CHAPTER I

Laws / Axioms of Mathematics:

1) Associative law ( grouping )
a+b+c = (a+b)+c
abc = (ab)c

= a +(b+c)
= a (b c)

2) Commutative law ( order )

a+b = b+a
ab = ba
3) Distributive law ( expanding )
a (b + c) = ab + ac
(a + b) c = ca + cb

Properties of the number "1"

Any thing multiplied by the number 1 is equal to itself
7.4 = 1 7.4 = 7.4
1 120.53 = 120.53
Any thing divided by the number 1 is equal to itself
57.2
1

63.45
= 63.45
1

= 57.2

Any thing divided by itself is equal to "1"

51.2
51.2

=1

83.25
=1
83.25

THEREFORE: 1 can be written many different way.

352 = 1 29.45 = 1
352
29.45

619472 = 1
619472

z3w7 = 1
z3w7

This is a very important property that is utilized in conversions.

CHAPTER I

2
Real Numbers:

The real number system evolved over time.

At first, number meant something you could count (like how many sheep a farmer owns).
These are called the natural numbers, or sometimes the counting numbers.
Natural Numbers
also known as: Counting Numbers
Ex: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
At some point, the idea of zero came to be considered as a number. We call the set of
natural numbers plus the number zero the whole numbers.
Whole Numbers
Natural Numbers together with zero.
Ex: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
Next came the idea of the of negative numbers. The expanded set of numbers that we get
by including negative versions of the counting numbers is called the integers.
Integers
Whole numbers plus negatives numbers.
Ex: . . . -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
The next generalization that we can make is to include the idea of fractions. If we add
fractions to the set of integers, we get the set of rational numbers.
Rational Numbers
a
All numbers of the form
, where a and b are integers (but b
b
cannot be zero).
Rational numbers include what we usually call fractions
Ex: . . . -2, - 3 ,-1, 0, 1, 3 , 2, . . .
2

Last there are Irrational Numbers, these are numbers that cannot be expressed as a ratio of
integers. As decimals they never repeat or terminate (rational numbers always do one or the
other).
Irrational Numbers
Ex 1:
2 = 1.414213562373...
Ex 2:
= 3.141592653589...

CHAPTER I

Set theory:
This is the branch of mathematics that studies sets. A set is a collection of distinct objects, considered as
an object in its own right. Sets are one of the most fundamental concepts in mathematics.
Thus from before:
Universe of Real Numbers

Irrational
Numbers

Natural
Numbers
1, 2, 3, . . .

Whole
Numbers
0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
Integers
. . . -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, . .

. . . -2, -

Rational
Numbers

3
3
,-1, 0, 1,
, 2, . .
2
2

Thus:
Natural Numbers is a subset of Whole Numbers.
which can be written as:
Natural Numbers Whole Numbers
Whole numbers is a subset of Integers.
which can be written as:
Whole numbers Integers

Integers is a subset of Rational Numbers.

which can be written as:
Integers Rational Numbers
Rational Numbers in union with Irrational Numbers make up the REAL NUMBERS.
which can be written as:
Rational Numbers U Irrational Numbers = REAL NUMBERS

CHAPTER I

4
Real Numbers:

The five most common operations on the set of real numbers are:
1 - addition
2 - subtraction
3 - multiplication
4 - division
5 - exponentiation
Exponentiation means the raising of a real number to a power.
Example: 2.53 = 2.52.52.5 = 15.625
Writing an expression involving two or more of these operations, such as:
2(3 - 5) + 4 5

or

2325
4 - (-1)

Standard Order of Operations

1. Parentheses and Fraction Bars
Calculate the values of all expressions inside parentheses or brackets first, using
the standard order of operations, and working from the innermost parentheses
out. When dealing with a fraction bar, calculate the numerator and denominator
separately and then do the division.
2. Exponents
Next, raise all numbers to the indicated powers.
3. Multiplication & Division
Next, do all the multiplications and divisions from left to right.
4. Addition and Subtraction
Last, do the remaining additions and subtractions from left to right.

INEQUALITIES:
An inequality is a statement about the relative size or order of two objects.
The notation

a<b

means that a is less than b and

The notation

a>b

means that a is greater than b

These relations are known as strict inequality; in contrast

ab

means that a is less than or equal to b;

ab

means that a is greater than or equal to b;

a>b

means that a is not greater than b and

a<b

means that a is not less than b

CHAPTER I

Solving
Solving linear inequalities is very similar to solving linear equations, except for one detail: you
flip the inequality sign whenever you multiply or divide the inequality by a negative number.
The easiest way to show this is with some simple examples:
Example 1.01:
add - 3 to both sides

x + 3
-3
x

<

2
-3
< -1

must get x by itself

Example 1.02:
add -3x to both sides
add 6 to both sides

4x + 6 3x - 5
must get x by itself
- 3x
- 3x
.
x + 6
-5
-6
-6 .
x

-11

Example 1.03:
multiply by -1
dived by 2

-2x > 4
-1 ( -2x > 4 )
2x < - 4
2x / 2 < - 4 / 2
x < -2

must get x by itself

Exponent manipulation:
The number 684 is made of two parts. The first part is 68 which is called the base of the number.
The second part is 4 which is called the exponent or power of the number. All work with exponents will
be with numbers with the same base number.
A) All numbers are understood to be raised to the first power.
Example 1.05:

number 24 may be written as 24 1

therefore 24 1 is also equal to 24

B) Multiplying a number raised to a power by itself is the same as adding the exponents.
Example 1.06:

24 24 =
53 2

24 1 24 1 =
53 2

24 1+1

24 2

= 53 2+2 = 53 4

Therefore adding the powers is the same as multiplication

CHAPTER I

6
Example 1.07:

38 2 38 3 = 38 2+3 = 38 5
OR going in the opposite direction

Example 1.08:

63 7 = 63 1+6 = 63 1 63 6

OR

63 7 = 63 2+3 = 63 2 63 5, etc.

Therefore you can separate any base number raised to power as long as the
powers sum to the original exponents.
C) One (1) divided by a number raised to a power is the same as the number raised to the
negative of the power.
Example 1.05:

Example 1.06:

1
5 = 45 -5
45

AND

= 63 7
63 -7
Proof:

Proof:
1
45 -5 = 5 1
45

45

-5

63 7

multiply by 1 so as
not to change the value

1
45 -5
= 5
45
45 -5
45 -5
=
45 5 45 -5
45 -5 45 -5 45 -5
= 5-5=
= = 45-5
0
45
45
1

substitute for 1

multiply across

1
= -7 1
63

1
63 7
63 = -7
63
63 7
7

63 7
=
63 -7 63 7
637
63 7
63 7
= 7-7= 0 = = 637
1
63
63

D) Dividing a base number raised to a power is the same as subtracting the exponents.
Example 1.09:
37 7
1

= 37 7 3 = 37 7 37 -3 = 37 7-3 = 37 4
3
37
37

56.3 -5
1

= 56.3 -5 -8= 56.3 -5 56.3 8 = 56.3 -5-8 = 56.3 3

-8
56.3
56.3

CHAPTER I

E) Raising any number or expression to the zero power makes the

number or expression equal to ONE.
Example 1.10:

Proof:
bn = bn+0

expand

a) 10 0 = 1

bn = bn b0
n

b =b b

divide by b

b)

( 24.754 ) 0 = 1
0

c)

bn
bn b0

bn
bn

sin ( j

+ t)2 dt

= 1

1 = b0

Scientific Notation:
Has one significant digit before a decimal point. Significant digits are the numbers, from one (1) to
nine (9) but not zero (0).
1) As the number part becomes smaller by a factor of ten, the power of 10 becomes
larger by 1.

Example 1.11:

a)

3034 = 3034.0
= 3034.0 1
= 3034.0 10 0
= 303.40 10 0+1 as the decimal point is moved over one place,
the number becomes smaller. Therefore, the
power of 10 must increase by 1. Thus 0 + 1 = 1
= 303.40 10 1
= 30.340 10 1+1 this is repeated until you have only
= 30.340 10 2 one significant number in front of
= 3.0340 10 2+1 decimal point
= 3.0340 10 3

Example 1.12:

b)

486.34 10 4 =
=
=
=

Example 1.13:

c)

592 10 -6 =
=
=
=

Example 1.14:

d)

48.634 10 4+1
48.634 10 5
4.8634 10 5+1
4.8634 10 6
59.2
59.2
5.92
5.92

10 -6+1
10 -5
10 -5+1
10 -4

-76.54 10 7 = -7.654 10 7+1

= -7.654 10 8

CHAPTER I

2 ) As the number part becomes larger by a factor of ten, the

power of 10 becomes smaller by 1.
Example 1.15:

a)

.00735 10 -4 = .0735 10 -4-1

=
=
=
=
=

Example 1.16:

b)

.0735 10 -5
.735 10 -5-1
.735 10 -6
7.35 10 -6-1
7.35 10 -7

as the decimal point is moved over one place,

the number becomes larger. Therefore, the
power of 10 must decrease by 1: -4 - 1 = -5
this is repeated until you have
only one significant number in
front of decimal point

.00459 103 = .0459 10 3-1

= .0459 10 2
= .459 10 2-1
= .459 10 1
= 4.59 10 1-1
= 4.59 10 0
= 4.59 1
= 4.59

MKS System
Know ( memorize )
M --- mega
K --- kilo
c --- centi
m --- milli
--micro

-----------

millions
thousands
hundredth
thousandth
millionth

-----------

1,000,000
1,000
.01
.001
.000001

-----------

106
10 3
10-2
10-3
10-6

Units:
The meter (m) is the distance measured from the pole to the equator divided into 10,000,000
equal units. Each unit was then given the name meter (old definition).
( Since 1983, the meter is defined as the distance travelled by light in vacuum in 1299,792,458 of a second. )
The electron volt (ev) is the amount of energy that an electron will gain if placed inside a potential
difference of one volt (the speed that an electron will gain as it crosses a one volt potential difference).
The Roentgen (R) is the amount of ionization that takes place in a known volume of air.
Measuring the charge will give you the value of the Roentgen which is 2.58 10 -4 coulombs / kilogram of
air.
The rad is the Radiation Absorbed Dose in matter. The definition of the rad is the amount of
energy absorbed per gram of matter (old unit) which is 100 ergs / gram of matter.

CHAPTER I

The gray (Gy) is the new unit of absorbed dose in matter. The definition of the gray is the amount
of energy absorbed per kilogram of matter which is 1 joule / kilogram of matter. One
gray equals 100 rads ( 1 Gy = 100 rads ).
The rem is used in radiation protection. It stands for radiation equivalent man. It is the rad times
the quality factor, which takes into account the different types of radiation.
The sievert (Sv) is the new unit in radiation protection. It was named in honor for a Swedish
scientist. It is the gray times the quality factor, which takes into account the different types of radiation
just like the rem. One sievert equals 100 rem ( 1 Sv = 100 rem ).

Conversions:
All conversions, no matter how simple or difficult, are simple multiplication's by the value one (1),
but in some other form. The reason for multiplying by one (1) is that you do not want to change the value
of your information. By that I mean, if you had two (2) pounds and converted it to ounces, the weight is
still the same regardless of the measuring system or units employed.

Example 1.17:
2 lb equals how many ounces?
1) We first need to know how many ounces in a pound.
16oz = 1 lb

From this KNOWN information we will need to solve

for the value ONE that we need.

There are two possibilities from this one equation of 16oz = 1 lb.
a) divide both sides by 16oz

OR

b) divide both sides by 1 lb

16oz = 1 lb

16oz

= 1 lb

16oz
1 lb
=
16oz
16oz

16oz

1 lb

1 lb
=
1 lb

1 lb
1 =
16oz

16oz
= 1
1 lb
16oz
1 =
1 lb
We now have two number ones (1) to choose from.

CHAPTER I

10

2) Choose one of them (we will choose poorly the first time).
1 lb
1 =
16oz

By a poor choice, I mean choosing the value 1 that will not

help in the conversion. If the question was, "Convert 32 oz
into pounds?", then this choice would be good.

a) get information to be converted

2 lb

b) multiply by 1
2 lb = 2 lb

If we did the multiplication at this point we gain nothing,

therefore, we substitute for 1 its other value.

1 lb
= 2 lb
16 oz
2 lb 1 lb
=
16 oz
2 lb2
=
16 oz

At this point we see we gained nothing, therefore, we

choose the other value for 1.

c) again get information to be converted

2 lb
d) multiply by 1
2 lb = 2 lb

Again, if we multiplied now we gain nothing, therefore,

we substitute for 1 its other value.

16 oz
= 2 lb
1 lb
2 lb 16 oz
=
1 lb
32 lb oz
=
1 lb
=

32 oz

This appears to be a long way to do conversions, but this method after much repetition becomes
faster and easier. If you have a method for doing conversion that works, use it. This is for those who do
not have one, or are having trouble in doing conversions. The method as outlined works with all
conversions. No matter what field of endeavor you are in, all conversion come down to multiplying by
ONE and substitution.

CHAPTER I
Convert the following:
Example 1.18:
347 cm to m
need to know that c = 10 -2
347 cm = (347) (cm)
= (347) (c) (m)
= (347) (10 -2) (m)
= 347 10 -2 m
= 34.7 10 -1 m
= 3.47 10 0 m
= 3.47 1 m
= 3.47 m

- breakup into parts

- make substitution for c
- put into scientific notation
- number got smaller, therefore power of 10 gets bigger
repeat process until one significant number is in front of
decimal point
- substitute for 10 0 , 1
- do the multiplication

Example 1.19:
586.4 10 -2 rads to mrads
need to know that m = 10 -3
586.4 x 10-2 rads = 586.4 10 -2 rads (1)
= 586.4 10 -2 rads (10 0 )
= 586.4 10 -2 rads (10 3-3 )
= 586.4 10 -2 rads (10 3 10 -3)
= 586.4 10 -2 rads (10 3 m)
= 586.4 10 -2 10 3 mrads

= 586.4 10 -2+3 mrads

= 586.4 10 1 mrads
= 5.864 10 1+2 mrads
= 5.864 10 3 mrads

- multiply by 1
- for 1, sub other value, 10 0 which = 1
- for 0 sub other value, 3-3
- expand power of 10
- substitute milli (m) for 10 -3
- rearrange terms in order of :
1) numbers
2) powers of 10
3) letters that stand for numbers
4) units of measure
- to multiply powers of 10
- add exponents
- scientific notation: move decimal point two
places, number became smaller therefor
power must increase by 2

Example 1.20:
486.4 10 5 Kev into Mev
need to know that K = 10 3 and

M = 10 6

486.4 10 5 Kev = (486.4 10 5 ) ( K) (ev)

= (486.4 10 5 ) (103) (ev)
= 486.4 10 5+3 ev
= 486.4 10 8 ev
= 486.4 10 8 ev 1
= 486.4 10 8 ev 10 0
= 486.4 10 8 ev 10 6-6

- separate into parts

- substitute for K, 10 3
- multiply by 1
- substitute for 1, 10 0
- substitute for 10 0 , 10 6-6

11

CHAPTER I

12
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

486.4 10 8 ev 10 6 10 -6
486.4 10 8 ev M 10 -6
486.4 10 8 10-6 M ev
486.4 10 8-6 M ev
486.4 10 2 M ev
4.864 10 2+2 M ev
4.864 10 4 M ev

- substitute for 10 6, M
- rearrange terms

for M=10 6

- scientific notation

One other unit that is used is the Angstrom () which is a unit of length useful at the atomic level.
It is equal to 10 -10 m, which is same as 10 -8 cm.

Example 1.21:
739.4 10 -7 mm into
need to know that m = 10 -3

and

= 10 -10 m

739.4 10 -7 mm = (739.4 10 -7 ) (m) (m)

= (739.4 10 -7 ) (10 -3) (m)
= (739.4 10 -7 10 -3) (m)
= (739.4 10 -7-3 ) (m)
= 739.4 10 -10 m
= 739.4 (10 -10 m)
= 739.4 ( )
= 739.4

Example 1.22:
502.5 into cm
need to know that = 10 -10 m

and/or

= 10 -8 cm

502.5 = 502.5 ( )
= 502.5 ( 10 -10 m )
= 502.5 10 -10 m
= 502.5 10 -10 m ( 1 )
= 502.5 10 -10 m ( 10 0 )
= 502.5 10 -10 m ( 10 2-2 )
= 502.5 10 -10 m ( 10 2 10 -2 )
= 502.5 10 -10 m ( 10 2 c )
= 502.5 10 -10 10 2 c m
= 502.5 10 -10+2 cm
= 502.5 10 -8 cm
= 5.025 10 -8+2 cm
= 5.025 10 -6 cm

and/or

= 10 -8 cm

- separate into parts

- note that 10 -10 m =

therefore substitute

CHAPTER I

13

The last unit covered is the Sievert (Sv) which is a unit used in radiation protection.
need to know: 1 Sv = 100 rem
From this equation the values for 1 are:

Example 1.23:
83.4 10 4 Sv into mrem

83.4 10 4 Sv

100 rem
1 =
Sv

= 83.4 10 4 Sv
= 83.4 10 4 10 -6 Sv
= 83.4 10 4-6 Sv
= 83.4 10 -2 Sv 1
100 rem
= 83.4 10 -2 Sv
Sv
= 83.4 10 -2
100 rem
= 83.4 100 10 -2 rem
= 8340 10 -2 rem
= 8.34 10 1 rem
= 8.34 10 1 rem ( 1)
= 8.34 10 1 rem ( 10 0)
= 8.34 10 1 rem ( 10 3-3)
= 8.34 10 1 rem ( 10 3 10 -3 )
= 8.34 10 1 rem ( 10 3 m )
= 8.34 10 4 mrem

or

Sv
1 =
100rem

- separate into parts

- substitute for
- multiply by 1
- substitute for1 its other value

You must realize that you are seeing many steps, and that after much repetition you can
skip a number of steps. I believe understanding comes with repeated use.

14

CHAPTER I
Problems 1.1

Convert and put into scientific notation:

1) 327.3 10 -4 m to mm
2) 56.73 10 -6 m to mm
3) .2773 10 -2 m to mm
4) 717.3 10 5 m to mm
5) .00043 10 8 m to mm
6) 875.4 10 -4 m to cm
7) .00483 10 -7 m to cm
8) 76.6 10 4 m to cm
9) 64900 10 -7 m to cm
10) .000158 10 4 m to cm
11) 55.3 10 -5 mm to m
12) 5.67 10 -3 mm to m
13) .753 10 -2 mm to m
14) 167.3 10 5 mm to m
15) .00543 10 7 mm to m
16) 75.4 10 -5 cm to m
17) .00783 10 -4 cm to m
18) 47.3 10 5 cm to m
19) 8390 10 -4 cm to m
20) .000382 10 7 cm to m

21) 25. 6 10 -5 km to m
22) .473 10 -8 km to m
23) 741.7 10 4 km to cm
24) .000034 10 -9 km to cm
25) .3653 x 10 -12 km to mm
26) .000000061 10 8 km to mm
27) 6357 10 8 mm to km
28) .865 10 -2 cm to km
29) 982.46 10 7 m to km
30) 73.530 10 -15 m to km
31) 32.73 10 -5 m to
32) .2773 10 -2 m to
33) .00043 10 8 m to
34) 64900 10 -7 m to
35).000158 10 4 m to
36) 55.3 10 5 to m
37) .753 10 -2 to m
38) 75.4 10 5 to cm
39) .00783 10 -4 to cm
40) 8390 10 4 to cm
Problems 1.2

Convert and put into scientific notation:

1) 327.3 10 5 ev to Mev
2) 846.73 10 8 ev to Mev
3) 6.73 10 -2 ev to kev
4) 7631.73 10 5 ev to kev
5) .0000847 10 8 kev to Mev
6) 5135.4 10 -4 kev to ev
7) .0853 10 -7 Mev to ev
8) .6421 10 4 Mev to kev
9) 774.900 10 -7 Mev to kev
10) .0000158 10 4r to kr
11) 55.3 10 -5 r to mr
12) 5.67 10 -3 r to mr
13) .753 10 -2 kr to r
14) 167.3 10 5 mr to r
15) .00543 10 7 mr to r
16) 75.4 10 -5 R to mR
17) .00783 10 -4 R to mR
18) 47.3 10 5 R to mR
19) 8390 10 -4 mR to R
20) .000382 10 7 mR to R

21) 9325.6 10 -5 krem to mrem

22) .473 10 -8 krem to mrem
23) 741.7 10 -4 krem to rem
24) 3465000 10 -9 krem to rem
25) 66530 10 -9 rem to mrem
26) 45.5 Gy to cGy
27) 7500 cGy to Gy
28) 50 Gy to rad
29) 7500 rad to Gy
30) 180 rad to cGy
31) 5 rem to Sv
32) 500 mrem to Sv
33) .5 rem to mSv
34) 7500 mrem to Sv
35) 180 rem to Sv
36) 5 10 -2 Sv to rem
37) 500 10 -5 Sv to mrem
38) .5 mSv to rem
39) 67 10 2 Sv to mrem
40) 380 Sv to rem

CHAPTER I
Solution to Problems 1.1
1) 3.273 10 1 mm
2) 5.673 10 -2 mm
3) 2.773 10 0 mm = 2.773 mm
4) 7.173 10 10 mm
5) 4.3 10 7 mm
6) 8.754 10 0 cm = 8.754 cm
7) 4.83 10 -8 cm
8) 7.66 10 7 cm
9) 6.49 10 -1 cm
10) 1.58 10 2 cm
11) 5.53 10 -7 m
12) 5.67 10 -6 m
13) 7.53 10-6 m
14) 1.673 10 4 m
15) 5.43 10 1 m
16) 7.54 10 -6 m
17) 7.83 10 -9 m
18) 4.73 10 4 m
19) 8.39 10 -3 m
20) 3.82 10 1 m

21) 2.56 10 -1 m
22) 4.73 10 -6 m
23) 7.417 10 11 cm
24) 3.4 10 -9 cm
25) 3.653 10 -7 mm
26) 6.1 10 6 mm
27) 6.357 10 5 km
28) 8.65 10 -8 km
29) 9.8246 10 6 km
30) 7.353 10 -17 km
31) 3.273 10 6
32) 2.773 10 7
33) 4.3 10 14
34) 6.49 10 7
35) 1.58 10 10
36) 5.53 10 -4 m
37) 7.53 10 -13 m
38) 7.54 10 -2 cm
39) 7.83 10 -15 cm
40) 8.39 10 -1 cm
Solution to Problems 1.2

1) 3.273 10 1 Mev
2) 8.4673 10 4 Mev
3) 6.73 10 -5 kev
4) 7.63173 10 5 kev
5) 8.47 10 0 Mev = 8.47 Mev
6) 5.1354 10 2 ev
7) 8.53 10 -3 ev
8) 6.421 10 6 kev
9) 7.749 10 -2 kev
10) 1.58 10 -4 kr
11) 5.53 10 -1 mr
12) 5.67 10 0 mr = 5.67 mr
13) 7.53 10 0 r = 7.53 r
14) 1.673 10 4 r
15) 5.43 10 1 r
16) 7.54 10 -1 mR
17) 7.83 10 -4 mR
18) 4.73 10 9 mR
19) 8.39 10 -4 R
20) 3.82 10 0 R = 3.82 R

21) 9.3256 10 4 mrem

22) 4.73 10 -3 mrem
23) 7.417 10 1 rem
24) 3.465 10 0 rem = 3.465 rem
25) 6.653 10 -2 mrem
26) 4550 cGy = 4.55 10 3 cGy
27) 75 Gy = 7.5 10 1 Gy
28) 5000 rad = 5 10 3 rad
29) 75 Gy = 7.5 10 1 Gy
30) 180 cGy = 1.8 10 2 cGy
31) .05 Sv = 5 10 -2 Sv
32) 5 10 -3 Sv
33) 5 10 -3 Sv = 5 mSv
34) 75 10 -3 Sv = 7.5 10 -2 Sv = 7.5 10 4 Sv
35) 1.8 Sv = 1.8 10 6 Sv
36) 5 rem
37) 500 mrem = 5 10 2 rem
38) 5 10 -2 rem
39) 6.7 10 -1 rem = 6.7 10 2 mrem
40) 3.8 10 -2 rem

15

16

CHAPTER I