VLSI

VLSI Testing
Testing

Test
Test pattern
pattern Generation
Generation
Virendra Singh
Indian Institute of Science
Bangalore
virendra@computer.org
E0 286: Test & Verification of SoC Design
Lecture - 7
Feb 1, 2008

E0-286@SERC

Boolean
Boolean Difference
Difference
Shannons Expansion Theorem:

F (X1, X2, , Xn) = X2 F (X1, 1, , Xn) + X2 F (X1, 0, ,

Xn)

Boolean Difference (partial derivative):

Fj = Fj (1, X1, X2, , Xn) Fj (0, X1, , Xn)

g

Fault Detection Requirements:

G (X1, X2, , Xn) = 1

Fj
g

= Fj (1, X1, X2, , Xn) Fj (0, X1, , Xn) = 1

Feb 1, 2008

E0-286@SERC

Boolean Difference
f ( x1 , , x i = 0 , , x n ) f ( x 1 , , x i = 1, , x n ) = 1
Represented by the symbol df(x)/dx
df(x)/dxi for x =0 and df(x)/dxi for x=1 are called the
residues of the function for x = xi
One of the residue is the good-circuit value and
the other is the faulty-circuit value for xi
To detect the fault, the two residues should be
complementary
Solving the equation yield the values of the
primary inputs to detect a stuck-at fault on xi
The test pattern is then: xi df(x)/dxi = 1 & xi'
df(x)/dxi = 1
Feb 1, 2008

E0-286@SERC

Fault Detection
xi df(x)/dxi = 1 for s-a-0 at xi
xi' df(x)/dxi = 1 for s-a-0 at xi
As an example, let us consider the function
and a fault at x2
f(x) = x1x2 +x3
Thus df (x)/dx2 = x3 (x1 + x3) = x3x1 = 1. Then
x1 = 1 and x3 = 0.
For the SA1 and SA0 faults on x2, the patterns are then
x1x2x3 = (100) and (110), respectively.
x1
x2

g
x3

Feb 1, 2008

E0-286@SERC

f
4

Fault Detection
x1

G2

h
x2

s-a-0 fault at h
G1

Test Vector
h(X) dF*(X,h)/dh = 1

F(X,h) = x1 + hx2

x1. x1x2 = x1x2 = 1

h(X) = x1

x1 = 1

dF*(X,h)/dh = x1 (x1 + x2)

x2 = 1

= x1x2
Feb 1, 2008

E0-286@SERC

Fault Detection
x1

G2

h
x2

G1

s-a-1 fault at h
Test Vector
h(X) dF*(X,h)/dh = 1
x1x1x2 = x1x2 = 0
It cannot satisfy required condition
Fault - Redundant

Feb 1, 2008

E0-286@SERC

Binary
Binary Decision
Decision Diagram
Diagram

A node v with label xi defines a Shanon expansion

If the OBDD rooted in v represents the function f(x1, x2, . .
. , xn) the
Two sub-OBDDs rooted in the sons represent the
functions f(x1, x2, . . , xi-1, 0, xi+1, . . ., xn), and f(x1, x2, . .
, xi-1, 1, xi+1, . . ., xn),

xi

f0
Feb 1, 2008

f1
E0-286@SERC

Decision Structures
Truth Table
x1 x2 x3
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

Decision Tree

x1

0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1

x2
x3
0

Feb 1, 2008

x2
x3

x3
1

x3
1

Vertex represents decision

Follow green (dashed) line for value 0
Follow red (solid) line for value 1
Function value determined by leaf
value.
E0-286@SERC

Variable Ordering

Assign arbitrary total ordering to variables

e.g., x1 < x2 < x3
Variables must appear in ascending order along
all paths

OK
x1

Not OK
x1

x3

x2
x3

x1

x2
x3

x1

x1

Properties

No conflicting variable assignments along path

Simplifies manipulation

Feb 1, 2008

E0-286@SERC

Reduction Rule #1
Merge equivalent leaves

x1

x1

x2
x3
0

x2
x3

Feb 1, 2008

x2

x3
1

x3
1

x3
1

E0-286@SERC

x2

x3
0

x3

x3
1

10

Reduction Rule #2
Merge isomorphic nodes
x

x1

x1
x2
x3

x2

x3
0

Feb 1, 2008

x3

x3
1
E0-286@SERC

x2

x2

x3

x3

1
11

Reduction Rule #3
Eliminate Redundant Tests
x

x1

Feb 1, 2008

x1

x2

x2

x3

x3

x2
x3
0
E0-286@SERC

1
12

Example OBDD
Initial Graph

Reduced Graph
x1

x1
x2
x3
0

x2
x3

x2

x3
1

x3

x3
1

(x1+x2) x3

Canonical representation of Boolean function

Feb 1, 2008

For given variable ordering

Two functions equivalent if and only if graphs
isomorphic
Can be tested in linear time
Desirable property: simplest form is canonical.
E0-286@SERC

13

Reduced OBDD
Def: An OBDD is called reduced if
1.
It does not contain a node v with
high
(v) = low (v)
2.
There does not exists a pair of nodes u, v such
that the sub-OBDDs rooted in u and v are
isomorphic

Feb 1, 2008

E0-286@SERC

14

Example Functions
Constants

Variable

Unique unsatisfiable function

Unique tautology

Typical Function
x1
x2

No vertex labeled x3

x4
0
Feb 1, 2008

x1

(x1 x2 ) x4

Treat variable
as function

Odd Parity

independent of x3

Many subgraphs shared

x2

x2

x3

x3

x4

x4

E0-286@SERC

Linear
representation

15

Fault Detection
Reduced Graph

x1
x2

x1

x2

x3

x3
0

(x1+x2) x3

Trace a path from the root to 0 and 1

Value of the variables other than fault should
have same value
TP for s-a-0 fault at x1 is x1x2x3 = 101
TP for s-a-1 fault at x1 is x1x2x3 = 001

Feb 1, 2008

E0-286@SERC

16

Fault Detection
(a b ) (a b ) (a b )
1 1
2 2
3 3
a1
b1
a2

a1

b1
q

a2

b2
a3

b2

b3

a3
b3

s-a-0 at a1

a1=1, b1=1, a2=0, a3=0

Feb 1, 2008

E0-286@SERC

17

Fault Detection
(a b ) (a b ) (a b )
1 1
2 2
3 3
a1
b1
a2

a1

b1
q

a2

b2
a3

b2

b3

a3
b3

s-a-0 at p

a1=1, b1=1, a2=0, a3=0

Feb 1, 2008

E0-286@SERC

18

Fault Detection
(a b ) (a b ) (a b )
1 1
2 2
3 3
a1
b1
a2

a1

b1
q

a2

b2
a3

b2

b3

a3
b3

s-a-0 at q

a2=1, b2=1, a1=0, a3=0

Feb 1, 2008

E0-286@SERC

19

Thank You
Feb 1, 2008

E0-286@SERC

20