P R O D U C T I O N

O P E R A T I O N S

PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT OF
PROLIFIC, EXTENDED-REACH
GAS-LIFT OIL WELLS
Most oil wells producing from the
Glauconite YY pool of the Lake Newell field
in southern Alberta, Canada, have very
high flow capacities. Wellbore operations
are complicated by the slant-well configurations, with surface angles of 45 increasing up to 75 bottomhole and horizontal
displacements in excess of 6,600 ft. After
discovery of the Countess upper Mannville
YY pool in 1989, a marine three-dimensional-seismic program, shot in 1991,
showed that the reservoir extended 1.25
miles underneath the manmade Lake
Newell. The reservoir was developed with
14 producers and one injector. Eleven of
the 15 wells were slant drilled from a pad
location where drilling begins at an angle of
up to 45 at surface (Fig. 1). The original
oil in place was estimated to be 15 million bbl, with ultimate recovery estimated
at 8.8 million bbl. Primary production
began in January 1990, and water injection
was implemented in July 1993.
Because of the reservoirs high permeability, most wells in the reservoir have high
productivity indices. Any pressure drop
within the system has a significant impact
on productivity. All wells flowed initially,
but shortly after the initiation of water
injection, water cuts increased and artificial
lift was installed. Gas lift was selected
because of the availability of compression
capacity, infrequent workovers, low operating costs, exceptional well inflow capability, lack of wellbore restrictions for production logging and pressure surveys, and low
risk of a potential oil spill in an environmentally sensitive area.
This article is a synopsis of paper SPE
48935, Significant Production Enhancement of Extended-Reach, Prolific
Gas-Lift Oil WellsCase History of
Systematic Problem Resolution, by
D. Hahn, SPE, D. Yu, SPE, M. Tiss, SPE,
R. Dunn, SPE, and D. Murphy,
PanCanadian Resources, prepared for
the 1998 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans,
2730 September.
62

OPTIMIZATION OPPORTUNITY

To evaluate waterflood performance, the

reservoir was divided into three areas on the
basis of structure and net oil pay. Pressure
was maintained in Areas 1 and 2, but
increasing water cuts of 70 to 90% resulted
in steeply declining oil-production rates.
The reserves-life indices (remaining reserves
divided by current production rate) of these
two areas were in excess of 15 years compared with the desired 4 to 7 years. Cementsqueeze operations were performed on the
wells without success. A review of the producing wells in Areas 1 and 2 indicated that
gas-lift optimization was necessary to
increase drawdown and oil production and
to improve the oil-recovery rate. The Area 3
reserves-life index was estimated at less than
2 years. Therefore, optimization efforts were
focused on wells in Areas 1 and 2.
A study of the pressure drops in the surface system determined that increasing the
size of pipeline at the pad site would
reduce pressure drops and increase production. However, the most effective measure would be to improve the downhole

artificial-lift system. The system review

also determined that adequate capacity
existed at the testing and battery facilities
to handle increased well production from
wellbore optimization.
OPTIMIZATION ATTEMPTS

A flowing-pressure-gradient survey was

performed on the most prolific well in the
field in September 1996. Subsequent tubing-flow-performance analysis could not
match actual data with theoretical calculations, indicating that the production-string
design and gas-lift performance were
not optimized.
Theoretically, for an efficient gas-lift
installation with 2.875-in. tubing, fluid production should have increased from 717 to
1,500 B/D of liquid (BLPD). This increase
could be accomplished by replacing several
gas-lift valves with valves that had different
operating pressures. A coiled-tubing-deployed system replaced the three existing
valves successfully in November 1996. The
well was placed back on production with a
minimal increase in fluid production to 850

Fig. 1Slant-well schematic: true vertical depth (TVD) is 3,380 ft, and measured depth
(MD) is 7,200 ft.
MARCH 1999

P R O D U C T I O N

BLPD. A subsequent flowing-pressure-gradient survey in January 1997 still showed

excessive pressure drop in the tubulars.
For the next 6 months, significant effort
was expended to obtain a reasonable explanation for the differences between actual
and calculated tubing performance. Advice
was solicited from an international expert
on gas lift who also was unable to model
the actual performance with various nodal
analysis packages. Therefore, it was determined that some other unexplained phenomenon was contributing to the problem.
The following production-impairment
mechanisms were considered.
Production/injection measurement
equipment.
Hole in the tubing near surface.
Nonrepresentative flowing-pressure
gradient caused by production interference
from flow past the gauges.
Phase separation and stratification of
fluids (water, oil, and gas) in the tubing.
All the metering was verified and
deemed to be providing accurate data. A
hole in the tubing near the surface was
ruled out because the flowing-pressure gradient indicated a definite gradient shift at
the gas-injection point. Wireline gauge
rings were run to confirm that no tubular
restrictions existed. Review of the flowingpressure-gradient results, with and without
pressure gauges in the tubing (i.e., lubricator and sump), demonstrated that the
gauges were not interfering with production; therefore, the gradients were deemed
to be accurate.
Recent research and experiments on horizontal- and deviated-well flow characteristics indicate that phase separation in tubulars can be an issue because higher-specificgravity fluids will move at slower velocities
or even reverse the flow along the bottom
of the tubular. Because these slant wells are
a special application of an extended-reach
deviated well, it was postulated that the
effective flowing diameter of the tubing was
possibly smaller because of possible reverse
flow of the heavier liquid phase on the low
side of the tubing. This effect would
increase pressure drops along the tubing.
The tubing was replaced with 3.5-in. tubing
to obtain at least 1,450 BLPD; however,
only 1,130 BLPD was achieved, indicating
that the problem was probably of a different
nature and still not understood.
EMULSIONS AND DEMULSIFIERS

While trying to reconcile the underachieving gas-lift performance, discussions held

with the property team determined that the
Countess YY crude oil tends to form tight
MARCH 1999

O P E R A T I O N S

emulsions in the surface progressing-cavity

transfer pumps. The tight emulsions result
in significant pressure drops in the surface
flowlines. The pressure-drop/emulsion
problem was being addressed through the
continuous injection of demulsifier
upstream of the transfer pump.
The design of a typical gas-lift mandrel
introduces the lift gas into the tubing flow
stream countercurrent to the liquid stream.
This action can create significant turbulence in this area and cause significant
shearing/agitation of the liquid phases.
These turbulent conditions could be the
catalyst that promotes severe emulsification
of the fluids.
Tests of emulsion samples taken at the
wellhead revealed that they were very viscous and stable. The viscous emulsified
flow regime created excessive pressure
drops within the wellbore that impeded
production. Surrounding wells are also
prone to emulsions.
Several weeks after the August 1997
installation of larger tubing, a demulsifier
was introduced into the injection-gas
stream. After 2 days, the well responded
with a very strong production surge. The
estimated rate was in excess of 2,830 BLPD.
The production spike would last for 2 to 3
hours then revert to its normal rate for 6 to
7 hours. This cycle repeated itself two to
three times every day. During these highrate surges, the surface piping at the wellhead vibrated vigorously and operational
problems were encountered with the separation and gas-processing equipment. The
demulsifier was a two-component blend of
active ingredients in hydrocarbon carriers.
The dry lift gas probably absorbed the
hydrocarbon carrier, causing the resulting
thicker demulsifier active ingredient to
remain at the top of the annulus fluid.
Project economics dictated the installation of a chemical capillary string. The dedicated chemical-injection string allows
introduction of chemicals where produced
fluids enter the tubing string, letting activation take place before the fluids reach the
more turbulent region of lift-gas injection.
RESULTS

The initial chemical-injection rate of 5.3

gal/D was reduced to 4 gal/D after several
days. The production stabilized at 3,000
BLPD. High wellhead pressures were caused
by surface piping restrictions that were rectified in May 1998. A flowing-gradient survey
was run after the tubulars were upgraded
and demulsifier was being injected through
the capillary string. The gradient survey
demonstrated excellent agreement between

measured pressures and pressures calculated

with the Hagedorn-Brown correlation.
Because the tight produced emulsions in
the tubulars impaired gas-lift performance,
a second well was upgraded in a similar
manner. Production increased from 380 to
1,775 BLPD, an incremental increase of 560
BOPD. The current rate is in close agreement with the theoretical predictions.
Subsequent to the introduction of this
chemical, no evidence of paraffin deposition within the tubulars has been seen.
Dewaxing-related operating costs have
been reduced, and flow efficiencies
improved, probably because of increased
flowing temperatures. Also, with the
downhole injection of demulsifier, the use
of the chemical for surface treatment at
the testing/transfer facility has been
reduced significantly.
Since July 1997, the oil-production rates
from the Countess YY pool increased 1,475
B/D, from 1,825 to 3,300 B/D (even higher
than the previous peak rate of 3,000 B/D in
early 1994 shortly after the waterflood was
initiated). The perseverance in resolving
the technical issues surrounding the poor
gas-lift performance of these wells has
improved cash flow and profitability of this
pool significantly.
SYSTEMATIC PROBLEMRESOLUTION CYCLE

The resolution of inadequate well-production performance occurred after several

iterations that followed a modified
Shewhart cycle. The four steps of this cycle
can be summarized as follows.
1. Plan: diagnose the problem, collect
data, determine changes, and develop an
action plan.
2. Do: execute the action plan to carry
out change.
3. Check: observe the results.
4. Act: analyze the results. What was
learned? Do side effects or benefits still
exist? Was the plan successful? Repeat
cycle if unsatisfactory.
During the entire process of arriving at
the most satisfactory solution for the issue
of obtaining production rates near the theoretical predictions, the multidisciplinary
team followed the systematic pattern for
continuous improvement. This cycle was
repeated at least four times before the best
solution emerged.
Please read the full-length paper for
additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the
synopsis has been taken has not been
peer reviewed.
63

P R O D U C T I O N

O P E R A T I O N S

METERING MULTIPHASE FLOW

IN THE GULF OF MEXICO
Meters for measuring multiphase flow are
unique tools that allow measurement of
produced fluids (oil, water, and gas) without separation into individual phases. Two
distinct and fundamental approaches to
multiphase-flow measurement exist. The
first includes no fluid separation, and the
second uses partial (hybrid) measurement.
No single multiphase-flow-measurementsystem design or technology resolves all
multiphase-flow-measurement issues satisfactorily. Each approach has benefits as
well as shortcomings. Even with these limitations, worldwide use has increased.
Approximately 50 multiphase-flow
meters were in service in 1995; this number increased to approximately 150 in
1997. Subsea application was the major
reason for the original growth of the technology and is expected to be the dominant
driver in the future.
Most commercial multiphase-flow-measurement systems have no level- or pressurecontrol equipment to maintain but do
include process-variable transmitters,
which generally are off the shelf with standard calibration procedures. However, most
systems require some form of electrical
power and, in some cases, a controlled
environment (such as a control room) for a
flow computer. Because new electronic systems have been problematical when
installed in the field, Conoco was compelled to test at the field level.
MPFM 1900VI DEVELOPMENT

The field-level performance-evaluation test

begun in late 1997 was the final step of a
development program started in 1992. A
joint-industry-project (JIP) agreement

This article is a synopsis of paper SPE

49118, Application of the First
Multiphase-Flow Meter in the Gulf of
Mexico, by Edward G. Stokes, SPE,
Conoco Inc.; Dennis T. Perry, PetroTraces
Inc.; Marshall H. Mitchell, Conoco Inc.;
and Martin Halvorsen, Fluenta A/S, prepared for the 1998 Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans,
2730 September.
64

between Conoco Inc., Norske Conoco A/S,

and Fluenta A/S was reached in 1991 on a
program that spanned 2 years and consisted of four development activities. The work
resulted in Fluentas MPFM 1900VI multiphase-flow meter.
Previous testing of water-cut meters at
Conocos Grand Isle shore base in 1988
indicated that live fluids (at bubblepoint)
affected the accuracy performance of many
instruments, causing them not to meet the
manufacturers accuracy specifications.
This bubblepoint-fluid condition occurs
when pressure drops below the last separation pressure, which occurs as fluid flows
through pipes and fittings.
Conocos multiphase-flow test and validation flow loop outside Lafayette,
Louisiana, was commissioned in March
1993. Its original objective was to validate
meter performance with produced fluids by
use of multiphase (liquid/liquid, liquid/gas,
and liquid/liquid/gas), clamp-on ultrasonic,
water-cut, and any other technology with
potential operational and economic
improvements.
Testing of Fluentas MPFM 900V, the
forerunner of the MPFM 1900VI, began in
April 1993. The project was to end by
January 1994 with the tests of the MPFM
1900VI. Because of unplanned events,
however, the flow-loop-test phase did not
end until February 1997. The JIP test program was planned to be completed after the
conclusion of field-level testing in the U.S.
Gulf of Mexico.
USE OF MULTIPHA SE-FLOWMEA SUREMENT TECHNOLOGY

The economic incentive to use multiphaseflow technology is derived from the initial
savings of weight and space on conventional platforms, providing instantaneous flowrate information, reduced maintenance,
and more efficient detection of problems
associated with declining production. In a
subsea application, multiphase-flow technology becomes an enabling technology,
allowing measurements in an environment
where separators are unproved.
A business case was developed for this
final field test that assumed that average

daily production volumes from the platform would be increased by 1 to 2%. It was
further assumed that this increase in production would come about because the
meter would allow production adjustments
with faster feedback from measurements,
decreasing the apparent decline rate; production tests could be performed more
often and for shorter periods of time; and
response to unplanned production-rate
changes could be faster.
METER DEVELOPMENT

The meter measures oil, gas, and water flow

rates without physical separation of the well
stream. The nonintrusive, real-time, fullbore instrument requires no bypass line and
no invasive mixing device. The meter determines fluid slip automatically and calculates volume flow rates at actual and customer-supplied standard conditions. Fluid
slip is the relative velocity between liquid
and gas phases in a multiphase system
where gas tends to flow faster than liquid.
The measurement system includes a
capacitance sensor, an inductive sensor, a
gamma densitometer, a venturi meter, and a
system computer. The capacitance sensor is
used to measure the permittivity of the
mixture and the gas velocity in oil-continuous multiphase-flow situations. If the flow
becomes water continuous, the system flow
computer automatically selects the inductive-sensor signals to calculate the conductivity and gas velocity of the mixture. The
gamma densitometer is used to measure the
density of the flow stream. The flow computer performs the analysis on the data and
the data are brought safely to the computer
by cables through safety barriers.
Principle of Operation. Measurement of
the flow is divided into two parts, fluid fractions and velocities. Oil, water, and gas flow
rates are calculated on the basis of the measured fractions and velocities. The permittivity and density are different for each of
the three components of an oil/gas/water
mixture. If these permittivities and densities
are known and the total permittivity and
density of the mixture are measured accurately, the fractions of each of the three comMARCH 1999

P R O D U C T I O N

ponents can be determined. For water-continuous mixtures, the inductive sensor is

used to calculate the fractions. The principle
is basically the same, except that conductivity (not permittivity) is being measured.
Studies have shown that generating
gas/liquid flowing conditions without slip
is virtually impossible. Even if no-slip conditions could be generated artificially, slip
would reoccur a very short distance downstream of the mixing device (typically 5 to
10 diameters). The strategy for this system
was to find and develop mathematical models that give dependable velocity measurements under all slip conditions.
This system determines the velocities of
the large and small gas bubbles and the liquid. The capacitance and inductive sensors
contain a number of electrode configurations that are used to measure the velocities
of the large gas bubbles through crosscorrelation. The velocity of the small gas bubbles
and the liquid is found from the differential
pressure across the venturi meter. When
the two velocity components are determined, they are combined with information
from the fraction measurements to calculate the individual flow rates of oil, gas,
and water.
FIELD TESTING

Initial plans called for testing of all wells for

24 hours at a set gas-lift rate to establish a
base condition. This test would be followed
by another 24-hour test at the same operating conditions of choke size, pressure, and
gas-lift rate to evaluate repeatability. After
the first two series of long-duration tests,
test duration was determined by field-operations personnel. Adjustments also were
made to observe, in real time, each wells
response to conditional changes (i.e.,
choke diameter, gas-lift rate, or processsystem settings).
Meter Installation. The meter system was
installed with upward vertical flow.
Physical installation included a drip pan to
contain spills, block valves to allow work to
be done on the meter without depressuring
the whole platform, and manual sample
ports at the meter inlet. The multiphaseflow computer was installed in the operators doghouse on the well-bay deck.
Safety Issue (Gamma Densitometer).
The gamma densitometer used at the test
site was rented from ICI Tracerco and used
cesium-137 as the gamma-emitting isotope.
The source-energy rating is 24 mCi, which
requires special handling and operating
procedures and personnel training.
66

O P E R A T I O N S

FIELD OBSERVATIONS

Separator-Discharge Sampling. The separator-sediment/-water sampler was not

used because a representative sample could
not be taken during the dump cycle.
Because of the nature of on/off fluid flow, a
dump cycle would start with mostly water
and end with mostly oil. Although the
dump rate was reasonably consistent, sampling the dump cycle yielded nonrepeatable results. Instead, liquid samples were
taken manually at the inlet to the multiphase-flow meter.
Fluid Cloud-Point Problem. One well
was found to flow at close to its cloud
point. After several series of tests where
various wells were flowed through the
metering system, the indicated water cut
for all wells became consistently lower
than the manual water-cut samples.
Inspection and cleaning of the meter corrected the problem and returned the meter
performance. The capacitance unit had a
paraffin deposit covering the liner surface,
which had to be cleaned to enable proper operation.
Safety. To use a gamma densitometer in the
field, a licensing procedure had to be developed that included the following.
1. Permission from regulatory agencies
to proceed with the usage.
2. Removal from previous location.
3. Transportation to field.
4. Installation and leak check.
5. Field training and maintenance.
6. Contingency planning and documentation of Items 1 through 5.
7. Roll-up plan for removal of radioactive
source after use.
Observations. Multiphase-flow meters
proved to be more robust than anticipated,
with no mechanical failures during the test
period. It was very difficult to acquire all
the required data consistently and accurately over different shifts and rotating personnel. However, less than 10% of the data was
eliminated for poor quality. The only maintenance problems were with software early
in the program and paraffin buildup when
testing close to the fluid cloud point.
The field performance of the metering
system appeared to be similar to the flowloop performance. Measurement repeatability was demonstrated, except for the
consistent accumulation of paraffin found
throughout the test period for one well.
The piping and electrical installations were
simple and straightforward, making the
system easy to move at low cost.

Testing indicated that the duration of the

well test does not affect the relative performance of the meter compared with the separator. Projected 24-hour production rates
from the separator and multiphase-flowmeter system were affected in some wells
by the length of the well test. Many wells do
not flow at the average daily rate constantly; instead, they appear to cycle.
At some point in each well, the multiphase-flow meter was subjected to instantaneous flow conditions below the meters
specified liquid-rate minimum. This was
caused by surging, where a liquid slug is
followed by an extremely high gas fraction
with very low liquid rates. This slugging
occurred at regular intervals. The meter
was useful in establishing optimum gas-lift
rates through the relatively instantaneous
nature of its data calculation and display.
Issues for Future Use. Future use of any
new-technology multiphase-flow-measurement equipment depends on the following.
The absolute accuracy of multiphaseflow-measurement systems must improve
to a maximum of 5% at all conditions of
flow for gas, oil, and water.
How the conflict that arises (because
the method of determining a separators
hydraulic efficiency in the field often is not
specified) when comparing typical performance between a separator and a new-technology multiphase-flow meter is resolved .
How multiphase-flow-measurement
accuracy is proved after repair, recalibration, or system change (i.e., level or pressure).
How one determines whether a measurement-system performance change might
have occurred during use (such as the waxbuildup problem experienced during the
field test).
The U.S. Minerals Management Service
(MMS) custody-transfer requirements are
2% for sales of gas and 0.25% for sales of
liquids. Currently, multiphase-flow-measurement technology cannot meet these
stringent requirements. The question is
whether multiphase-flow technology can
be improved sufficiently to close this gap
and be approved for fiscal measurement by
the MMS.

Please read the full-length paper for

additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the
synopsis has been taken has not been
peer reviewed.
MARCH 1999

P R O D U C T I O N

O P E R A T I O N S

NEW PRODUCTION-LOGGING
TECHNOLOGY FOR HORIZONTAL WELLS
The main objectives of production logging
are to diagnose well-production problems
(such as inflow rates and entries of unwanted fluids), supply information for reservoir
modeling, and provide data to optimize the
productivity of future and existing wells.
Determining the inflow profile of oil can
help plan a drilling strategy, formulate
cleanup methods for current and future
wells, determine drainage patterns, and
allocate production to sidetracks. Determining the water-entry locations and position of the water cone can provide a better
understanding of the reservoir water-transport mechanisms and supply data for
potential workovers. Ultimately, use of the
results should improve the productivity
and long-term recovery from the field.
Most of this discussion refers to
oil/water systems, with occasional references to gas/liquid systems. Many of the
oil-/water-system results are applicable to
gas/liquid systems. In a horizontal well,
whether it is a barefoot completion or completed with a cemented casing or slotted
liner, oil/water flow tends to be segregated
by gravitational forces.
Along different sections of the wellbore,
the heavy- and light-fluid phases segregate
according to the following regimes: stratified with a flat interface; stratified with a
wavy interface; stratified with a bubbly
interface; light phase slugging over the
heavy phase; or one phase existing purely as
bubbles in the other phase. Except for very
heavy oils, stratified flow is normal when
the holdup is significant (>20%) for both oil
and water and can occur for liquid flow
rates ranging from 0 to more than 12,000

This article is a synopsis of paper SPE

50178, Application of New-Generation
Technology to Horizontal-Well Production LoggingExamples From the
North West Shelf of Australia, by A.
Carnegie, SPE, Schlumberger, and N.
Roberts, SPE, and I. Clyne, Mobil E&P
Australia Pty. Ltd., originally presented
at the 1998 SPE Asia Pacific Oil & Gas
Conference and Exhibition, Perth,
Australia, 1214 October.
MARCH 1999

B/D. Whatever the density contrast between

the heavy and light phase, stratified flow is
more likely for flow in sections of wellbore
with deviations greater than 90 (i.e., downhill flow). Stratified flow with a bubbly
interface can occur with low water holdups
and is more likely as deviation decreases
below 90. Slugging of the light phase can
occur at deviations of less than 90 and is
more common in gas/liquid flow. Flow
where one fluid phase is mixed as bubbles
in the continuous phase tends to occur
more often if the heavy and light phases
have similar densities or if one fluid phase
enters through a jet into the wellbore.
Problems encountered in measuring
holdup and velocities in multiphase flow in
horizontal wells include the following.
Sumps and traps change the cross-sectional area open to flow.
Segregated flow where different fluids
have different velocities can greatly complicate spinner readings.
Slight slope deviations from horizontal
can cause significant changes in holdup
and fluid velocities.
Deviations of much less than 90 can
cause backflow and circulation.
Sensors that relate the density of a column of fluid to the difference in pressure
measured at the top and bottom of the column cannot work in horizontal wellbores.
A nuclear fluid-density meter is undesirable because it is environmentally hazardous and provides inaccurate measurements (particularly in heavy-oil/water systems of the Northwest shelf of Australia).
Slotted liners create complications for
accurate calculation of the total flow rate
because of the uncertainty introduced by
the annulus between the liner and the
open hole (e.g., annular flow, changing
hole diameter, or variable eccentering of
the liner).
The spinner behaves insensitively at
low flow rates, which typically occur
toward the toe of the well where the inflow
contributions are often of strong interest.
Because of segregated flow, interpretation
techniques for vertical wells often are not
applicable to horizontal wells. Moreover,
existing correlations for horizontal and

deviated oil/water flow do not deal with the

effects of slight deviations. Therefore, a new
tool string consisting of traditional and
recently developed sensors has been tested.
The possible existence of gas traps and
water sumps causes another general difficulty when trying to understand flow
behavior in horizontal wells. Given the
observed production of these fluids at the
surface, it would be dangerous to construe
the downhole flow regime of water and gas.
For example, when only oil is produced at
the surface, it generally would be incorrect
to assume that single-phase oil flow
exists downhole.
INTEGRATED PRODUCTIONLOGGING TOOL

The tool string shown in Fig. 1 is a

stripped-down version of one designed to
deal with three-phase flow and is generally
adequate for flow that is mainly oil/water.
The tool string contains multiple sensors
that measure the same quantity. For example, the locations of water inflow into a
mainly oil-filled wellbore could be inferred
from an interpretation of data from the
spinner plus the fluid holdups measured
by Schlumbergers Reservoir Saturation
Tool (RST) and FlowView Plus tool
(FVPT) or from the flow image and bubble
counts from the FVPT. All data from all
sources must be considered when performing the interpretation.
CONVEYANCE

The example wells were logged with the aid

of a tractor run above the tool string. It was
used to push the string toward the toe of
the well. The logging was done while the
tool string was pulled out of the wellbore
by wireline.
EXAMPLES

Three wells were logged in the Wandoo

field, 37 miles offshore Australia on the
Northwest shelf. The field contains a thin
oil column (72 ft) sandwiched between a
small overlying gas cap and a strong aquifer.
The oil gravity is 19API, with a reservoir
viscosity greater than 15 cp. Reservoir permeability ranges from 500 to 10,000 md.
67

P R O D U C T I O N

Combinable
productionlogging tool
to obtain
pressure and
temperature.

The RST used to

determine water
flow; three-phase
holdup; formation
oil, water, and gas
saturations; and
gamma ray count.

O P E R A T I O N S

Flowview tool

Flowview tool
FVPT

Full-bore directional
spinner used to
determine total
flow rate.

Combined tools positioned at a 45 offset and used

to determine holdup, flow image, bubble map, and
bubble velocity.

Fig. 1Tool string used for the Australian Northwest shelf examples (conveyed by tractornot shown).

The field was developed with horizontal

wells, 15 oil producers and one gas injector.
The average length of openhole section for
the oil producers is 3,281 ft.
Understanding of water influx into the
horizontal wells is crucial to the long-term
recovery from the field. Early breakthrough
of water was expected because of the thin
oil column, unfavorable mobility ratio, and
strong bottomwater drive. Results from a
previous production-logging campaign
indicated that water influx occurred at the
heel of the well, the location of maximum
drawdown. Recent production logs suggest
that this assumption was applicable only
for wells intersecting sands of uniform permeability or for wells with higher-permeability sands at the heel.
Example 1. Well WB1a intersects higherpermeability sands at the toe of the well.
These sands are thought to have incurred
large fluid losses during drilling operations,
which may have damaged the formation.
Test objectives were to determine the flow
contribution of the sidetrack, the well
inflow profile, and water-entry locations.
The tool string consisted of a directional
full-bore spinner; an FVPT; and sensors for
pressure, temperature, and acceleration. An
RST analysis was unnecessary because the
downhole flow regime was known to be
essentially two phase (oil and water). The
holdup in an oil/water flow regime can be
determined by the FVPT reliably.
The shut-in log data show a strong correlation between parameters: the FVPT
bubble counts and water-holdup-analysis
results and the low sections of the well trajectory. The spinner indicated that crossflow was insignificant or nonexistent.
Data from the FVPT corroborate the spinner with respect to water at low points in
the wellbore. But only the spinner can be
68

used to suggest the existence of gas pockets at high sections of the wellbore. Water
sumps and gas traps typically are found in
shut-in wells with little or no crossflow.
During the flowing pass, the full-bore
directional spinner indicated that inflow
to the wellbore was relatively uniform,
probably indicating that the sidetrack was
not contributing significantly.
The holdup analysis shows that, during
flowing conditions, the sumps had been
dispersed and smeared except for one at
5,676 ft, where the flow from the toe was
probably too low to affect it. The bubblemap log track, which was blank for the
shut-in pass, shows an abundance of bubbles under flowing conditions. These bubbles are probably water because they usually occur on the lower side of the liner.
Example 2. The next well logged was
Well WB4a, which intersects higher-permeability sands at the toe of the well.
These sands constitute 9% of the total
openhole section of the well. The initial
logging passes were shut-in spinner-calibration passes. When the surface flow
rates were stable at 3,490 BOPD and 7,265
BWPD, logging was performed.
Near the toe of the well, the fluids were
stratified vertically (water underneath,
hydrocarbon on top) and the bubble count
was low (compared with the heel). Moving
up the hole, the temperature, bubble count,
and water holdup increased dramatically
and the flow became more mixed. The bubbles between 6,300 and 6,102 ft were likely
water because the water holdup increased
dramatically (from 6,300 to 6,234 ft). This
influx location coincides with the point
where the well intersects the higher-permeability sands at the toe of the well.
In the segment of wellbore between
6,102 to 3,281 ft, the water holdup

decreased. The flow became bubbly, and

the bubbles probably were oil because most
occurred on the high side of the liner.
Water and hydrocarbon also became progressively more mixed (i.e., dispersed).
From 6,102 to 3,281 ft, all the influx was
oil. On the basis of the spinner response,
the oil productivity was uniform.
Example 3. The third horizontal well surveyed was Well WB9, which was
geosteered under an existing producer and
intercepted a water cone at 4,921 ft. The
tool string consisted of an FVPT and an
RST. The FVPT provided the wellbore
water-/hydrocarbon-holdup data. These
data were necessary to interpret the formation measurements made by the RST. The
RST was used to determine the oil, water,
and gas saturations in the formation and to
provide wellbore holdup data. The results
indicated that the residual-oil saturation in
the zone from 4,970 to 5,102 ft was
approximately 27%, compared with 19%
from core analysis.
The data from the RST tool, acquired
while in dual-burst pulsed-neutron mode,
clearly show character that is not an artifact
of the wellbore conditions and, therefore,
should be a formation response. This
response implies that the RST may be used
for time-lapse monitoring. The wellbore
holdup determination from the RST agrees
well with that from the FVPT. These results
are being used by Mobil for reservoir modeling and for time-lapse monitoring.

Please read the full-length paper for

additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the
synopsis has been taken has not been
peer reviewed.
MARCH 1999

P R O D U C T I O N

O P E R A T I O N S

DOWNHOLE SEPARATOR PRODUCES

LESS WATER AND MORE OIL
Water management is important in the production of hydrocarbons, especially when
water volumes steadily increase as fields
age. Novel approaches that can reduce the
water volume downhole may supplement
the traditional approach to oil/water separation at the surface. Taking produced water
out of the well stream downhole increases
production-tubing and process-facility
capacity for oil and gas. Downhole oil/water
separation (DOWS) can reduce the need to
upgrade water-treating facilities.
Downhole separation offers an alternative to debottleneck constrained water-handling facilities with potentially positive side
effects, such as more favorable conditions
for separating oil from water, increased productivity as a result of better well
hydraulics, reduced discharges of oily
water, and maintenance of reservoir pressure. Reducing water at the source also
diminishes the need for water treatment
and for prevention of corrosion, scale, and
hydrates. When wells are already pumped
or when produced water is already reinjected, downhole separation will be beneficial,
particularly in wells where water shutoff
has proved ineffective.
New concepts for DOWS have been
developed under a joint-industry project
run by the Centre for Engineering Research
(Canada). The technical feasibility of completing wells with hydrocyclones and
downhole pumps to achieve in-well production, separation, and reinjection was
demonstrated. The first successful installation outside North America became operational in Germany in 1997.
C ANDIDATE WELLS

Candidate wells have a relatively low production rate (<1000 m3/d) and high water

EQUIPMENT DESIGN

cut (>95%). Wells with a risk of sand production or emulsification must be avoided.
The Eldingen field, east of Hannover,
Germany, has produced from a shaly sandstone reservoir since the 1950s and meets
the screening criteria. Well Eldingen-58
produces light oil from three consolidatedsandstone intervals that are in pressure
communication. The reservoir pressure is
approximately 72 bar at a 1460-m perforation depth. Production has been lifted by a
beam pump at 80 m3/d with 97 to 98%
water cut. In preparation of the DOWS
installation, a packer was set to isolate the
top zone from the two lower zones. The top
zone was to be the producing interval and
the lower zones the injection interval.
Tubing to surface

Concentrate pump

Motor upper protector

Motor
shroud

Motor

Motor lower protector

Pump intake

Total-flow pump
Bypass tubes
Production
zone
Hydrocyclone
Injection pressure sub

This article is a synopsis of paper SPE

50617, Downhole Separator Produces
Less Water and More Oil, by P.H.J.
Verbeek and R.G. Smeenk, Shell Intl. E&P,
and D. Jacobs, BEB Erdgas und Erdl,
originally presented at the 1998 SPE
European Petroleum Conference, The
Hague, The Netherlands, 2022 October.
70

Separation packer and

locator seal assembly
Injection
zone

Fig. 1Downhole equipment lineup of

well completion and flow paths for
Eldingen-58.

The downhole separator was designed in

consultation with the equipment supplier
on the basis of reservoir and well data. The
DOWS for Well Eldingen-58 includes one
hydrocyclone and two electrical-submersible pumps (ESPs). Fig. 1 depicts the
downhole equipment and flow paths.
The high-water-cut oil flows from the
production perforations upward to the top
of the motor shroud. The bottom of the
shroud is coupled to the pump housing by
a fluid-tight seal, forcing all fluids over the
top of the shroud and downward along the
motor into the pump. From the pump
intake, all fluids are pumped downward by
the total-flow pump (an upside-down ESP
with a thrust bearing at the top and discharge at the bottom) into the hydrocyclone where the bulk of the water is separated from the oil. The underflow of the
hydrocyclone produces water clean enough
for injection into the disposal zone. The
overflow, oil with the remainder of the
water, flows through bypass tubes into the
concentrate pump for production to the
surface. These three 20-m-long, 0.9525cm-diameter tubes that bypass the lower
pump and motor are sized so that erosion
and pressure drop are minimal.
A common motor drives both pumps.
This motor has protectors at top and bottom, unlike a normal ESP. The motor is
powered from the variable-speed drive at
the surface through a flat cable, which is
strapped to the tubing with metal bands
and cross-coupling protectors. With a variable-speed drive and an adjustable surface
choke, the system can cover the expected
variability in injectivity and productivity.
The pump design depends on the flows
and pressures required to lift the oil-rich
stream compared with those needed to
reinject the water. The push-through system used in Well Eldingen-58 is most efficient for dealing with the low reservoir
pressure in Eldingen. This concept also
avoids any breakout of gas in the hydrocyclone. If the reservoir pressure is sufficiently high, a concentrate pump is not needed.
Alternatively, the well stream may be separated before being pumped; this so-called
MARCH 1999

P R O D U C T I O N

pull-through concept can be applied provided the bubblepoint pressure is high

enough to prevent gas breakout in the
hydrocyclone. In some crude oils, the latter
concept would avoid emulsions and poor
injection-water quality as observed in earlier DOWS trials with heavy oil.
Solids carried by the separated water are
the biggest concern for sustained injectivity. However, the consolidated reservoir in
Eldingen has little sand production. For
efficient oil/water separation, the split
between overflow and underflow of the
hydrocyclone can be controlled by chokes.
The oil-in-water content in the underflow
of the hydrocyclone should be 100 to
300 ppm. To ensure this water quality into
the disposal zone, a rule of thumb for
DOWS is to keep the surface water cut
slightly higher than 50%. The separation
efficiency depends largely on characteristics
of the oil/water mixture, in particular oil
droplet size. Knowledge of the droplet-size
distribution in oil-in-water emulsions
downhole could enable better separation.
FIELD PERFORMANCE

Recompleting the well has increased net oil

production by 300%, while net water pro-

O P E R A T I O N S

duction to surface has decreased by 64%. In

the first year of operation, reinjection of
water, separated downhole, did not damage
matrix permeability; however, a water-cut
increase was observed in the project area.
TECHNOLOGY OUTLOOK

Well re-entry has not been required for corrective action on downhole equipment. The
water is injected under matrix-flow conditions, and no sign of permeability damage
has been observed. Adjacent wells have
experienced an increase in fluid level and
water cut. These trends result primarily
from the influence of DOWS because these
wells produce from the lower zones into
which Well Eldingen-58 is injecting.
Despite favorable performance, the economics of DOWS is still relatively poor.
Assuming U.S. $15/bbl and a production-rate
increase of 30 B/D, payback time is approximately 1 year. Important factors include oil
price, process-facility capacity, and an increase
in tubing oil-flow capacity. Phasing well conversions in accord with increasing water rates
also would limit exposure of large up-front
investments. The concept, developed originally for debottlenecking production facilities, is being upgraded with a more efficient

downhole separator aimed at reducing the

infrastructure and facilities for offshore fields.
CONCLUSIONS

Industry still needs to prove that downhole separation is a reliable, cost-effective

means to increase oil production from
capacity-constrained facilities, potentially
lengthening the life of oil fields.
The downhole-separation concept, developed originally for debottlenecking onshore
facilities, has the potential to reduce the infrastructure and facilities of offshore oil fields.
Evidence exists that water, separated
downhole, can be injected under matrixflow conditions, which may lead to significant power savings in water-injection systems if sustained.
Water-cut development in the Eldingen
field indicates that DOWS should be
applied in reservoir configurations with
flow barriers between producing and injection intervals.
Please read the full-length paper for
additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the
synopsis has been taken has not been
peer reviewed.

P R O D U C T I O N

O P E R A T I O N S

OIL-SOLUBLE SCALE INHIBITORS

Fig. 1 shows a subsea-satellite field on the
Norwegian continental shelf, 200 km
northwest of Bergen, connected through a
9-in. production line to a concrete gravitybased production platform. Production,
which started in 1994, is from four production templates, and water injection, for
pressure support, is through two injection
templates. Oil production currently is
25 000 m3/d. Recoverable reserves are estimated to be 55106 m3 of oil from Brent
group sandstone.
Squeeze chemicals can be injected into
the wells through a 21/2-in. methanol line
from the platform, 16 km from the farthest
production template. The individual wells
are completed differently, but most are vertical or highly deviated, with 51/2-in. tubing. Placement of chemicals is difficult
without the use of coiled tubing and an
intervention vessel, which is expensive.
The most attractive solution is to bullhead
the treatment through the methanol line
and into the wells.
THE NEED

When a scale-inhibitor squeeze treatment

with a traditional water-based product is
needed, several operational constraints
must be considered. These constraints,
caused by the long distance between the
platform and the templates and the large
volume of fluid that has to be pumped and
backproduced, include the following.
High friction and low pump rates will
be experienced because of the high reservoir pressure and long distance.
Poor placement can result because of
the low injection rates through the 21/2-in.
methanol line into 51/2-in. tubing.
Each production template is connected
to four producers. Because a separate test
This article is a synopsis of paper SPE
50706, Development of an Oil-Soluble
Scale Inhibitor for a Subsea-Satellite
Field, by Rex Wat, SPE, Harry
Montgomerie, and Thomas Hagen,
Champion Technologies, and Raymond
Breng, Hans Kristian Kotlar, SPE, and
Olav Vikane, SPE, Statoil A/S, originally presented at the 1999 SPE
International Symposium on Oilfield
Chemistry, Houston, 1619 February.
72

line does not exist, the other wells at the

template must be shut in after a squeeze
treatment to enable the squeezed well to
produce through the 9-in. production line.
If use of an oil-soluble scale inhibitor
(OSSI) is possible, the squeezed well can be
backproduced without shutting in the
other wells at the same template. Also,
fewer relative permeability effects for dry
wells means that a squeeze treatment can
be performed before water breakthrough
without risking deferred production
because of a prolonged cleanup period. An
extended squeeze life may be possible
because the OSSI can be placed deeper into
the formation without causing water block,
as often observed with water-based products. Better placement, with a higher
squeeze rate into the formation, may be
possible because of a lack of pressure drop
caused by changes in saturation.
OSSI

OSSIs are better described as oil-miscible

scale inhibitors. They were developed initially for gas-lift applications and sometimes applied as combined scale/corrosion
inhibitors. Early OSSIs often contained
multiple components and mutual solvents
to hold the package together. In special
applications, undesirable side effects (such
as behaving as a surfactant) limited the
flexibility of component selection. New
OSSIs do not contain a mutual solvent and
will dissolve in most hydrocarbons at infinite ratios.
HYDROC ARBON C ARRIER

As part of the test program, the authors

examined different carrier fluids (hydrocarbon for the pill) that might be available in
the field (e.g., diesel, kerosene, crude,

Production
Template

Injection
Template
Production
Template

Fig. 1Subsea-satellite-field layout.

paraffin, and xylene). While xylene is the

least likely candidate, its inclusion provides
direct comparison with the others because
it often is regarded as the best hydrocarbon
solvent and is used in many oil-treating
chemicals. The choice of carrier fluid
depends on costs, handling, availability,
and its effect on the OSSI. The last point is
critical because the hydrolysis and partitioning kinetics of the OSSI, when it finally
comes into contact with the in-situ water
phase, control the success of the squeeze
treatment in the field. Also, the selected
hydrocarbon carrier must demonstrate full
compatibility with the OSSI at different
operating temperatures (i.e., platform,
seabed, and downhole).
In the tests, 10% OSSI solutions were
made up in crude, kerosene, diesel, paraffin, and xylene. The solutions were mixed
5:1 with formation water to prepare test
samples. The samples were shaken briefly
and left in an oven overnight at 80C. The
aqueous and the oil layers from each sample were separated and analyzed.
None of the solvent carriers appeared to
have a major influence on the mass-transfer
process of the OSSI. On contact with water,
most of the OSSI molecules transferred
from the oil phase into the aqueous phase
through a combined hydrolysis and partitioning process. The level of transfer was
extremely high, with little (<0.1%) or no
OSSI detected in the final oil layer.
The effect of temperature on the masstransfer process was examined briefly in a
separate test. Five duplicate samples (10%
OSSI in crude with formation water at a 5:1
ratio) were prepared and subjected to temperatures of 0, 20, 50, 70, and 90C. After
mixing, the different layers in each sample
were analyzed. In each case, little OSSI was
found left in the oil phase. Unlike normal
reaction kinetics, the response to temperature appeared to be less sensitive. Both the
hydrolysis and partitioning steps are
believed to be extremely fast. Indeed, the
only problem was with the phase separation at 0C, where the layers had to be separated by centrifuge.
EFFICIENCY

Operational experiences from nearby fields

with similar formation water suggest a
MARCH 1999

P R O D U C T I O N

mild scaling-regime change from CO3 to

SO4 scale when seawater breaks through.
After transferring into the water phase, the
OSSI molecules must demonstrate adequate inhibition efficiency. Performance
tests were carried out by use of a conventional tube-blocking-test apparatus to
determine the minimum inhibition concentration (MIC).
Precolumn Test. A second tube-blockingtest procedure uses a precolumn sandpack
inserted into one of the water flowlines
placed upstream of the test coil. The column simulated a squeeze treatment in the
sandpack before the test. The arrangement
is suitable for screening and ranking different scale inhibitors for squeeze treatment
before the more expensive and time-consuming core tests. If the effluent samples
can be preserved and stabilized, such an
arrangement can provide simultaneous,
inexpensive comparisons of inhibition efficacy and retention characteristics of the
scale-inhibitor chemicals.
This apparatus possibly can be expanded
so that a reservoir-conditioned-core container is coupled with a standard tubeblocking-test apparatus. By monitoring the
pressure drop, the level of scale-inhibitor
residuals, and the scaling ions in the effluents, a more representative MIC level and
squeeze life might be determined for
field applications.
Once the OSSI molecules hydrolyzed
and partitioned in the connate water, they
migrated toward the sand surface, where
the adsorption process took place. Their
return is not affected by the passage of
hydrocarbon but follows a desorption profile similar to that of a water-based
scale inhibitor.
Poorer performance with the water-based
scale inhibitor seems contradictory at first.
However, after reviewing other data generated during this study, it became clearer and
is explained by the unique mechanism of
enhanced partitioning. When injecting a
water-based scale inhibitor, the best outcome is complete replacement of the connate water by the injected squeeze pill. The
maximum concentration gradient that can
drive the adsorption process is equal to the
pill concentration. However, for the OSSI,
the maximum concentration that can be
attained by the connate water is governed
by the mass-transfer process between the
oil and water phases.
During the course of this study, it was
observed that the equilibrium concentration in the aqueous phase can be significantly higher than that in the original OSSI
74

O P E R A T I O N S

solution. This may explain the fact that,

while the same activity of scale inhibitor
was present in both cases, the desorption
profile of the OSSI seemed to be better
because of the much higher concentration
gradient that drove the adsorption process
in the first place. Hence, the time required
to scale up the test coil was longer.
Reservoir-Conditioned-Core Tests. The
results from the precolumn tube-blocking
tests cannot predict accurately what will
happen in the field. As part of the productdevelopment program, a reservoir-conditioned-core test is essential to determine
whether the OSSI can offer a reasonable
squeeze life when deployed in the field.
Also, any potential damage to the formation that might be caused by the OSSI
chemical must be assessed.
To examine the retention characteristics
of the OSSI, the effluents from both the
adsorption and desorption stages were analyzed. None of the samples showed any
detectable level of scale inhibitor. The
results from a separate analysis also confirmed that less than 1% of the injected
OSSI remained in these samples. It appears
that all the OSSI injected had been
adsorbed and that very few of these
adsorbed molecules had been released during the kerosene flush. A likely explanation
for such a unique phenomenon is that the
hydrolysis and partitioning of the OSSI
were highly efficient within the porous
media. With only 2.7 pore volumes (PV) of
OSSI injected, all injected scale inhibitor
had been retained. The desorption profile
with formation brine is more like that of
traditional scale inhibition. After peaking at
approximately 44 000 ppm, the scale
inhibitor returned to approximately 100
ppm after 50 PV and finally down to 1 ppm
after 600 PV of brine injection.
For the injectivity and formation-damage study, the differential pressure across
the core was monitored during the injection of the spearhead, main pill, and the
initial backflow of kerosene and formation
brine. A small pressure rise was registered
when the spearhead and desorption brine
were injected. In both cases, the injection
fluid was immiscible with the in-situ fluid.
A small, gradual rise in the differential
pressure occurred toward the end of the
OSSI injection, which coincided with the
breakthrough of a minute quantity of
water. The authors believe this likely was
caused by the end effect and redistribution
of the water phase. If an interaction
between the OSSI chemical and the core
material occurred, which might have

caused formation damage, a sharp increase

in the injection pressure or a cessation of
flow after the locked-in period would
be expected.
Effect of Water Saturation. For a mainly
water-wet formation, the connate-water
saturation in the reservoir can vary between
5 and 25%, even if the field is not yet producing water. In formations where immobile-water pockets exist, the localized saturation can be even higher. One of the final
tests carried out was to combine the OSSI
pill (10% solution in kerosene) with formation water in various ratios. Nine samples,
with OSSI/water ratios ranging from 1:9 to
9:1, were prepared. Apart from one sample
with a 1:9 OSSI/water ratio showing minor
turbidity, all other samples remained fully
compatible. Mass transfer of OSSI molecules was observed in all cases. For the
high-water-cut sample (90%), the observed
minor incompatibility can be overcome in
the field by use of a properly sized hydrocarbon spearhead.
CONCLUSIONS

OSSI molecules hydrolyze and partition

readily on contact with an aqueous phase.
Once partitioned, the hydrolyzed OSSI
molecules exhibit inhibition efficiency and
retention characteristics similar to those of
generic water-based products. The masstransfer process of the OSSI molecules from
the oil phase to the water phase appears to
be irreversible. Depending on the phase saturation, enhanced partitioning can be
achieved. A larger hydrocarbon spearhead
should be considered for wells with a 10 to
25% water cut. The combination of an OSSI
squeeze pill and a suitable hydrocarbon
overflush will minimize many flowback
problems associated with relative permeability and water block. Also, the cleanup
period will be much shorter, leading to
quick restoration of oil production to its
presqueeze rate. This restoration of production rate is particularly beneficial to dry or
nearly dry wells and to reservoirs with poor
lift energy. For offshore environments, an
OSSI squeeze minimizes water handling
and subsequent discharge to the sea, thereby reducing the commonly observed oil-inwater problem after a conventional waterbased squeeze treatment.

Please read the full-length paper for

additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the
synopsis has been taken has not been
peer reviewed.
MARCH 1999

P R O D U C T I O N

O P E R A T I O N S

CHEMICAL MITIGATION OF SULFIDE

IN WATER-INJECTION SYSTEMS
Uncontrolled growth of sulfate-reducing
bacteria (SRB) in oilfield systems can create
safety, environmental, and operational
problems (such as microbiologically influenced corrosion, solids production, and
biogenic H2S generation). Anthraquinone,
a nontoxic biodegradable substance,
uncouples the electron-transfer process in
SRB required for the bacterias respiration
with sulfate. When this metabolic pathway
is blocked, SRB are incapable of reducing
sulfate to H2S; therefore, the reaction of H2S
with soluble iron also is blocked.
Anthraquinone is essentially insoluble in
water; however, the chemically reduced
form (anthrahydroquinone) is soluble in a
caustic solution. Anthraquinone, as treatments are referred to in this paper, was
injected as a 10-wt% solution of the soluble
anthrahydroquinone disodium salt in caustic. Injection of this solution into a flowing
water stream forms submicron-sized particles of the inhibitor. The small particles
coat the interior surfaces of pipelines in
injection systems and subsequently become
incorporated into the biofilm. Once the
particles are incorporated into the biofilm,
they partition into the cell membrane of the
bacterial cells and inhibit sulfate reduction.
These relatively insoluble, nonreactive particles are believed to provide a timereleased treatment within the biofilm and
a continual source of sulfide inhibitor.
Periodic treatments are required to replace
anthraquinone that has been biodegraded
or dissolved in flowing untreated water.
Anthraquinone is not biocidal. Bacteria
other than SRB also may be harmful in oilfield water systems and should be controlled with conventional biocides.
Consequently, anthraquinone treatments
This article is a synopsis of paper SPE
50741, A New Chemical Approach To
Mitigate Sulfide Production in Oilfield
Water-Injection Systems, by M.D.
Johnson, M.L. Harless, and A.L.
Dickinson, Baker Petrolite, and E.D.
Burger, SPE, EB Technologies, originally presented at the 1999 SPE
International Symposium on Oilfield
Chemistry, Houston, 1619 February.
MARCH 1999

are designed to be used as a supplement in

these applications to extend the life of traditional biocide treatments.
FIELD DESCRIPTION

The facility is composed of two separate

systems, A and B. Both systems receive
water from the same source. System A is a
single injection plant pumping approximately 29,000 B/D of produced water to 28
injection wells. System B has three injection
plants that pump a total of approximately
28,000 B/D of filtered produced water to 51
injection wells.
Water lines that were out of service during the field trial were inspected visually for
solids deposition and found to be fouled
heavily with accumulated solids. The presumption was that this condition was representative of the lines treated during the trial.
L ABORATORY STUDIES

Measurable sulfide production from the

untreated field-initiated bottle tests began 4
days after the wellhead-water samples were
taken, while samples treated with the
anthrahydroquinone solution were inhibited for at least 12 more days. Laboratory-initiated bottle tests used a synthetic medium
with the cultured SRB. This test was
designed to evaluate the effect of Fe2+ on
the inhibition because Fe2+ forms a weak
equimolar complex with anthrahydroquinone. The Fe2+ content in the field produced water was approximately 100 kmol,
while the anthrahydroquinone concentration injected during the field trial was
approximately 500 kmol. The laboratory
study was run with approximately equimolar Fe2+ and anthrahydroquinone
(500 kmol and 440 kmol, respectively) and
with excess Fe2+ (500 kmol) at the same
440-kmol anthrahydroquinone level. The
results indicate that the iron had negligible
impact on the inhibition effect of the
anthrahydroquinone, although high iron
levels did affect the ultimate sulfide
level obtained.
Results from two sets of dynamic
biofilm-inhibition studies show significant
inhibition of sulfide production for about 3
days. After sulfide production increased,

subsequent repeat treatments (500 ppm of

the anthrahydroquinone solution for 2 or 4
hours) directly into the biofilm column
restored inhibition for at least 1 day.
During the second test, two treatments
were applied before inhibition ceased, but
these treatments did not appear to extend
the inhibition period beyond that observed
for the first test. The initial treatment of the
influent SRB flow allows the anthrahydroquinone solution to contact the SRB intimately for approximately 1 minute before
entering the biofilm column. This delay
allows molecules of anthrahydroquinone
to partition into the SRB cell membrane
and inhibit sulfate respiration after an initial lag period. The inhibition duration for
this laboratory system with a synthetic
medium apparently is limited to approximately 3 days. Subsequent treatments of
the developing biofilm are not as effective
as the initial treatment because of the
hydrodynamics of the laboratory system.
The drop in pH of the treatment solution
as it is injected into the medium causes the
formation of rather large particles of
anthrahydroquinone that cannot penetrate
the biofilm well because of the low shear
stress at the wall of the biofilm column. In
the field situation, where pipeline Reynolds
numbers and shear stresses are high, however, the anthrahydroquinone particles
that form as the pH drops are colloidal and
are transported easily to the biofilm on the
pipe wall by shear dispersion. Additionally,
small particles are necessary to obtain high
levels of sulfide inhibition.
FIELD TRIAL

A California facility was chosen for an

anthraquinone-treatment program because
of the very active SRB population and
resulting production of iron sulfide solids.
The active SRB population in the produced
waters of this facility required daily treatments with acrolein. The field trial was
conducted during the summer of 1997 to
determine whether cotreatment with
anthraquinone could extend the interval
between acrolein treatments.
H2S concentrations for Systems A and B
were monitored daily. In System A, the pro75

P R O D U C T I O N

duced water flowing to Injection Well A-2

soured the most rapidly during each treatment cycle because of the relatively long
residence time in the 31/2-in., 1,900-ft
pipeline from the header to the well. Most
other injectors had smaller-diameter flowlines or shorter lengths from the headers.
Well A-3 was the only other System A well
to experience a significant increase in H2S
in the injection water during each cycle. In
System B, no injection water soured during
the first treatment cycle, although the
diatomaceous-earth-filter outlet water had
high H2S on 16 July because of exceptional
fouling. The problem was resolved by backwashing the filter. Only the water transported to the most remote System B well, B1, soured significantly during the second
and third cycles.
In System B, H2S concentrations
increased most rapidly during the third
cycle, possibly because the ambient temperature increased almost 18F (to 104F during the daytime) throughout that cycle.
Because most pipelines are not buried, flowing-water temperature also increased, probably contributing to higher SRB activity.
This high activity may account for the
shorter period before H2S began to increase.
During generation of baseline (control)
data, produced water collected from System
A Injection Well A-3 had a significant
increase in H2S after 1 day. Produced water
collected from System A Injection Wells A1 and A-2 had increased concentrations of
H2S after 2 days. Produced water collected
from all System B injection wells had
increased concentrations of H2S 1 to 2 days
after the start of the control period. These
results confirmed that daily acrolein treatments were required to maintain stable H2S
levels in both injection systems.
TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS (TSS)

No correlation between TSS and the

acrolein/anthraquinone treatments was
noted during the field trial or control period. Random fluctuations in TSS were noted
in produced waters collected from each of
the injection wells monitored. Downstream
TSS levels correlated closely with the TSS
levels entering the systems. TSS levels were
elevated slightly only during the third treatment cycle in System B, corresponding to
the increased H2S levels observed during
that cycle. Also, both H2S and TSS levels
were higher than those of the initial two
treatment cycles during the System B control period. Again, increased SRB activity
cause by elevated water temperatures during the third treatment cycle and absence of
acrolein/anthraquinone treatments during
76

O P E R A T I O N S

the control period are probable causes of

these increased H2S and TSS levels.
SRB MEA SUREMENTS

Results from SRB serial dilutions for System

A indicate that the population remained relatively stable throughout the trial and control periods for the sample sites monitored.
The SRB levels in the System B influent
water varied more than those in System A,
although, overall, they were slightly lower
than those entering System A. This variability most likely was caused by growth of SRB
in the filter cake of the diatomaceous-earth
filter coupled with backwashing frequency.
Except for two wellhead water samples, the
SRB levels were between 101 and 103
cells/mL throughout the treatment and control periods.
ANTHRAQUINONE RESIDUALS

Water samples were collected at various

locations in each system during the treatment periods to determine system use of
the chemical and to confirm that the chemical traveled through the system. These data
indicate that the anthraquinone concentration decreased rapidly immediately downstream of the injection location, then slowly decreased as the pipe branched to remote
wells. Deposition of the anthraquinone in
the biofilm was confirmed by the decrease
in concentration within the pipeline segments. Monitored parameters following the
treatments indicate that sufficient
anthraquinone generally reached all parts
of the system during each injection period.
CONCLUSIONS

Laboratory studies confirmed field results

that biogenic sulfide production within this
California oil fields water-injection system
can be inhibited with anthraquinone treatments. Extended-duration inhibition was
obtained in the laboratory. The presence of
iron does not appear to affect sulfide inhibition. Simple laboratory studies were difficult to perform with this type of inhibitor
because of the need for more realistic
hydrodynamic conditions to keep the insoluble inhibitor particles small and bioavailable, as they are in a field pipeline system.
During the field trial, H2S concentrations
remained stable for up to 9 days in both
Systems A and B following each
acrolein/anthraquinone treatment cycle.
After these stable periods, sharp increases
in H2S concentrations indicated that the
available anthraquinone concentrations
within the biofilm had dropped below
inhibitory levels. H2S level appears to be
the most responsive parameter for monitor-

ing treatment efficacy. Significant increases

in wellhead-water H2S levels could be
detected more easily and reliably than TSS
or SRB levels.
As with H2S concentrations, steady
increases in TSS were expected during the
cycle period but were not observed during
the field trial. Instead, TSS concentrations
fluctuated throughout the trial and control
periods. Therefore, no correlation could be
made between TSS concentration and each
acrolein/anthraquinone treatment or control period. The observed TSS concentration fluctuations likely were caused by
changes in influent-water quality rather
than the effects of downstream SRB activity.
The SRB population in the wellheadwater samples generally remained stable
throughout both water-injection systems.
As with TSS levels during the first and second treatment cycles, variability most likely was the result of changes in the influentwater quality.
The increased H2S concentrations toward
the end of each acrolein/anthraquinone
treatment, coupled with a relatively stable
SRB population throughout the field trial,
indicate that anthraquinone was acting as a
sulfate-reduction inhibitor rather than as a
biocide. If the treatment program was performing as a biocide, a decline in the SRB
population would have been observed
immediately after each treatment. This
decrease would have been followed by an
increase in SRB population over time. The
anthraquinone treatment was acting to control any further growth and reproduction of
the SRB population, resulting in a stable
population over the period of each
acrolein/anthraquinone treatment.
Additional field work is required to
determine the treatment life of anthraquinone in other systems. Anthraquinone
must penetrate biofilms to contact sessile
SRB, and, therefore, treatment periods and
concentrations may be influenced significantly by the biofilm thickness. It is possible that less-heavily-fouled systems would
require fewer anthraquinone treatments or
lower concentrations to achieve adequate
inhibition of SRB sulfate reduction for
extended periods.

Please read the full-length paper for

additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the
synopsis has been taken has not been
peer reviewed.
MARCH 1999

P R O D U C T I O N

O P E R A T I O N S

NONDAMAGING POLYMER PLUGS

FOR TEMPORARY WELL ISOLATION
Oil and gas production in the Appalachian
basin is characterized by mature, water-sensitive wells. Many wells have been producing for more than 25 years. Most of the storage wells have been in use 40 years or more.
These wells often are plagued with entry
problems caused by restrictive fittings,
valves, or tubing that hinder the repair and
replacement of corroded, faulty, or undersized wellheads and casing top joints. The
conventional approach uses coiled tubing
(CT) with inflatable packers that are set
through the restriction into the good casing
downhole, allowing uphole repairs. These
tools are expensive and pose stability and
safety problems in old casing. An alternative is to use CT to place crosslinked-polymer plugs to protect the formation from the
kill fluid used to isolate the formation pressure during repair operations.
BACKGROUND

Many additives and fluid systems have been

introduced to control fluid loss or to provide a nonmechanical means to isolate
intervals. These systems usually are highviscosity fluids and can contain solid particulates. Tests have shown that these systems
can be difficult to remove and can damage
the intervals they are designed to protect.
Crosslinked-polymer plugs provide a
clean method of protecting a producing
zone from damaging workover fluids.
These crosslinked gels contain higher concentrations of polymer than other
crosslinked fluids, such as fracturing fluids.
CROSSLINKED -POLYMER PLUG

The crosslinked-polymer plug used in this

application consists of a carboxymethylhydroxyethylcellulose at a concentration of
This article is a synopsis of paper SPE
51054,
Novel
Application
of
Nondamaging Polymer Plugs With
Coiled Tubing Improves Efficiency of
Temporary Well-Isolation Projects, by
Brian B. Beall, SPE, and Thomas E.
Suhy, SPE, BJ Services Co., originally
presented at the 1998 SPE Eastern
Regional
Meeting,
Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, 911 November.
78

1.2 wt% when mixed in fresh water. The

system is buffered with an organic acid to a
pH of 3.5. To ensure complete hydration,
the polymer is preslurried in isopropyl
alcohol. A water-soluble zirconium salt is
added at 0.15 vol% as the crosslinker. The
system has a delayed, or retarded, crosslink
that occurs as a function of time and temperature. This delay allows proper placement of the plug downhole before
crosslinking. The plug can be placed
through casing, tubing, or CT, and a wide
variety of breaker systems can be used to
remove the plug.
L ABORATORY DATA

The crosslinked-polymer plug has been

successfully hydrated and crosslinked in
many fluids, including fresh water, 2%
potassium chloride (KCl), 3% ammonium
chloride, and 16.0-lbm/gal fluid spiked
with zinc bromide. Crosslinking of the system is both a function of temperature and
pH. The optimum pH of the system is
between 3.5 and 4.0. The system is normally placed as a linear fluid, with crosslinking
occurring once the fluid is in place.
Typically, the higher the temperature and
lower the pH, the faster the crosslink.
These variables need to be taken into
account when designing job procedures.
The crosslinked-polymer plug is stable
at downhole temperatures up to 200F for
several days. For temperatures higher than
175F, gel stabilizers and extra polymer can
be added for stability. Tests indicate that
the crosslinked-polymer plug can help prevent damaging workover fluids from entering a productive zone even in high-permeability formations.
When zonal isolation is no longer
required, the crosslinked-polymer plug
must be removed without causing damage
to the formation. Breaker systems evaluated
included oxidizers, enzymes, and acids.
Return permeability of almost 100% was
obtained in all cases.
C A SE HISTORIES

Wellhead Changeout and Pipe Repair.

The first case history with the crosslinkedpolymer plug was for wellhead changeouts

on 12 Pratt storage-pool wells in Greene

County, Pennsylvania. The wells were
drilled in the late 1920s and recompleted as
storage wells during 194550. The storagepool sand is a moderately clean conglomerate. Well depths range from 2,700 to 3,000
ft. Pool pressure during the project ranged
from 450 to 500 psi. The wells were completed with 51/2-in. casing with the cement
top 1,000 ft off-bottom. Approximately half
the wells were openhole completions, and
the rest were openhole with 31/2-in. perforated liners. All the wells have a restricted
entry above the T caused by a welded
swedge and a 4-in. restricted inside-diameter valve.
Changeout Procedure. Wellhead changeouts were performed with a CT unit. Once
on bottom, the CT was pulled up 25 to 30
ft and 250 gal of the crosslinked-polymer
plug was mixed. The pH of 4.0 provided
adequate pumping time. To water wet the
pipe, 1 to 2 bbl of 2% KCl was pumped; this
was followed by the crosslinked-polymer
plug. The plug was displaced out of the
tubing with 10 bbl of 2% KCl, and the CT
was pulled to the estimated top of the plug
at 2,600 ft. After approximately 1 hour, 2%
KCl water was pumped at 1.0 bbl/min until
the pressure increased to 200 psi higher
than the pool pressure to allow the
crosslinked-polymer plug to set fully. The
pressure was bled off into the flowback
tank, and pumping resumed at 1.0 bbl/min.
This procedure was continued until the
well was killed at 750 psi overbalanced
pressure. The CT was pulled to surface, and
the CT unit was moved off the well while
the operator changed the wellhead and
made repairs to the top joints of pipe without experiencing any problems.
Removing the Crosslinked-Polymer Plug.
Nitrogen was used to unload the well while
tripping in with CT to the top of the polymer plug. Then, 15% HCl was pumped in
as an external breaker. As the gel started
breaking, the acid was jetted to the bottom.
Nitrogen was used to circulate the hole
clean to total depth. The CT was tripped
out of the hole while pumping nitrogen and
the wellhead pressure monitored as it
returned to pool pressure.
MARCH 1999

P R O D U C T I O N

Shale Control. A crosslinked-polymer plug

was used to control caving shales. While
drilling the Berea formation at approximately 2,400 ft, a 4-MMcf/D open-flow gas
zone was encountered. Rather than cement
the 41/2-in. casing, the decision was made
to set the casing on a formation packer at
1,350 ft, just above a sloughing shale.
Below the shale, the well was completed as
a 61/4-in. open hole. After producing the
well for several months, cavings from the
Sunbury shale bridged off over the producing zone and shut off gas production.
Several attempts were made with a conventional service rig to remove the bridge and
reset the 41/2-in. casing approximately 120
ft lower to stop the caving. After each
cleanout attempt, the shale caved back in
before the tool string could be removed and
the casing released and lowered.
CT Cleanout. CT was tripped into the
well with a 2.875-in. drill motor on 11/4-in.
tubing. The bridge was drilled out at 2,500
ft while circulating with gelled water. Once
the 10- to 20-ft bridge was drilled through,
the tubing and tools were run in the hole
until a solid bridge was encountered at
2,900 ft. While continuing to circulate,
500 gal of crosslinked-polymer plug was

MARCH 1999

O P E R A T I O N S

pumped through the tubing and drill

motor. The tubing was then pulled into the
casing to allow the polymer plug to set.
After 1 hour, the CT was tripped out of the
hole and the 41/2-in. casing packer released.
Four joints of pipe were added, and the casing packer was reset at 1,470 ft. The CT was
tripped back into the hole with a jetting
nozzle, and 500 gal of 15% HCl was used to
break the gel and remove any additional
bridges. The well was cleaned out with
nitrogen, the tubing tripped out of the well,
and the well returned to production.
Fluid-Loss Control for Cementing Water
Zones. While drilling a well near Brandywine, West Virginia, two water-producing
zones were encountered in high-fluid-loss
shales before total depth could be reached.
A crosslinked-polymer plug was pumped
ahead of the cement plug as a fluid-loss
material to avoid losing the cement volume.
A volume of 250 gal/zone was pumped
through the drillpipe, each zone plugged
off successfully, and the well completed
as planned.
Cement Retainer To Plug and Abandon a
Salt-Solution Mine. This well was drilled

in the 1950s and used to produce salt-brine

solution for the retrieval of minerals and
chemicals. Repairs to the casing were performed frequently because of the corrosive
environment. The 6,500-ft well was completed with 7-in. casing to the top of the salt
cavern. The plant was abandoned in the
late 1980s, and the well and plant reverted
to the original owner. Plugging and abandonment was required. The 7-in. casing
was highly scaled, with the inside diameter
reduced to 2 in. Usually, inflatable packers
are set in the casing just above the cavern;
in this case, however, no CT unit was available to set the plug. A 500-gal crosslinkedpolymer plug was pumped ahead of the
cement and balanced in the casing with
3,200 psi cavern pressure. The polymer
plug held the cement in place during the set
time without any problems.

Please read the full-length paper for

additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the
synopsis has been taken has not been
peer reviewed.

79

P R O D U C T I O N

O P E R A T I O N S

WIRELINE-TRACTOR PRODUCTION
LOGGING IN HORIZONTAL WELLS
The growth in horizontal-well drilling in
recent years has renewed interest in electrically powered traction devices that connect
in tandem with conventional downhole
wireline equipment and assist progression
into the well. Production-log quality
should benefit from improved depth control and reduced alteration of the flow
regime compared with results achieved
with coiled-tubing intervention.
A direct-current (DC) -powered tractor
compatible with standard wireline equipment has been developed that is capable of
horizontal-well intervention through a
wide range of completion strings. In parallel with the tractor development, the
dynamics of downhole-wireline-tractor
well intervention have been modeled to
quantify the feasibility and range of application of downhole wireline tractors in
existing and future well designs.
TRACTOR

The well environment imposes two major

constraints on tractor design. The amount
of continuous electric power that can be
delivered safely through a monoconductor
cable from the surface imposes a limit on
the mechanical output, which in turn
imposes limits on the depth and speed of
tractor intervention. Also, tractor dimensions must be small enough to allow free
passage through restrictions in the completion string and at the same time must be
able to open far enough to maintain traction
against the wall of the largest casing size.
These simultaneous requirements for high
efficiency and small size introduce opposing constraints into the design process.
Fig. 1 shows the tractor layout. The tractor is connected between the logging head
and the passenger equipment. Traction is
This article is a synopsis of paper SPE
51612, Wireline-Tractor ProductionLogging Experience in Australian
Horizontal Wells, by Eddie Local, SPE,
ORAD Ltd., and Thomas L. Searight,
SPE, Sondex, originally presented at the
1998 SPE International Conference on
Horizontal Well Technology, Calgary,
14 November.
80

achieved by forcing two drive wheels

against the casing wall. The drive wheels
are mounted on arms positioned on opposite sides of the tractor and are actuated by
a deployment module. When opened, the
arms extend to the casing wall and apply
sufficient force to create traction without
slippage. The magnitude of the force is
adjusted automatically in response to the
applied load so that traction is sustained
throughout the entire load range. When
closed, the arms and drive wheels retract
fully within the tractor body. For safety reasons, whenever electrical power is removed
from the cable, the drive wheels retract
automatically. A secondary shear-pin
release mechanism allows overpull at the
cable head to increase the retraction force if
required. The profile of the arm is designed
to push well debris (e.g., sand) sideways,
helping to avoid a buildup ahead of the
tractor that would impede progress along
the well. To minimize friction on the tractor itself and to maximize the net payload,
the tractor is fitted with in-line rollertype centralizers.
A key element of the tractor design was
the development of a DC permanent-rareearth-magnet motor that has a power-transfer efficiency greater than 90%. The motor
can maintain continuous full-load output
at temperatures up to 150C. Torque is
transmitted from the motor to the drive
wheels through an arrangement of gears
built into the arms. The motor can drive in
both uphole and downhole directions.
Speed varies continuously and changes

approximately 1.5 m/min for every 100-V

change at the cable head. Tractor load is
derived from the cable current, which
increases by approximately 0.35 A for every
1000-N change of applied load. The tractor
can sustain loads up to 3000 N without
exceeding the electrical ratings of standard
0.56-cm monoconductor cables.
The tractor is microprocessor controlled.
Data transfer and communication between
the downhole electronics and surface control equipment is achieved through a
monoconductor cable while power is delivered to the drive motor simultaneously. The
drive-motor and arm-deployment functions are initiated by keyboard commands
from the surface computer. The tractor provides various downhole measurements,
including head voltage and tension, tractor
speed, casing-collar location, and temperature and pressure readings, all of which are
displayed at the surface as the tractor progresses along the well. This information
allows the tractors performance and interaction with the downhole environment to
be monitored in real time, which facilitates
operational control and safety. In addition,
measurement of the drive-wheel rotation
provides a means to compute the distance
traveled by the tractor. Solid-state switches
under microprocessor control allow the
cable to be connected selectively to the
tractor or to the passenger equipment.
FIELD EXPERIENCE

The first successful application of the tractor was to convey production-logging

CENTRALIZER

CENTRALIZER

Fig. 1Tractor layout showing major components.

MARCH 1999

P R O D U C T I O N

O P E R A T I O N S

TRACTOR LOAD AND CABLE SURFACE TENSION, n

tool weight to the cable tension increases

as well deviation decreases and, consequently, for this particular well profile, the
cable tension increases while pulling out of
the well (contrary to normal experience in
a vertical well).

TRACTOR
TOTAL LOAD AND HEAD TENSION
HOLDUP DEPTH

TVD, m

MODEL APPLIC ATIONS

MEASURED DEPTH, m

equipment in Mobils Wandoo field on

Australias northwest shelf. Before the job, a
computer model was developed to assess
the feasibility of the operation by calculating tractor load and cable tensions expected
during the survey. Data recorded during the
job were used later to fine tune the model.
Tractor Performance. Production logs
were run in three oil-producing horizontal
wells, and the objectives were accomplished. Fifteen tractor runs were made,
and more than 8300 m was tractored; the
longest interval was 1190 m. The maximum cable current was approximately 0.6
A, less than 50% of the specified cable rating. The maximum surface voltage was 600
V DC, and average speed was 5 m/min.
The essentially monobore wells have
similar deviation profiles, vertical depths of
approximately 630 m, and horizontal sections 1000 to 1200 m long. Maximum well
deviation was 92. The passenger equipment was 14.6 to 23.6 m long and weighed
95 to 159 kg, including deployment bars.
Tractoring started from holdup depths, and
logging tools were conveyed to programmed survey depths. Various sections
of log were run, including stationary readings, and three additional tractor passes
were required.
THEORETIC AL MODEL

A three-dimensional computer model has

been developed that simulates both tractor
loading and cable tensions that arise during
a downhole-wireline-tractor operation. The
model provides a means to assess quantitatively the capability of the tractor to achieve
MARCH 1999

intervention objectives and to confirm that

the cable can retrieve the tools from the
well without exceeding acceptable safety
limits. The underlying theory is similar to
that of investigating borehole friction on
casing strings. The model makes use of the
well-survey data.
The friction coefficients are not known
precisely and, in the absence of field experience, a range of values must be assumed.
A diverse range of values for borehole-friction coefficients is published in the literature. Tractor data collected from the
Wandoo field wells were used to quantify
friction coefficients by finding best-fit values between field data and the theoretical
model. The tractor data allow independent
estimation of cable- and tool-friction coefficients. Because the head-tension measurement is independent of the tool friction, it
is used to estimate the casing-friction coefficient; and the difference between the tractor load and the head tension is used to estimate the tool-friction coefficient.
Field Data vs. Simulation Model. Fig. 2
shows the simulation model applied to
Well B9. Two surface-cable-tension plots
are shown, one running into the well and
the other pulling out. The tractor-load and
head-tension data are plotted from holdup
to total depth. The field and simulated data
were in good agreement. Good agreement
also was found between the calculated and
actual holdup depths.
Cable tensions recorded at pickup
checkpoints during the tractor run and
when pulling out of the hole also fit closely with the model. The contribution of the

The simulation software is integrated with

the tractor-control software, and actual
cable tensions and tractor loads may be
compared with simulation-model predictions during the tractor operation. This feature contributes to general operational safety by allowing anomalous events to be identified more rapidly.
The model provides a useful planning
tool. By comparing the tractor-pulling
capacity with computed tractor loads at the
toe of the well or at the deepest survey
depth, the feasibility of downhole-wirelinetractor conveyance may be assessed and
compared with other methods of deployment. The model also is used to confirm
that the wireline may be retrieved from the
well without exceeding acceptable safety
limits. Although larger cables have a higher
pull rating, this advantage is offset partly
because more pull is required to retrieve the
cable itself from the well and, in particular,
because heavier cables give rise to more
cable drag in the horizontal pipe, which in
turn increases the load on the tractor. For
example, the drag from cable weight for a
5/16-in. cable is approximately double that
for a 7/32-in. cable.
The model may be used to compare different well trajectories and to optimize the
well design to facilitate downhole-wirelinetractor intervention. Ideally, holdup depth
should be as deep as possible, preferably
deeper than any restrictions or abrupt
changes in tubing diameter that are likely
to impede tractor progress.
Further field experience is required to
fine tune the selection of parameters for
the well model, and appropriate safety
margins should be adopted, particularly in
extended-reach wells where errors in the
friction coefficients are compounded over
long distances. Factors, such as well flow
and the presence of debris and sand, that
increase tractor loading also should be
taken into account.

Please read the full-length paper for

additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the
synopsis has been taken has not been
peer reviewed.
81