in an arbitrary ratio
According to interpolation, water planes are also interpolated to get a new
displacement
New displacement, N = I + (II - I) X
X = change is breadth as ratio of overall diff. in breadth of two
designs.
Non-affine distortion

17.

Here distortion of section area curve of existing design using parabolic curve
Shift is section areas are plotted as quadratic parabola
The addition area of section is distributed to aft horizontally
The increase in value due to inverse in section area is distributed uniformly to aft
Different types of bow are
Normal bow
Balbous bow
Special bow forms

18.

Adv. Of Raked stem

-

19.

water deflecting effect

increase in reverse buoyancy
greater protection in collision
more attractive

Adv. Of V sections

Greater vol. at top side

Greater B at design WL. More KM
Smaller welted surface area
Less curved surface
Cheep construction
Better sea keeping ability
greater reserve buoyancy
No slamming effect
Greater Deck area
In ballast condition less CB and less resistance

Disadvantages : Here wave making resistance

20.

Adv. Of Flare
-

Defects green area

Increase local reserve buoyancy
reduces pitching amplitude
Increase the height of Righting arm curve

Dis. Adv. of Flare

- Produce more water spray
- more structural material required
- local pitching acceleration and impacts
21.

Design parameters of bulbous bow

-

22.

shape of section
side view
length of projection beyond perpendicular
shape of toward region
position of axis
area ratio
transition of hull

Different bulb forms

- modern bulb forms
- bulbous bow projecting above LWL
- parabolic bow

23.

Effects of bulbous bow on ship characteristics are

- sea keeping characteristics
- effective drag & total resistance
- propulsion characteristics

24.

Design criteria for stern designs

-

25.

course keeping ability and maeovering

bow thruster
trim and free beard
Anchor handling
Sounding devices
length
ice operation

low resistance
avoid vibration
high propulsive efficiency
to minimise focus separation
to provide sufficient propeller clearance

Different types of stern

Merchant or Elliptical stern
.. stern
Transom stern

26.

Adv. of transom stern

- more deck are
- simplified construction
- trim can be improved using wedges
- reduces squatting

27.

Adv. of bulbous stern

- minimised propeller induced vibrations
- more uniform wake

28.

Two bulbous stern

1. Hogners bulbous stern
2. Nitskis bulbous stern
Hogners bulbous stern is concentric to shaft and has a swollen hub\

Nitskis bulbous stern has a bulbged lower section

29.

AsymmFietric aft body is the one which is not symmetric with respect to center
line at the aft sections.
Advantages:
Higher woke froction
Low thrust deduction
Uniform inflour
Pre rotation and reduction in tangential loss

30.

Noenmicke stern is an Asymmetric aft body

31.

Fin fitted in aft is known as Grothues spiler

Purpose is to reduce vibration, power is reduced from 3 to 9%, - Horizontal
straightening of boundary layer . They are hydrofoil find before shaft strit
barrel.

32.

Wake duct is a Ring shaped flow vane of aerofoil type

- fitted to hull as two half rings
- sets at different angles for both sides and symmetrical
- flow creates a circulation around the aerofoil section and
accelerates the flow
- less than half diameter

33.

Forward propellers for breaking the ice by producing a negative pressure due to
section in ice breakers
- in double ended ferries
- in Inland motor driven cargo ships it acts as rudder propeller

34.

Minimum propeller clearance is required to reduce the hydrodynamic forces on

the hull produced by the propeller
-

power requirement
diameter and optimum speed
fluctuation in torque
vibration excitation of propeller and stern

(14)
1.

SHIP DESIGN TEST IV

(Answer Sheet)

Items in Anchor handling system :

Anchor
Heavy chain cable
Hawse pipe
Windlass
Sparing pipe
Chain locker

2.

Hawse pipe:
- It is made of mild steel tube with castings at deck and shell or cast is one
complete unit for each side of ship
- Shell plating is increased is thickness is way of each Hawse pipe and adjacent
plate edges are fitted with mouldings to prevent damage

- There must be clearance for anchor stock to prevent damage by jamming and
they must be strong enough to withstand the hammering effect when the anchor is
received
-chaffing piece is to be fitted at the top of each hawse pipe
- A sliding cover is tube arranged to guard the opening
3.

Function of cable stoppers

- is to lock the chain cable in any desired position and thus relieve the
load from the windlass, when the anchor is out or stowed.

4.

Design aspects of chain locker

5.

- fitted between upper and second deck, below the second deck or in the
forecastle
- It is to be mode of sufficient volume to store chain cable when the anchors are
in the stowed position
Situated forward of collision bulkhead and use this bulk head as the after locker
bulkhead
Chain pipes or spaceling pipes are fitted as near as to the center of chain locker
for easy of stowage
Stiffners are to be fitted outside to prevent the enticing of chain and damage to
locker
Centerline bulk heads are to be fitted to separate the two chain and it is to carried
above the stowed level
Centerline divisions are stiffned by angles, facing both srdes to b/H or solid half
round bar stiffned,
Hinged door is fitted to forward b/H which gives to chain locker from
store
False bottom is to be provided to drain water and mud
Draining is to be provided and hand pump for discharging the drast
Cable end is to be connected to deck or b/H is chain locker
Windlass

For handling and securing the anchor and chain

For handling ropes using for towing the ship
Parts
Capstuns or gypsy heads for mooring and warping operations for keeping
the correct line
Wildcat is a special type of drum for handling anchor chain, which have a
looking head for disengaging and engaging the chain
Drive motor for controlling the operations

Hand break for holding the anchor and chain and to control the speed of
discent
Locking head for engaging and disengaging the chain
Control which includes either electric or electro hydraulic
Windlass is also located at the aft of ship for stern anchoring. Usually
they are located in the bow for handling bower anchors
6.

Types of windlass
Horizontal shaft type
Vertical shaft type
In horizontal shaft type the windlass is placed horizontally above
the deck. The whole unit is above the deck. In vertical shaft type, its power
source is located below deck and have only wild cats and capstans mounted above
deck.

7.

Power sources for windlass

Electro hydraulic drive
Electric drive

8.

Anchor handling equipment is determined by a parameter equipment number

Equipment number depends on profile area, displacement and above deck area
Eq. no.

- Displacement2/3 + 2(B x H) + 0.1A

H = height from summer load line to top of upper most deck
A = Area in profile view of hull, super structure and deckhouse above
summer local water line

9.

Anchor Handling Regulations

-

All windlass shall be capable of being emergency released from the bridge
Tugs for ocean towing shall be equipped with
Anchor handling ships should have arrangement for controlled release of ..
forces in wires
Anchor handling ships should have a stern roller with greatest possible diameter
for with standing max. load
Towing hooks shall be designed for maximum towing force of ship and have a
factor of safety not less than5

10.

Cruciform boll cards and other equipments used for towing should be designed in
most unfavourable directions form 0-600 to either side in relation to ships center
line and 300 upwards in relation to horizontal plane
Types of Anchor

11.

Admirality Anchor
Stockless bower Anchor
Delta Anchor
Pool Anchor
Plough Anchor
Delta twin stank Anchor
Hall Anchor
AC14 Anchor
Minimum requirements for closures are

12.

Which are routinely opened and closed while at sea, such as doors, manholes,
hatches etc
Which are secured normally at sea i.e. remain closed
Eg.
Should have strength equivalent to surrounding structure
Still height and coaming heights should be as of ILLC and in class
Minimum requirements of doors:

13.

Minimum sill height required depending on space protected, height above

assigned . Water line and distance from the bow
Fixed light is to be provided in all door openings to weather deck.
Different doors
Individually Dogged water light doors
Quick acting water light doors
Sliding water light doors
Quick acting air light doors
Frame tight doors
Weather light doors
Non water light steel doors
Non water light joiner doors
Doors within doors

14.

Individually dogged water light door

Provide access to compartments that are not high usuage spaces and do not
require rapid access

eg. are paint rooms, store rooms etc.

Quick acting water light door
Secured using a single lever or hand wheel which operates all dogs
- used in weather decks, main passage ways etc
Non water light Joiner doors
- used in accommodation areas where regulations prohibit use of joiner
wooden doors
Doors within doors
- used inside of water light envelop where large access is required
for movement of cargo, vehicles etc.
16.

Different types of scuttles: (Explanation)

Raised water tight scuttles: installed in exterior and interior areas and in
corners out of high traffic areas. They are placed where rapid access is required.
If may also be used as an alternate access is required. It may also be used as an
alternate access to manned or unmanned spaces.
Flush water tight scuttles: installed in areas with high traffic to eliminate
tripping hazards or smooth trucking hazards. i.e. they are included in flight decks,
hangar decks, passage ways and cargo decks.

17.

Requirements of Manholes
- to ensure two means of escape and to facilitate ventilation
- Its standard practice to provide two manhole to each tank or void space,
located at diagonally opposite corners
- International tank association recommends openings suitable for passage
of injured personal or stretchers
- Min. clearance opening for a manhole should not be less than 460mm
for round holes and 1580 x 360mm for oblong holes
Sliding water tight doors
Used in place of hinged door, when the door sill is less than the prescribed
height above the subdivision load line and when the size of opening is two large
to make a hinged door practicable.

Quick acting air tight doors

Similar to quick acting water tight doors, but installed outside of water
tight structure or above main deck where easy access is required.
Used in passage ways, officer etc.
Prevents fire, toxia vapours etc.
Has three dogs on handle side and no dogs on hinge side
Fume tight doors
Are of lighter construction, but has more tightness than water tightness
Installed in boundary bhds of a space containing hazardous, toxia fumics
etc
Weather height doors
Fitted where water tight door is not required
Made of steel or aluminium
Non water tight steel doors
Used in entrances to store spaces
Made of 5-7mm thick
18.

Requirements of freeing ports

- provided in bulwarks to rapidly drain the enclosed deck areas of green
water
- Rectangular openings 150-200mm high by 600-1200mm long to fit
frame spacing in the bulwark plating at deck level
- ends of freeing ports have a radius shape equal to the height
- vertical guard bars are usually fitted

19.

Mooring ports: are water tight enclosures in the shell plating for mooring
arrangements. They are used when the winches are located below weather deck
or when weather deck is too high in relation to mooring bits. Fairleads (Roller)
are built within the port opening to lead the mooring lines directly to which. They
hinge in bowered and are dogged tighted.

20.

Types of windows:
a.

Rectangular window:
cast or bronze or aluminium frames with steal retaining clips, fitted in
upper levels of superstructure and wheel house
b. Sliding windows :
Vertical and horizontal type

Vertical sliding window descend vertically into a metal pocket below the
window and pan is drained to exterior
c. Large View windows:
In passenger vessels
Fitted with double pane windows with an air escape to minimise the heat
loss
Glass is tinted to prevent solar glare in all latations except . house
d. Wheel house windows
Fitted with wire inserted heat treated plate glass at least 6mm thick for
protection
Two or more windows are fitted with wipers and rotating disc inserts-clear
views, for visibility in rain and snow
Canted out for protection against sun glare and parallel distortion when
looking to the bow
21.

Dead weight scale

Scale which contains free board measurements, TPC, MCT, Displacement
for different drafts in seawater and fresh water. It is a chart kept in wheel house
for the easy assessment of above values for captain for different drafts.

22.

Requirements of fuel oil day tank:

- an over flow pipe
- air vent
- drain valve
- low level and high level alarm
- inlet and outlet ports
- man hole
- slit glass
- vel, to hold fuel oil for a day service

23.

Onboard discharges
-

24.

sanitary discharge
bilge and fire discharge
slope tank discharge
galley discharge
engine cooling water discharge

Noise levels in
- engine rook 110dB
- cabin
- 60 dB

25.

Navigation equipments

26.

Radar
Anemometer
Navigation lights and Flags
Magnetic compass and Clinometer
Autopilot and Gyrocompass
GMDSS, EPIRB, SART
Echo sounder and speed log

Surface preparation
- means before fabrication, all steel and pipings are shot blasted to SA 2.5
and primed
- After fabrication, damaged parts, welds, weld burns etc are removed
using power tools and finished to ST2 before being painted.

27.

Unit of paint thickness : Dry film thickness (DFT) which is measured in microns

28.

Cathodic protection : is provided on ship structures which are subjected to

corrosion
- Zinc or Al anodes are used for cothodic protection
- Number and weight of anodes are calculated based on area to be
Protected
- Anodes are bolted to hull
- Anodes are bolted to Rudder, see chests and ballast tanks

29.

Rules for GA Design

-

30.

SOLAS
IMO
panama canal rules
suez canal rules
ILO 92

Main design aspects while making GA

- depends on the service of the ship
- structural members continuity
- high standard of gear comfort
- adequate trim
- structure to suit GA layout of holds, tanks, machinery space and deck
House
- to locate cargo gear for efficient loading
- smooth movements of crews during work and in case of emergency
- adequate support for cargo gear

31.

Design aspects for container GA

-

32.

Design aspects for Tankers

-

33.

Large tranes
standard size containers TEU and FEU
long verticals stagnations throughout
Torsion box at end and box girders and center

Hose handling cranes

shore connections
P/V valve
Cargo manifoild tray
Drain plugs and butter worth openings for cargo hold tanks

Design aspects for General Cargo

-

34.

Different types of ladders

-

35.

cranes and derricks of different span and range

different types of cargo loading

fixed vertical ladders

spar ladder
inclined ladder
Accommodation badder
Embarkation ladder

Fixed vertical loader:

- access to all cargo holds, bosuns stores, tanks etc.
- not less than two ladders are provided to each shape
- for cargo holds, vertical lodder is installed at each hatch end in way of
structural pillar so that it can be protected from damage by cargo and
imposes the minimum interference with cargo stowage
- container ships lodders are fitted at bulk heads.
Spar ladder
- installed on masts, king posts, stacks, etc. to provide access for
adjustment and servicing of rigging fittings, lines etc.
- fitted with stirrups shaped, so that persons foot will not slide off side
ways
- mode of 76 x 10 mm FB stringers spaced 300mm centers, and are
bolted to lug and welded to most

- provided for interior inspection and maintenance of large diameter posts

- hoops are installed around most for safely
- access is through man hole, where bending stress is minimum
Inclined ladder
-

on weather decks for access from one deck level to another

used in engine room, store spaces
made up of units complete with stringers, treads and hand rails
assembly is then welded to top and bottom of stringer to deck
non slip deck pod at top & bottom
rails made of 32mm galvanised pipe
Treads are non slip steel coverings welded or revelted to stringers
for safety on weather deck, this lsdders are located to avoid tripping
hazards on deck

Accomadation ladder : (Ganoj ways)

- designed to reach from weather deck to light operating draft line at an
angle of 450 to horizontal and along the hull
- length can be adjusted depending on draft conditions
- side stringers are made of light weight metal (Al), wood or channel and
designed to carry 136 kg/tread
- upper end of ladder attached to a portable platform attached to ship side
a deck level
IIIer platform from lower end to facilitate boarding from small ..
Ludders and guard rails are equipped with portable guard rail stanctions
Lower end of the ladder is supported by wire ropes while working
cleared of from over head discharge openings and cargo loading side
ports
- equipped on both sides (p and stbd)
-

36.

Different items and Design aspects on a wheel house layout

-

Rudder Indicator
Helsman chair
Cyrocompass and magnetic compass
Instrument panel
Battery charger
Radar ocemories
Engine Telegraph
Techometer
Steering gear system
Fix Alarm panel

Design aspects
- All equipments needed for communication and navigation is located
together within easy reach
- On all ships VHF, radar and AIS should be located together
- ECDIS display should be fitted close to radar
- confusion between different instrument to be avoided

15.

SHIP DESIGN TEST V - (Anser Sheet)

1.

Design aspects of Accommodation layout

-

2.

Combination of std. rooms of Identical size

Constructed is one or two blocks
More space with adjacent rooms for ranked officers
Mass, galley and stores in lower tiers
Beds are arranged fore and aft, setter in athwardship
Sanitary spaces are vertically aligned
Sanitary spaces should not be located on extender BHDs because of condensation
problem
Berths and not provided near to deck head
Stairways and service trunks should be surrounded by fire BHDs and fire doors
Wheelhouse windows to be arranged to reduce pardlax distortion.
Requirement of closures
Closures are doors, hatches, sutter and man holes

Sill heights and coaming heights as per ILLC

Class I hinged doors are to fitted above bhd deck
Class II and III, sliding water tight doors are fitted in subdivision bhds below bhd
deck
Open/close indicator on the bridge and remote closing control is to be provided

3.

Cargo hatches, side ports and ro/ro bhds are to be gasketed for watertightness and
dogged
Manholes two in no. for each cargo or other tanks are to be placed diagonally in
opposite corners
Hatch covers to be provided with counter balance weight
Ventilation requirements

4.

Wire mesh is to be provided for protection from insects and rats

Fire screens are to be fitted for oil tank vents
Cowls for natural air supply fitted with weather head dampers
Goose neck for natural and mechanical vent system, supply or exhause, watertight
covers with dogs
Mushroom type natural or mechanical supply or exhaust can be screwed down to
make water tight
Lowers on weather bhds, with wire mesh screens
Air lifts also can be used in place of laivers
Bulwarks and rails
Bulwarks

For protection from sea for personal and deck cargo

Sufficient strength for attachment of rigging fittings, lashing deck cargo etc
Should have freeing ports as per ILLC
Steel plates of 6mm thickness and bracket 1.5-1.8m apart
Bridge front bulwark 1350mm and others 1000mm ht.
Bridge front bulwark of venture type wind shield
Break waters on weather deck
Rails

5.

In areas other than bulwark

Stenchions 1.5m apart
Portable in way of hatches to facilitate loading
Guard rails in openings on deck
Grab rails outside deck house, interiors passengers etc.
Ladders
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.

Fixed vertical ladder

Spar ladder
Inclined ladder
Accommodation ladder
Embarkation ladder

Rigging Fittings

7.

Derricks and cranes

Pad eyes in E/R and stern region
Miscellaneous rigging fittings for cargo securing, moving stores accommodation
and E/R having spare parts
Requirements for safe storage of cargo in holds
Sparrings or buttons

Sparring is wood or metal protection of all vertical stiffners

Thermal insulated
Cargo bottoms is sparring on shell frames in cargo spaces
Ceiling

To protect Tank tap

Dunnage
Wooden .. plywood sheets for protection of deck cargo
Wire rope nettings with quick acting lashings on deck
Plastic inflatable dunnage
Bulkhead sheeting

8.

Types of Gratings
-

9.

Sheeting is given in case of bulk heads from boundaries of tanks to prevent

condensation is cargo holds

Wooden gratings for basin stores, dry store to provide walking and working
surface
Al gratings for refrigerated space
GRP gratings
Steel diamond plate for M/C space
Deck coverings
1. Magnesite - In crew quarters
2. Terrazo
- low fire hazards, decorative properties, economical in all wet
spaces, swimming pools, passengers etc
3. Ceramic tiles in wet spaces
4. Rubber tiles and sheets decorate and resilient
5. Vinyl tile most widely used and easy to maintain
6. Carpeting in public rooms, stair ways, passage ways etc.

10.

Electrical load analysis

It is used to find the amount of power that is to be generated by the
generator on board. It is the summation of maximum power rating of all the
sectional appliances on board ship in watts

11.

Items in a Engine room

Main Engine
Generator (Main)
Generator (stand by)
Compressor
Boiler
Sea chest
MDo tank
HFO tank
Oily water separator
Day tank
Setting tank
Engine room pump
Lathe
Control panel

12.

Requirements of Exhaust system

-

Thermally insulated
Sufficient height to be provided for funnel
Exhaust water at higher temp and pressure must be delivered under water
Heating gas recovery coil must be provided
Exhaust must be significant dist. From accommodation

13.

Mooring lines

14.

External forces to be considered while mooring design

-

Wind
Current
Surge due to passing ships
Waves and swell

15.

Change of free board

Mooring equipments

16.

Mooring wires or ropes

Mooring winch
Cap stuns
Fair leads
Bollards
Chocks
Windlass
Stoppers
Mooring wires

17.

Wire lines - for limited movement

Synthetic lines for small ships, where case of handling flexibility of mooring
and lower line tension are important criteria
High modular polyethgiene and synthetic, fiber ropes with strength and low
stretch characteristics can be substituted with steel lines
Winches classification
Control type
Drive type
No. of drums
Types of drums
Brake type

18.

Automatic and Manual Tensioning

steam, hydraulic, electric
single, double, triple drum
split, undivided
Band, Disc, mechanical Screw, Spring applied

Horn
Tee
Pillar
Cruciform

Different bollards
Vertical bollards

19.

Types o Fairleads
-

Closed panama type

Roller type
Pedestal type
Universal type
Surivel type

20.

Automated mooring system

Vaccum pads on a frame work on the quay which extends out and secures by
vaccum to ships side
Gaint magnets instead of vaccum is used
Elimination of shore mooring gangs and ship line crew
Only one operator to moor the ship
Minutes are only needed instead of hours for mooring
Eliminated mooring winches on board

21.

Different cargo handling equipments

Derricks and swinging boom arrangement
Cranes
grantry cranes
Grabbing cranes
heavy lift cranes
forklift truck
other ship board lifting and transferring system
conveyor belt system
pumps for liquideos cargoes
elevators wire and crane operated
Burtoning system and winches

22.

Different cargo hatches covers

Type
a.
b.
c.
d.

Single pull
Folding covers and direct pull covers
Roll stowing covers flexible rolling covers
Side and end rolling covers lift and roll covers
Telescopic covers
e. Pontron covers
23.

Fire fighting equipments

-

Smoke detector
Intrared flame detector
Alarm
Portable extinguishers
Automatic water spray or Deluge system
Foam systems
Carbon dioxide flooding
Inert gas
Funnel gas inserting system
Halon system

Mode of operation
Rolling and tipping
Foldable
Rolette
Rolling
Lifting

24.

Dry powder extinguisher

Life saving equipments

25.
-

26.

Life buoy
Life jacket
Immersion suit
Visual signals
Hand flares
Buoyant smoke signal
Survival craft
Rocket parachute flares
Life boats
Radar transponder
Self inflatable raft
Different light signals
Day shapes, like lights during day
Navigational light
Mast head light
Side light
Stern lights
Signals that indicate type of vessel
Towing lights
All round lights
Flashing lights
Vessels engaged in fishing, not under commend
Underway, vessel restricted in her ability to maneuver
Sound signals

Short blast - 1 sec

Prolonged blast - 4-6 sec
Maneuvering signals and warning signals
Distress signals
Signals to attract attention

27.

Steering system
-

Telemotor control
Electrical control
Hydraulic powered
- Ram type
- Rotary vane type

16.

1.

CLASS TEST II

- ANSWER SHEET

Major stress acting on a ship structure are

1. Built in stresses due to welding and rolling of structural elements
2. Stresses in still water due to uneven distribution of mass and buoyancy
3. Stresses in seaway due to the action of waves causes longitudinal shear stress
and bending stresses. Torsion also oceans due to uneven waves
4. Crushing or compressive stress due to pillar loading and stresses due to
pending, .. and panting

2.

Strength analysis of a ship

-

3.

Analyzing the ships forces in seaway and still water

Evaluating the response of ship towards this forces
Estimating the ships response towards there forces
Make sure that there stresses will not go above the allowable units
Strength analysis is done mainly for
Long term serviceability unit
Ultimate stress limit
.. limit
Accident limit
Strength analysis also include longitudinal strength analysis, Transverse strength
analysis and local strength analysis by finite element method
Factors affecting strength of a ship

Depth of the ship

Length of the ship

4.

Uneven loading
Irregular seaway
Corrosion
Concentrated load during docking
Sectional area
Different modes of structural failure

5.

Fatigue
Welding imperfections
Built in stresses
Due to corrosion
Uneven loading
Instability due to large deflection for small increment of loading
Major forces acting on a ship in still water
As we known weight of ship is equal to buoyances loading pattern
. in mass/unit length and ships shape causes a variation in
buoyancy/unit length
If mass/unit length = mg
Buoyancy/unit length = ga
Net force = mg + ga
Shear force = s= (mg + ga) dx
Bending movement = (s) dx

6.

Force acting on a ship in seaway

-

Due to woves (logging and sagging)

Rudder lateral forces
Centfugal force
Thrust from propulsion device
Wind resistance
Wave resistance
Weight is buoyancy

7.

Simply supported beam subjected to concentrated load

A.

RA + R B = W
RA x L = W x L/2

RA = W/2 = RB
SFD
At a dist. x from A
Fx = +RA
FA = +W/2
FC = W/2
SF between C and B
F x = RA W
FC = w/2 w
= -w/2
FB = -w/2
BMD (at a dist x)
M x = RA . x
MA = RA.O = 0
M C = RA . O = 0
MC = RA . L/2
= wL
---4
BM between C and B
Mx = RA.x w (x-L/2)
Mc = wL2
------ - w (o)
4
= wL
---4
====

Mb = w
L
---- . --- - w (L-L/2)
2
2
= 0
7. B
RA + RB = W. x
RA x L = w. L. L
----------2
RA = wL
----- = RB
2
SFD
At dist. x from A
Fx = RA wx
FA = wL
---2
FC = = wL
---2
FB = wL
---2
=

-0

wL
---2

- wL

- wL
---2
=======

BMD
At a dist. x from A
Mx = RA . x - w.x.x
-------2
MA = 0

= 0

MC = wL2
wL2
----- - ----4
8
= wL2
----8
===
MB = wL2
------ - -------

2
7.

wL2
= 0
2

C
RA + R B = w
RA x L = w x 0.25L
RA = 0.25 W
RB = 0.75W

SFD between A and C

SFx = RA . x
FA = RA = 0.25W
FC = 0.25W
Between C and B
SFx = RA W
FC = 0.25W W
= -0.75W
FB = 0.25W- W
= -0.75W
BMD between A and C
M x = RA . x

MA = 0
MC = RA .0.75L = 0.25W x 0.75 L
Between C and B
Mx = RA . x w (x-0.75L)
MC = 0.25W x 0.75L W (o)
MB = 0.25WL W(0.25L)
= 0
7. D
SFD
Fx = w
FB = W
FA = W
BMD
Mx = - w. x
MB = 0
MA = - W.L
7. E
SFD
Fx = wx
FB = 0
FA = + w.L
BMD
Mx = -w.x.x
-2
MA = 0

MB = - wl2
-----2
8.

Welding techniques
1. Rightward techniques
2. Left ward techniques
In both the above cases the welding torch is in right hand and filler rod is in the
left hand. The main difference in the right ward technique, the welding starts
from the left end and move towards the right hand side of the work piece

Are welding techniques include

Downhead welding 1G
Horizontal vertical welding 2G
Vertical welding 3G
Uphead welding - 4G
Pipe welding - (5G & 6G)
9. Welding Imperfections
a.

Welding cracks due to lack of root penetration

Ultra sonic testing:- are also used to defect the internal defects. The frequency of
waves ranges from 20 KHZ to 20 MHZ, which can be transmitted through object
and get reflected by the defects. Aere probes are used to transmit the waves and
receiving them after the passage through objects. Since ultra sonic waves are
transmitted as a series of . ., the same probe may be used as
transmitter and received. In case of any defects between top and bottom surfaces
of the objects, the beams striking this defect will get reflected, reach the receiver
probe and indicates a echo on the cathode ray oscilloscope screen before the echo
given by the waves striking the other end of the job and returning. So time
interval is to be noted between transmission and incoming signals. The distance
of the defect can be determined by the time distance scale in the form of a square
wove, shown in oscilloscope.
11.

Welding inspection methods

i) Destructive Testing

ii) Non-Destructive testing

i)

Destructive testing includes

a) Impact test
b) Bending test
c) Hardness test
iii)

Non-Destructive testing includes

a) Visual Inspection
a. Liquid penetrate testing
b. Magnetic particle testing
c. Radiographic testing
d. Ultrasonic testing

12. a. Mass and Buoyancy distribution

Mass distribution from shell expressions adding structural component and loading
pattern
Buoyancy distribution from Bonjean curve
For a general ship is still water
For a general ship in seaway in a wave here also the mass distribution is
same

For a general ship in seaway in a sagging wave

b.

Shear force and BM diagram for ships

SR and BM are zero at ends

Bendy moment is maximum at deflection for SF = 0 at midship
SR is maximum at a quarter length from two ends of ship
c.

Still water and wave bending moments

a.

Visual inspection: Inspecting the welds visually or by magnifying lens. This

method is most popular, simplest and economical for detecting defects on the
surface of the welded objects.
b. Liquid penetrate test (LPT) : are used for detecting the surface defects. Here the
liquid penetrate is applied to the surface of the object after cleaning the surface of
the object. After some time the liquid is completely removed and developer is
applied. Then the liquid which has penetrated come out of the cracks and
developer will helps to detect them easily
c. Magnetic Inspection (MPI) : Firstly the object is placed in the magnetic
field and magnetic liner of flues get intersected by discontinuously such as crack
or slag inclusion, magnetic poles are generated on either side of discontinuity.
This causes a distribution in the magnetic flare .. through the job, which can
be detected by magnetic particles which are attracted to the region of discontuity.
This is applied only for ferrous materials.
d. Radiographic test : X-rays, which are produced in a X-ray tube are proceeded
towards the objects which is to checked for defects. An X-ray film is placed
behind and in contact with the object, perpendicular to the passage of X-rays. As
the x-rays through the objects and strikes the film, take the film for
developing and film shows light and dark areas, which is easy to determine the
defects (like .., cracks, slay etc.)

17.
1.

MARINE ENGINEERING QUESTIONS (Answer Sheet)

In water tube boiler feed water is passed through tubes and hot gases passes over
them.
It is employed for high pressure, high temperature and high capacity steam
applications.
It is used for propulsion of main engine, turbine and for cargo pumping.
In smoke tube boiler hot gases pass through the tubes and feed water passes
around it.
It is used for auxiliary engines
It is used to produce small quantities of steam which is of the low pressure

2.

Steam to steam Generator: are of vertical and horizontal types.

It is used to produce low pressure saturated steam for domestic and other services
It is used is conjunction with a high pressure water tube boiler.
It is similar to a smoke tubes boiler, but instead of not gases high pressure steam
which is passed from the water boiler is used to heat feed water

3.

Advantages of steam to steam generator

-

4.

No fuel burning or furnace burning is required

They provide a secondary steam circuit which avoids any possible contamination
of primary steam circuit.
Can be used in .. with a main boiler to produce low pressure steam
No separate boiler is required to producing low pressure steam
Heat recovery system
It uses exhaust gas from diesel main propulsion engines to generate steam
Exhaust gas heat exchanger and exhaust boils are the main parts
Improved plant efficiency

For slow speed engine, large quantity of steam can be produced if power is
increased, by heat recovery system. In some cases this sufficient to provide ships
entire electrical power and other heating purpose.
5.

Composite boiler: It is a boiler arrangement which permits steam generation

either by a furnace when necessary or by using engine exhaust gas (Heat-recovery
system) when ship is at sea
-

6.

Separate tube banks for engine exhaust system and oil firing or furnace system
It is similar to a Cochran smoke tube boiler
Purpose of an Air ejector in a stem plant is to

Avoid corrosion problems in boiler due to air entrapment

To draws out vapaour particles, dissolved gases and air released from condensing
steam from the condenser
To increase thermal efficiency of steam plant by leaving the excess steam
pressure by book pressure
To avoid back pressure in condenser by removing garcons matter

7.

Vaccum is maintained in a condenser because for maximum efficiency of the

turbine the pressure developed should be maximum. As the condenser is placed
after the turbine, if .. provide a vaccum on the condenser i.e. on the exhaust
of the turbine, maximum pressure drop will occur. So we can make use of the
maximum useful work from the It also helps in avoiding any
backpressure for the turbine outlet.

8.

Boiler mountings:
-

9.

Safety valve
Main steam stop valve
Auxiliary steam stop valve
Water level gauges
Pressure gauges
Air release cock
Sampling connection
Blow down valve
Alarms
Purpose of boiler water treatment is to remove salt and imparities

To avoid local overheating and failure of tubes due to scale formation

To avoid scale formation inside the boiler surface which leads to corrosion
To avoid reduction in heat due to dissolved salts
To remove dissolved . And carbon dioxide which causes corrosion
in boiler

10.

To avoid foaming on surface due to suspended particles, oils etc.

Difference between 4-stroke and 2-stroke engines
4 stroke engine

11.

2 stroke engine

1. One power stroke in two revolution

one power stroke in each

revolution, so max. power

2. Engine completes four operation in

Two revolution (section, compression,
Power exhaust stroke)

Engine completes four

operations in one revolution

3. Valves are used for intake and exhaust

values are replaced by ports

4. Maintenance is maximum

less maintenance

5. Good fuel efficiency

less fuel efficient

6. Easy construction

difficult construction

Parts of marine diesel engines:

Cylinder
Piston
Piston rod
Cylinder lining
Intake, exhaust valves or ports
Cylinder head
A frame
Cross pin
Cross head
Crank shaft
Valve timing arrng.
Lubricating system
Cooling system

12.

Difference between Trunk type and cross head type engine

Trunk type

a. Automobile Engines
b. High speed, short stroke

Cross head type

a.
b.

Marine Engines
low speed, long stroke

c. Small type
d. Piston is connected to
Connecting rod directly

c.
d.

e. No guide shoes or cross

Head pin
f. Cooling and lubrication is easy

e.
f.

large type
piston is connected to piston rod
which is then connected to cross
head pin
guide shoes guide the long stroke
on a steady manner
cooling and lubrication is difficult

13.

Advantages of oil cooled pistons over water cooled piston is that the small oil can
also be used for lubrication of part of engine crank case

14.

Piston rings seals the combustion chamber of an IC engine by

-

15.

The outward pressure due to in the compressed ring initially

The outward pressure is then increased by the gas pressure which acts on the back
of the ring. This pressure will be higher in top rings than the lower ones
Symmetrical valve timing
If the valve timing is similar for both forward and astern working of a marine
engine, it is called as symmetrical valve timing.

16.

Cam shaft is driven in a marine diesel engine by

Gear wheel system

&

Roller chain system

17.

High TBN oil is used in cylinder lubrication because

_ TBN (Total base Number) represents the alkalinity of lubricating oil
The sulphur content in the fuel mix with water during combustion gives formation
to sulphuric acid (H2SO4), which increases the corrosion rate. To nitrides this
effect a high alkaling TBN oil is used.

18.

Rotocap in an exhaust valve is friction disc or rachet provided on bottom of

compression ring in an exhaust valve system which mechanically rotates the
exhaust valve during exhaust stroke. This is done to get a uniform heating and
wear around the exhaust valve and valve seating.

19.

Under cooling : of charged air means cooling of air to a temperature below its
point at that pressure. Undercooling causes excessive condensation. It will
reduce the intake temperature to a very low value with reduced efficiency. This
will also cause thermal shock when it comes into contact with hot siners and
piston.

20.

Types of Turbo charging system

1. Pulse system
2. Constant pressure system

21.

purpose of Turbo charging : is to increase the power output and efficiency with
small increase in size, weight and initial cost.
-

22.

Mass of air per cyde can be increased and so quantity of fuel injected can be
raised to give corresponding increase in engine output and increase in thermal
efficiency
Reduced pollution because of perfect combustion
Acts as a recovery system because the turbine receives energy from the exhaust
gas
Scavenging
It is the process of removal of exhaust gas from engine cylinder after combustion
and replacing the exhaust gas by fresh gas for further cycles of operation.

23.

Methods of Scavenging
In four smoke engines scavenging is carried out mainly by purposing action of
piston during its two strokes ie. piston expects exhaust gas on its upward stroke
and draws in air on subsequent downward stroke.
In two strok engines there are three basic methods of scavenging
a. Loop scavenging: in which air passes over the piston crown and rises to form
a loop within the cylinder, expelling gas through exhaust ports cut in the same
side of liner above scavenging ports.
b. Cross scavenging: in which air is directed upwards passing under the cylinder
cover and down the opposite side, expelling gas through exhaust ports on that
side
c. Uniflow or through scavenging: in which air passes straight upwards through
the length of cylinder, forcing the exhaust through ports or values at the top of
cylinder
Purpose of tie bolt or stay bolt is

24.
-

To pre stress the structure

Maintain the cylinder block and frames in compression

To transmit main gas loads during combustion from cylinder cover to bed plate
For easy dispatch and assembly of engines
For fixing of the engine in correct piston

25.

Cam shaft is driven from crankshaft using a train of gear arranged in piston
known as gear wheel system or driven from crank shaft with a roller chain known
as roller chain system.

26.

Reversing of marine diesel engine is done by

-

Cutting off fuel supply to engine

.. the air distributor, such that compressed air to the appropriate cylinders in
correct order. This is done by alternating the position of distributor cam
Fuel pump timing must be readjusted by using a camshaft in axial direction.

27.

Indicated power of a marine diesel engine can be measured from the indicator
diagram
In the indicator diagram the path of process during a cycle encloses an area which
represents the work done

28.

Different test of diesel propelling machinery during sea trial

-

29.

Guarantee speed test

Overload test
Astern test
Minimum revolution test
Starting test
Capacity of air bottle

30.

Air can be stored at a pressure of 30 bar

Capacity should be least sufficient for engine starting without recharging should
be
12 starts for revisable
6 starts for non revisable
Types of pumps for marine applications
1. Centrifugal pumps
single stage
multi stage
2. positive displacement pumps
-

screw pumps
gear pumps
Reciprocating pumps

3. Axial flour pumps

31.

lobe pumps
diaphragm pumps

purpose of wear ring in a centrifugal pump

Salt and sand in seawater causes high rate of wear in the casing in sea water
pump. If casing is provided with a wear ring, then it can be replaced
after erosion, barides replacing the whole casing.

32.

Functions of volute casing in a centrifugal pump

In volute casing as the cross sectional area is gradually increasing, so as the water
passes through the valute casing, the high velocity of water imparted by the
impeller reduces and by bernollis theorem, the pressure head is increased.

33.

Printing of a pump:
Filling of section line and casing of pump with liquid that have to be pumped is
called priming. It is necessary to develop enough section pressure at the eye of
impeller.

34.

Centrifugal pump is started with delivery value closed to make the starting torgue
minimum, at the time of starting water will be upto impeller. A drain connection
is fixed to ensure water inside impeller.

35.

Wear rate of bearing and shaft will be high in a centrifugal pump dealing with sea
water. Since the shaft is continuously rotating the wear leads to replace of the
entire shaft. To avoid this shaft is fitted with a renewable sleeve, so that sleeve
only has to replace.

36.

Pressure relief valve is fitted in a positive displacement pump because there is no

reverse flour in this type of pumps. Here water is displaced from one side to
another so if there is any problems with delivery side the pressure inside the pump
and pipe system increases which courses damages. To avoid this pressure relief
valve is fitted.

37.

Different types of positive displacement pumps

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

38.

Screw pump
Lobe pump
Gear pump
Reciprocating pump
Diaphragm pump

Reciprocating pumps is used for pumping engine room bilges

Engine room bilge contains leaked water and oil

It a rotary pump is used, it will cause rotating of the bilge which causes mixing of
oil and water to form fine particles
This will results difficulting in the separation in an oily water separator, because
gravity separation is done in an oily water separator
So we reciprocating pumps because it displaces the bilge from the engine
room without mixing (thoroughly), to the oily water separator and from there it is
casting separated by gravity

39.

For positive displacement pump slip is the difference between theoretical

discharge and actual discharge

40.

Fluid flour in a Gear pump

During the flour through a gear pump there will be no movement of flour through
the center i.e. through the piston where gear mesh occurs
The flour is only through between the tooth spacing and gear casing in one
direction. The liquid entrapped between the tooth and casing ensures the flow
through the pump.
41.

Different types of valves used on board ship

Sleeve packed cracks, Globe valve, Butterfly valve, Non return vale, Flap sheck
valve, Relief vale, Quick closing valve, Gate vale.

42.

We cannot use the gate valve in a partially opened condition because it damages
the rubber seal. Here the spindle does not moves up and down only the valve
moves up and down, so it is to be fully opened or fully closed.

43.

SDNR valve (Screw down non return valve) is used in bilge line as a safety
measure to prevent water flowing back and flooding the various compartments.
Here the flour is only allowed in one direction only.

44.

Purpose of quick closing valve is to cut off the fuel supply by operating from a
remote place in case of any fire in the engine room
It is used at outlet from

Fuel oil storage tank

Fuel oil setting tank

Fuel oil service tank

Lube oil storage tank
Lube oil setting tank
Lube oil service tank etc.
45.

The steam trap is fitted after steam coil is to prevent steam from escaping and
providing the maximum usage, by allowing condensate to pass through

46.

Types of Heat exchanger used on board

-

47.

Advantages of plate type heat exchangers

-

48.

shell and tube type heat exchanger

plate type heat exchanger

less space is required

low maintenance cost
highly resistant to corrosion because it is made of titanium
plates
since there core no tubes, failure due to clogging of tubes
can be avoided

Corrosion is prevented in shell type heat exchanges by using sufficient anodes on

the body. The anode is sacrificial soft iron.
Another method is to introduce iron in the form at Ferrous sulphate fed into the
sea water.

49.

Materials of shell and tube heat exchangers

Shell cast iron
Tube aluminum brass
Plate - Naval brass

50.

Inert gas system on oil tankers

Crude oil is so volatile and it leave hydro carbon vapour while pumping out or
unloading the cargo from tankers. These hydro carbon vapors are
dangerous. So this is to be removed. For this Inert gas is pumped into the cargo
tanks, which prevents the hydrocarbon vapours for catching fire.
The main purpose of Inert gas system
- to provide an inert atmosphere after oil discharge
- to prevent corrosion in tanks
- to assist in cargo discharge by applying positive pressure on oil surface

51.

Deck seal prevents the flour back of Hydro carbon vapours from the cargo tanks
to the engine room is an Inert gas system.

52.

PV valve prevents the pressure inside the tanks to go above a set value and also
below a set valve
PV breaker also do the same
PV valve automatically resets where as PV breaker has to be resetted manually
PV valves are provided to prevent bursting and buckling of plates

53.

maximum oxygen content permitted in inert gas is between 3-5% of oxygen.

54.

Air is supplied to sewage treatment plant because oxygen in the air promotes
multiplication of bacteria and satisfactory decomposition of waste. This type of
decomposition is called Aerebic-decomposition

55.

Maximum oil coatent permitted in water pumped overboard is less than 12PPM

56.

Items recorded in oil record book

1. Bunkering
2. Record of pumping out of bilge
3. Sludge/oil disposal and transfer

57.

Application of Ejectors on board ship

for complete tank cleaning operations to remove residue and small
quantities of water and materials not removed by pumps
in fresh water generators air ejectors are used to boil water around 60 0C by
creating absolute vaccum
-

58.

in fresh water generator brine is removed by brine ejector.

Purifier removes water and suspended particles from fuel oil and Lube oil
Clarifier removes the remaining suspended particles from fuel oil and lube oil
coming from the purifier.

59.

Heating is required in fuel oil storage tank for easy pumping of fuel oil to setting
tank. For this fuel is storage tank is maintained at 500C

60.

Purpose of setting tank

Fuel from storage tank is transferred to settling tank where it is heated to about
70-800 C to allow water and sludge to settle down by gravity and can be drained
off.

61.

Booster pump or circulating pump draws oil from the primary discharge which is
maintained at 4 bar, raising its pressure to about 10-12 bar and delivering it
through the heater, viscosity regulator and fine fitter to main engine fuel pumps.

62.

MDO line is connected to HFO line to allow flushing with light oil before
stopping the engine for long periods or for maintenance. This is because the
maintenance is mainly done is boilers and steam trocer tube. At this time we
make use of a change over sine the boiler cannot be worked
For starting and stopping of engine.

63.

Two lube oil system for main engine are

One for lubrication of engine cylinder, pistons and piston rings. It is called
cylindrical lubrication system
Other is a circulating system where oil is used over again and again to lubricate
main bearing cross heads bearings, cross heads, stippers, crude and thrust bearing.
This is called crank case lube oil system.

64.

Properties of Lube oil

-

correct alkanity and viscocity

rust and oxidation intribitiors
high viscocity index
Detergent and Dispersent propetties
water repellants
resist foaming an emulsifixation

65.

The main . Of the distributor in a starting air system is to supply the

high pressure air to engine cylinders, in which the piston is at TDC (Top dead
center) another function is to reverse the sequence of operation during reversing
the engine.

66.

Flame trap or flame arresters function is to prevent the fire entering into the
manifold and then to the starting system. Flame trops are fitted to each cylinders
connection from the manifold.

67.

Starting air valve leaking is found by feeling the temperature of the pipe

68.

Fusible plug: It is a non resettable safety valve which is used to ensure safety of
boiler. The fusible plug forces at main temp of 1500 0C. If the water level
decreases in boiler, the steam will come into direct contact with plug and plug
burns out and steam escapes.

69.

Inter cooler is to increase the efficiency of the compressor system antis used
between pressure and high pressure compressed.

70.

Hydrosphere tank is a pressure tank which is partially filled compressed air above
the water surface gives a pressure head to the water causing it to the most remote
and highest outlet point of system.

71.

The prime movers used for bow thruster are

- Auxiliary engine
- Electric motor
- Hydraulic motor

72.

GPS Global positioning system

It is an US based radio navigation system which proves location and time . It has
three parts
- satellites orbiting the earth
- control and monitoring stations on earth
- GPS receivers
GPS satellites broad casts the signals from space that are packed up GPS receivers
and provides three dimensional locations
- latitude
- longitude
- altitude