Vacuum permittivity

This article is about the electric constant. For the

C2 N1 m2 or CV1 m1 using other SI coanalogous magnetic constant, see vacuum permeability.
herent units).[6][7]
For the ordinal number 0 , see epsilon numbers (mathematics).
The historical origins of the electric constant 0 , and its
value, are explained in more detail below.
The physical constant 0 , commonly called the vacuum
permittivity, permittivity of free space or electric constant, is an ideal, (baseline) physical constant, which 1.1 Redenition of the SI units
is the value of the absolute dielectric permittivity of
Main article: New SI denitions
classical vacuum. Its value is
0 = 8.854 187 817... 1012 Fm1 (farads
per metre).

Under the proposals to redene the ampere as a xed

number of elementary charges per second,[8] the electric constant would no longer have an exact xed value.
The value of the electron charge would become a dened
number, not measured, making 0 a measured quantity.
Consequently, 0 also would not be exact. As before, it
would be dened by the equation 0 = 1/(0 c2 ), but now
with a measurement error related to the error in 0 , the
magnetic constant. This measurement error can be related to that in the ne-structure constant :

It is the capability of the vacuum to permit electric eld

lines. This constant relates the units for electric charge to
mechanical quantities such as length and force.[1] For example, the force between two separated electric charges
(in the vacuum of classical electromagnetism) is given by
Coulombs law:

FC =

1 q1 q2
40 r2

0 =

1
e2
=
,
0 c2
2hc

0 ce2
.
2h

where q1 and q2 are the charges, and r is the distance between them. Likewise, 0 appears in Maxwells
with e the exact elementary charge, h the exact Planck
equations, which describe the properties of electric and
constant, and c the exact speed of light in vacuum. Here
magnetic elds and electromagnetic radiation, and relate
use is made of the relation for the ne-structure constant:
them to their sources.

Value

The relative uncertainty in the value of 0 therefore would

be the same as that for the ne-structure constant, currently 6.81010 .[6]

The value of 0 is currently dened by the formula[2]

0 =

1
0 c2

2 Terminology

where c is the dened value for the speed of light in

classical vacuum in SI units,[3] and 0 is the parameter that international Standards Organizations call the
"magnetic constant" (commonly called vacuum permeability). Since 0 has the dened value 4 107
Hm1 ,[4] and c has the dened value 299792458 ms1 ,[5]
it follows that 0 has a dened value given approximately
by

Historically, the parameter 0 has been known by many

dierent names. The terms vacuum permittivity or
its variants, such as permittivity in/of vacuum,[9][10]
permittivity of empty space,[11] or permittivity of
free space"[12] are widespread. Standards Organizations
worldwide now use electric constant as a uniform term
for this quantity,[6] and ocial standards documents have
adopted the term (although they continue to list the older
terms as synonyms).[13][14]

0 8.854187817620... 1012 Fm1

(or A2 s4 kg1 m3 in SI base units, or
1

Another historical synonym was dielectric constant of

vacuum, as dielectric constant was sometimes used in
the past for the absolute permittivity.[15][16] However, in
modern usage dielectric constant typically refers exclusively to a relative permittivity /0 and even this usage is
considered obsolete by some standards bodies in favor
of relative static permittivity.[14][17] Hence, the term dielectric constant of vacuum for the electric constant 0
is considered obsolete by most modern authors, although
occasional examples of continuing usage can be found.
As for notation, the constant can be denoted by either 0
or 0 , using either of the common glyphs for the letter
epsilon.

Historical origin of the parameter 0

As indicated above, the parameter 0 is a measurementsystem constant. Its presence in the equations now used
to dene electromagnetic quantities is the result of the socalled rationalization process described below. But the
method of allocating a value to it is a consequence of the
result that Maxwells equations predict that, in free space,
electromagnetic waves move with the speed of light. Understanding why 0 has the value it does requires a brief
understanding of the history.

HISTORICAL ORIGIN OF THE PARAMETER 0

The unit of gaussian charge, the statcoulomb, is such that

two units, a distance of 1 centimetre apart, repel each
other with a force equal to the cgs unit of force, the dyne.
Thus the unit of gaussian charge can also be written 1
dyne1/2 cm. Gaussian electric charge is not the same
mathematical quantity as modern (rmks) electric charge
and is not measured in coulombs.
The idea subsequently developed that it would be better,
in situations of spherical geometry, to include a factor 4
in equations like Coulombs law, and write it in the form:

F = ke

qs
.
4r2
2

This idea is called rationalization. The quantities q '

and k' are not the same as those in the older convention.
Putting k'=1 generates a unit of electricity of dierent
size, but it still has the same dimensions as the cgs esu
system.
The next step was to treat the quantity representing
amount of electricity as a fundamental quantity in
its own right, denoted by the symbol q, and to write
Coulombs Law in its modern form:

F =

1 q2
.
40 r2

The system of equations thus generated is known as

the rationalized metrekilogramsecond (rmks) equation
3.1 Rationalization of units
system, or metrekilogramsecondampere (mksa)"
equation system. This is the system used to dene the
The experiments of Coulomb and others showed that the SI units.[19] The new quantity q is given the name rmks
force F between two equal point-like amounts of elec- electric charge, or (nowadays) just electric charge.
tricity, situated a distance r apart in free space, should be Clearly, the quantity q used in the old cgs esu system
given by a formula that has the form
is related to the new quantity q by

F = ke

Q2
,
r2

where Q is a quantity that represents the amount of

electricity present at each of the two points, and k is
Coulombs constant. If one is starting with no constraints,
then the value of k may be chosen arbitrarily.[18] For each
dierent choice of k there is a dierent interpretation
of Q: to avoid confusion, each dierent interpretation
has to be allocated a distinctive name and symbol.

qs =

q
.
40

3.2 Determination of a value for 0

One now adds the requirement that one wants force to be

measured in newtons, distance in metres, and charge to
be measured in the engineers practical unit, the coulomb,
which is dened as the charge accumulated when a current of 1 ampere ows for one second. This shows that
In one of the systems of equations and units agreed in the the parameter should be allocated the unit C2 N1 m2
0
late 19th century, called the centimetregramsecond (or equivalent units in practice farads per metre).
electrostatic system of units (the cgs esu system), the
constant k was taken equal to 1, and a quantity now called In order to establish the numerical value of 0 , one makes
"gaussian electric charge" q was dened by the resulting use of the fact that if one uses the rationalized forms
of Coulombs law and Ampres force law (and other
equation
ideas) to develop Maxwells equations, then the relationship stated above is found to exist between 0 , 0 and
2
c0 . In principle, one has a choice of deciding whether to
qs
F = 2.
make the coulomb or the ampere the fundamental unit of
r

3
electricity and magnetism. The decision was taken internationally to use the ampere. This means that the value
of 0 is determined by the values of c0 and 0 , as stated
above. For a brief explanation of how the value of 0 is
decided, see the article about 0 .

Permittivity of real media

By convention, the electric constant 0 appears in the relationship that denes the electric displacement eld D
in terms of the electric eld E and classical electrical
polarization density P of the medium. In general, this
relationship has the form:

D = 0 E + P.
For a linear dielectric, P is assumed to be proportional
to E, but a delayed response is permitted and a spatially
non-local response, so one has:[20]

D(r, t) =

dt

d3 r (r, t; r , t )E(r , t ).

In the event that nonlocality and delay of response are not

important, the result is:

D = E = r 0 E
where is the permittivity and the relative static permittivity. In the vacuum of classical electromagnetism,
the polarization P = 0, so = 1 and = 0 .

See also
Casimir eect
Relative permittivity
Coulombs law
Electromagnetic wave equation
ISO 31-5
Mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic
eld
Sinusoidal plane-wave solutions of the electromagnetic wave equation
Wave impedance

6 Notes
[1] Electropedia: International Electrotechnical Vocabulary
(IEC 60050)". Geneva: International Electrotechnical
Commission. Retrieved 2015-03-26. |contribution= ignored (help).
[2] The exact numerical value is found at: Electric constant, 0 ". NIST reference on constants, units, and uncertainty: Fundamental physical constants. NIST. Retrieved 2012-01-22. This formula determining the exact
value of 0 is found in Table 1, p. 637 of PJ Mohr; BN
Taylor; DB Newell (AprilJune 2008). Table 1: Some
exact quantities relevant to the 2006 adjustment in CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2006 (PDF). Rev Mod Phys 80 (2): 633
729. arXiv:0801.0028. Bibcode:2008RvMP...80..633M.
doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.80.633.
[3] Quote from NIST: The symbol c is the conventional symbol for the speed of light in vacuum. " See NIST Special
Publication 330, p. 18
[4] See the last sentence of the NIST denition of ampere.
[5] See the last sentence of the NIST denition of meter.
[6] Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N.; Newell, David B. (2008).
CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental
Physical Constants: 2006. Rev. Mod. Phys. 80 (2): 633
730. arXiv:0801.0028. Bibcode:2008RvMP...80..633M.
doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.80.633. Direct link to value..
[7] A summary of the denitions of c, 0 and 0 is provided
in the 2006 CODATA Report: CODATA report, pp. 67
[8] On the possible future revision of the International System of Units, the SI (PDF). Svres, France: International
Bureau for Weights and Measures. 21 Oct 2011. |contribution= ignored (help) It is not expected to be adopted
until some prerequisite conditions are met, and in any
case not before 2014. See Possible changes to the international system of units. IUPAC Wire (International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) 34 (1). January
February 2012.
[9] SM Sze & Ng KK (2007). Appendix E. Physics of
semiconductor devices (Third ed.). New York: WileyInterscience. p. 788. ISBN 0-471-14323-5.
[10] RS Muller, Kamins TI & Chan M (2003). Device electronics for integrated circuits (Third ed.). New York: Wiley.
Inside front cover. ISBN 0-471-59398-2.
[11] FW Sears, Zemansky MW & Young HD (1985). College
physics. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley. p. 40. ISBN
0-201-07836-8.
[12] B. E. A. Saleh and M. C. Teich, Fundamentals of Photonics (Wiley, 1991)
[13] International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2006).
The International System of Units (SI)" (PDF). p. 12.
[14] Braslavsky, S.E. (2007). Glossary of terms used in photochemistry (IUPAC recommendations 2006)" (PDF).
Pure and Applied Chemistry 79 (3): 293465; see p. 348.
doi:10.1351/pac200779030293.

[15] Naturkonstanten. Freie Universitt Berlin.

[16] King, Ronold W. P. (1963). Fundamental Electromagnetic Theory. New York: Dover. p. 139.
[17] IEEE Standards Board (1997). IEEE Standard Denitions of Terms for Radio Wave Propagation (PDF). p.
6.
[18] For an introduction to the subject of choices for independent units, see John David Jackson (1999). Appendix on
units and dimensions. Classical electrodynamics (Third
ed.). New York: Wiley. pp. 775 et seq.. ISBN 0-47130932-X.
[19] International Bureau of Weights and Measures. The International System of Units (SI) and the corresponding
system of quantities.
[20] Jen Slyom (2008). Equation 16.1.50. Fundamentals
of the physics of solids: Electronic properties. Springer. p.
17. ISBN 3-540-85315-4.

6 NOTES

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