Environmentally Induced Positive Affect: Its Impact on

Self-Efficacy,Task Performance, Negotiation, and Conflict'

ROBERTA.

BARON^

Rensselaer Polytechnic Inst itute

Male and female subjects performed several tasks either in the presence or absence of an environmental source of positive affect (pleasant artificial scents
produced by two commercially manufactured air-fresheners).Consistent with the
findings of previous research on the impact of positive affect, results indicated that
several aspects of subjects' behavior were influenced by this variable. Participants
exposed to pleasant scents set higher goals on a clerical coding task and were
more likely to adopt an effiaent strategy for performing this task than subjects not
exposed to such conditions. In addition, males (but not females) reported higher
self-efficacy in the presence of pleasant artificial scents than in their absence. Participants exposed to pleasant scents also set higher monetary goals and made
more concessions during face-to-face negotiations with an accomplice. Finally,
subjects exposed to pleasant scents reported weaker preferences for handling future conflicts with the accomplice through avoidance and competition. Analyses
of covariance suggested that these differences stemmed largely from contrasting
levels of positive affect among subjects in the neutral and pleasant scent conditions. Together, these results suggest that pleasant artificial scents may provide a
potentially useful means for enhancing the environmental quality of work settings, and hence the performance and attitudes of persons in them.

In recent years, growing attention has been focused on the impact of

affective states on both interpersonal behavior and cognitive processes
(cf., Forgas & Bower, 1988; Isen, 1987). Many intriguing results have been
generated by investigations of this topic. With respect to interpersonal behavior, it has been found that individuals are generally more benevolent
toward others (e.g., less aggressive, more helpful) when experiencing
positive affect than when in a neutral mood or when experiencing negative affect (e.g., Baron, 1983a; Carnevale & Isen, 1986; Levin & Isen, 1975).
Turning to cognitive processes, it appears that even relatively mild
shifts in current affect can influence several aspects of human information processing (cf., Isen, 19871, Affective states influence both the encoding and retrieval of a wide range of information (Bower, Gilligan, & Monteiro, 1981; Isen, 1985). In particular, information consistent with current
moods (or those prevailing at the time of encoding) is often recalled more
'I wish to express my sincere appreciation to Maryalice Citera for her aid in data collection and analysis, and to Susan Elliott, Tom Fortney, John Harvil, and Catherine Saonti for
their able assistancein collecting the data.
'Requests for reprints should be sent to Robert A. Baron, Department of Psychology,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180-3590.

368
Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 1990, 20, 5 , pp. 368-384.
Copyright 0 by V.H. Winston 8 Son,Inc. All rights reserved.

ENVIRONMENTALLY INDUCED POSITIVE AFFECT

369

accurately than information inconsistent with such affective reactions

(Natale & Hantas, 1982). Second, individuals experiencing positive affect
seem to organize information differently-perhaps more inclusivelythan persons not experiencing such reactions (Isen & Daubman, 1984).
They provide more unusual associates to neutral words and perceive
nontypical exemplars of a category as more representative of that
category than subjects in whom positive affect has not been induced
(Isen, Johnson, Mertz, & Robinson, 1985). Persons experiencing positive
affect are more likely to demonstrate risk-prone behavior when potential
losses are small, but more likely to demonstrate risk-avoidance when
potential losses are large (Arkes, Herren, & Isen, 1988). Finally, individuals experiencing positive affect perform more effectively on certain
tasks (ones involving creative problem solving) than do controls (Isen,
Daubman, & Nowicki, 1987).
As information on the behavioral and cognitive impact of affective
states has accumulated, many efforts have been made to apply such
knowledge to behavior in applied settings. A number of recent studies
have investigated the impact of affective states upon various aspects of
work-related behavior. Several studies have examined the potential influence of interviewers affective states on their evaluations of interviewees (Baron, 1987).Other investigations have focused on the impact of
positive and negative affect on performance appraisal (Cardy & Dobbins,
1986; Sinclair, 1988) or on managers reactions to poor performance by
subordinates (Dobbins & Russell, 1986). Together, this research suggests
that relatively mild shifts in affective states can exert appreciable effects
on behavior in work settings (Park, Sims, & Montowidlo, 1986).
Although these studies have yielded much valuable information, they
have generally viewed affective states as sources of bias-factors that distort or disrupt effective processing of task-relevant information (cf., Isen,
1987). This perspective is appropriate, but its does not directly address
the possibility that affective reactions may produce beneficial results as
well. As noted previously, positive affect has been found to increase
benevolence toward others. In addition, one recent study indicates that it
may enhance cooperativeness, and therefore joint outcomes, in face-toface negotiations (Carnevale & Isen, 1986). Similarly, positive affect has
been found to reduce anger and aggression (cf., Baron, 1983a). It seems
possible that such effects might prove useful in reducing costly organizational conflicts (e.g., Baron, 1988a; Thomas, in press). Finally, recent
evidence suggests that positive affect may enhance performance on difficult tasks, especially ones requiring creativity (Isen et al., 1987).

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ROBERT A. BARON

The present research was conducted to obtain preliminary evidence

on the possible occurrence of such beneficial effects. In particular, it
sought to determine whether environmentally induced positive affect
would influence several work-related variables. Specifically, this study
sought to determine whether such affect would (a) enhance task performance, feelings of self-efficacy, and self-set goals; (b) increase individuals willingness to grant concessions during face-to-face negotiations,
and (c) enhance their preferences for relatively conciliatory modes of
resolving interpersonal conflicts (e.g., collaboration or compromise as
opposed to avoidance and competition; see Thomas, 1976, in press).
Previous studies concerned with the impact of affective states have
sought to induce positive and negative affect among participants in
several different ways (e.g., exposure to pleasant or unpleasant films,
receipt of a small gift, favorable or unfavorable descriptions of other persons; Arkes et al., 1988; Dobbins & Russell, 1986). Although these procedures differ greatly in nature, most share the following characteristic:
they would be relatively unusual, and thus somewhat obtrusive, in actual
work settings. The present research, therefore, also addressed an additional question: Could a less obtrusive technique prove effective in
generating positive affect, and so, perhaps, the benefits described above?
Several potential procedures for generating mild levels of positive affect
were considered. The one finally selected, however, was suggested by
previous research concerned with the impact of the physical environment
upon both affective states and behavior (cf., Fisher, Bell, & Baum, 1985).
Such research indicates that both positive and negative affect can be
readily generated by environmental conditions. Stressors such as excessive heat (Cotton, 1986; Baron, 1978), irritating noise (Nagar & Pandey,
19871, or unpleasant aromas (Zillmann, Baron, & Tamborini, 1981)
generate substantial levels of negative affect. Correspondingly, several
environmental factors appear to produce positive affective states, including certain kinds of music (May & Hamilton, 19801, pleasant climatic conditions (Bowman, Giuliani, & Minge, 1981), and pleasant scents or
aromas (Baron, 1983b, 1986). For several reasons, this latter environmental variable was selected for use in the present research. First, as just
reported, pleasant artificial scents have been found to induce enhanced
levels of positive affect among research participants. Second, pleasant
aromas can be readily introduced into home or work environments; indeed, many commercial products specifically designed to accomplish this
goal exist (air fresheners and room deodorizers). Third, as suggested by
the large sales volume for such products, efforts to generate pleasant

ENVIRONMENTALLY INDUCED POSITIVE AFFECT

371

aromas are quite common in many settings. In view of these considerations, it was reasoned that the presence of pleasant artificial scents, although readily detected, might prove less obtrusive in certain respects
than several other strategies for generating positive affect among subjects. Finally, from the point of view of potential practical applications, it
was noted that should pleasant scents yield any of the positive effects
described above (e.g., enhanced task performance, improved negotiations), a simple and relatively cost- effective type of intervention might be
suggested.
In the present research, therefore, subjects were either exposed or not
exposed to pleasant artificial scents (generated by commercially available
products) while performing several different tasks (a clerical coding task,
face-to-face negotiations, rating their preferences for various modes of
conflict resolution). It was tentatively predicted that exposure to this environmental factor would induce mild levels of positive affect among
participants, and so would also yield at least some of the beneficial effects
produced by such reactions in previous research (cf., Baron, 1984; Carnevale & Isen, 1986; Isen et al., 1987).Given the exploratory nature of this
project, however, firm hypotheses concerning which of these potential
effects would be observed were not formulated.
Method

Subjects and Design

Eighty undergraduates (40 males, 40 females) participated in the
study. Subjects took part in the investigation in order to satisfy a course
requirement.
A 2 x 2 factorial design based upon the presence or absence of
pleasant artificial scent and sex of subjects was employed. Subjects were
randomly assigned to one of the cells of this design as they appeared for
their appointments.

Procedure
Tasks performed by subjects. Subjects participated in the study along
with a same-sex accomplice. They were told that they would each
perform several work-related tasks. In fact, however, the accomplice participated in only one of these: face-to-face negotiations (see below).
The first task was described as a marketing survey and required subjects to open and sniff the contents of five identical plastic bottles. In

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ROBERT A. BARON

reality, this task was employed to strengthen the manipulation of the

major independent variable (exposure to pleasant artificial scents). For
subjects in the pleasant scent condition, the bottles contained five perfumes or colognes found, in previous research, to generate positive affective reactions (Baron, 1983b, 1986). For subjects in the neutral scent condition, in contrast, the bottles contained substances found, in pre-testing, to
produce relatively neutral affective reactions. These were: sesame oil,
WD-40 (a commercial lubricant), wood workers glue, soy sauce, and
Sting-Eze (an over-the-counter remedy for insect bites and stings.) Subjects sniffed each bottle and then rated the pleasantness (unpleasantpleasant) and appealingness (unappealing-appealing) of its contents.
Each bottle held cotton to which several drops of the appropriate material
had been applied.
The second task involved clerical coding and was identical to one
employed in previous research (Baron, 1988a). Subjects were given a
sheet containing coded orders for various products; they then had to
determine the price of each item by searching for it in a code book. After
this, they determined the size of the discount that should be applied to
the item by consulting a price-discount schedule. They were permitted to
work on this task for 5 min. Prior to actually performing the clerical
task, subjects completed a brief form on which they indicated how many
orders they thought they could complete and their ability to perform
these tasks (low-high). These items provided measures of self-set goals
and self-efficacy,respectively (cf., Bandura, 1986; Baron, 1988a).
Following completion of the clerical task, subjects were taken to a
second room where they were rejoined by the accomplice. (Ostensibly,
this person had been performing the same tasks in an adjoining, third
room.) Subjects then participated in negotiations with the accomplice.
The procedures employed in this situation closely resembled ones used in
several previous studies (Baron, 1988b). Briefly, the subject and accomplice were asked to imagine that they were executives in a large company and that they represented the Marketing and Production Departments, respectively. They were then asked to negotiate about two issues:
How $l,OOO,OOO in surplus funds in the budget for equipment and supplies should be divided between their departments, and how 10 position
cuts necessitated by a reduction in the budget for personnel should be
allocated to their respective units. An exchange of eight offers and
counter-offers then followed. The accomplice began by demanding fully
$800,000 and indicating willingness to accept only 3 of the 10 position
cuts. This person then made only two small concessions with respect to
the funds and only one small concession with respect to position cuts

ENVIRONMENTALLY INDUCED POSITIVE AFFECT

373

during the discussions. (The accomplice reduced his or her monetary

demands to $750,000 on trial 4 and to $700,000 on Trial 6; the accomplice
increased the number of position cuts he or she would accept to 4 on trial
7). In sum, this person behaved in a relatively confrontational manner
throughout the negotiations?
Prior to the start of negotiations (but after receiving instructions about
them), subjects were asked to complete a brief form on which they indicated their goals with respect to division of the funds and position cuts
(how much of the $1,000,000 and how many of the cuts they would try to
attain).
Following conclusion of the negotiation task, subjects completed a
final questionnaire on which they rated the experimental rooms on two
dimensions (unpleasant-pleasant; uncomfortable-comfortable), and
their current feelings or mood (negative-positive, pleasant-unpleasant,
bad-good). In addition, they indicated how likely they would be to
handle future conflicts with the accomplice in five different ways:
through avoidance, accommodation, competition, compromise, or collaboration. These five patterns have been identified by Thomas (1976, in
press) as basic modes of behavior in many conflict situations. The items
used to assess subjects preferences for each of these strategies were identical to ones employed in several previous studies (e.g., Baron, 1985,
1988b)and have been found to correlate substantially (TS generally .75 of
higher) with appropriate scales on the Killmann-Thomas MODE instrument (Killmann & Thomas, 1977). Ratings on all items were on 7-point
scales.
The presence or absence of pleasant artificial scent. Two procedures were
employed to vary the presence or absence of pleasant artificial scent and
thus, presumably, subjects affective states. First, as noted previously, the
initial task performed by subjects involved exposure to either pleasant or
neutral aromas. Second, depending upon experimental condition
(pleasant scent or neutral scent), two commercial aerosol air-fresheners
were either sprayed or not sprayed into the two rooms occupied by subjects. In addition, the solid forms of these products were either present (in
the pleasant scent condition) or not present (in the neutral scent condition) in these rooms. The level of air fresheners employed was such that
the odor of these substances was immediately detectable upon entry into
3Because the air-fresheners were or were not sprayed into the room where negotiations
took place, it was impossible to keep the accomplices blind with respect to the scent variable. However, these individuals were carefully rehearsed to assure that their behavior
remained constant across these conditions. Observations of their behavior by two individuals not otherwise involved in the conduction of the study revealed no differencesin
their actionsin the pleasant scent and neutral scent conditions.

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ROBERT A. BARON

the experimental rooms. However, the concentration was rated by subjects in pilot studies as being well within the range actually used by individuals in their own homes. The specific air fresheners employed were
chosen on the basis of pre-testing in which 10 pilot subjects rated the
pleasantness of a wide range such products. The two which received the
most positive ratings were selected for use in this study. These were
Renuzits Fresh n Dry Powder Soft, and Glades Rainshower Fresh.
Two different air fresheners with distinct aromas were used in order to
counteract the rapid habituation to such aromas experienced by most
persons. These products were sprayed into the two rooms occupied by
subjects in a random order. Thus, neither was consistently associated
with the performance of any of the experimental tasks. The two rooms
were identical in all major physical features, and other environmental factors (e.g., temperature, humidity) were constant between them. Because
of the lingering quality of air fresheners employed, it was necessary to
conduct scent and no scent sessions on alternate days.4
Results

Ratings of the Pleasant and Neutral Scents Employed in the Initial Task
Multivariate analyses of variance were performed on subjects ratings
of the pleasant and neutral scents contained in the plastic bottles. As expected, the effect of the scent variable was highly significant for ratings of
both pleasantness, F(5,72) = 30.04, p < .001, and appealingness, F(5,72) =
21.03, p < .001, respectively, by Wilks-Lambda criterion. Inspection of the
appropriate means indicated that all of the perfumes were rated as more
pleasant and appealing by subjects than all of the neutral scents. Thus,
these two sets of stimuli did appear to influence subjects affective reactions in the expected manner.

Self-Set Goals, Self-Efficacy, and Task Performance

An analysis of variance performed on the data for the measure of selfset goals yielded only one significant effect-that for scent, F(1,76) = 4.05,
41n order to avoid subject suspiaon concerning the presence of pleasant scents in the experimental rooms, the experimenter made the following casual remark as subjects in the
pleasant scent condition were conducted into the first room: That smell is from the stuff
were using in the marketing survey. No subjects expressed suspicion concerning this explanation during the debriefing. All participants in the pleasant scent condition reported
that they had detected the pleasant aromas, but none indicated that they had questioned the
experimentersexplanationfor their presence.

ENVIRONMENTALLY INDUCED POSITIVE AFFECT

375

Table 3
Mean Self-Efficacy as a Function of Sex of Subject and Fragrance
Condition

Males
Neutral scent
Pleasant scent

Females

5.65a
6.30b

Note. Means that do not share a subscript differ significantly

( p < .05).

p < .05, w2 = .05. This finding stemmed from the fact that subjects in the
pleasant scent condition reported significantly higher self-set goals (M =
31.05) than those in the neutral scent condition (M = 25.05).
A corresponding analysis of variance performed on the data for the
measure of self-efficacy (subjects ratings of their ability to perform the
clerical task) failed to yield a significant effect for scent, F(l,76) = 2.11, p >
.lo. However, the interaction between scent and sex of subject was significant, F(1, 76) = 4.37, p < .05, o2= .03. As shown in Table 1, this findings stemmed from the fact that among males, exposure to pleasant
scents significantly increased reported self- efficacy. However, among
females, no significant findings were obtained.
An analysis of variance on the number of items completed by subjects
(the number for which both price and discount were entered correctly)
yielded only a significant effect for sex of subject, F(1,76) = 8.45, p < .005,
w2 = .lo. Females completed significantly more items (M = 24.77) than
males (M = 18.90). Examination of the data indicated, however, that many
subjects used a relatively efficient strategy in which they first looked up
all the coded prices and only then went back to enter discounts. This fact
suggested a second measure of performance on this task: the number of
prices entered without discounts. An analysis of variance on this measure
yielded a significant effect for sex, F(1, 76) = 10.58, p < .002, w2 = .12, and
an effect for scent that approached significance, F(1, 76) = 3.72, p < .07.
The effect of sex reflected the fact that females entered more prices
without discounts (M = 14.47) than males (M = 6.65). The effect of scent
stemmed from the fact that subjects in the pleasant scent condition
entered more prices without discounts ( M = 12.22) than those in the

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ROBERT A. BARON

Table 2

Mean Number of Monetary Concessions and Position Concessions

as a Funcfion of Scent Condition

Neutral scent
Pleasant scent

Monetary
concessions

Position
concessions

1.57a

.90a
1.15a

1.82b

Note. For each dependent measure (monetary concessions,

position concessions) means that do not share a common
subscript differ significantly ( p < .05).
neutral scent condition (M = 9.20). Thus, exposure to pleasant scents increased subjects use of what can be viewed as a relatively efficient
strategy of task performance.

Negotia f ion
Prior to the start of negotiations, subjects indicated how much of the
$1,000,000 they would try to attain for their department and how many of
the position cuts they would try to induce their opponent to accept.
Separate analyses of variance on the data for these items failed to yield
significant effects for number of position cuts. However, a significant
effect of scent was obtained with res ect to monetary goals in the
negotiations, F(1, 76) = 4.33, p < .05, o4 = .02. Subjects in the pleasant
scent condition indicated that they would attempt to attain a larger share
of the available funds (M = $556,500) than subjects in the neutral scent
condition (M= $527,500).
Several different measures of actual behavior during the negotiations
were obtained. These included subjects final offers to the accomplice
with respect to funds and position cuts, the number of concessions they
made with respect to each issue, and the total sizes of these concessions.
Separate analyses of variance on these measures indicated that females
made a larger final offer to the accomplice (M = $461,250) than males
(M = $402,500), F(1, 72) = 3.94, p < .05, o2 = .04,but made a smaller
amount of total concessions during the negotiations, (M = $137,070,

ENVIRONMENTALLY INDUCED POSITIVE AFFECT

377

$191,250 for females and males, respectively), F(1,72) - 6.53, p < .01, w2 =
.08. In addition, the scent variable significantly affected the number of
monetary concessions made by subjects, F(1, 76) = 4.24, p < .05, w2 = .02.
The corresponding effect approached significance for number of con2
cessions with respect to position cuts, F(1, 76) = 3.36, p < .08, w = .02.
As shown in Table 2, subjects in the pleasant scent condition made
slightly more concessions on both measures than those in the neutral
scent condition.
Measures of Subjects Affective Reactions
Two items on the questionnaire completed by subjects after negotiations with the accomplice asked them to rate the experimental rooms in
terms of pleasantness (unpleasant-pleasant) and comfort (uncomfortable-comfortable). Analyses of variance on the data for these items indicated that females rated the rooms less favorably than males and that
subjects in the pleasant scent condition rated them more favorably ( M =
5.22, 5.57) than subjects in the neutral scent condition ( M = 4.95, 4.85,
respectively).Thus, as expected, the presence of pleasant scents enhanced
subjects reactions to the experimental setting.
Additional items on the questionnaire asked subjects to rate their current mood or feelings along several dimensions. A multivariate analysis
of variance on these data yielded only a significant effect for scent, F(5,
72) = 2.67, p < .05. Univariate analyses then indicated that this finding
stemmed primarily from ratings along the negative-positive and un2
pleasant-pleasant dimensions, F(1, 76) = 5.35,4.42, p < .03, .04,w = .06,
.05, respectively. Subjects in the pleasant scent condition reported higher
ratings then subjects in the neutral scent condition in both cases (M =
5.50,5.38 vs. 5.02,5.07, respectively).
Subjects Reported Strategies for Dealing With Future Conflicts
Separate analyses of variance were performed on the five items
dealing with preferred modes of resolving future conflicts with the
accomplice. These analyses yielded significant effects for scent with
2
respect to avoidance, F(1 76) = 4.39, p < .05, w = .02, and competition,
f
?
F(1, 76) = 4.32, p < .05, w = .02. Subjects in the pleasant scent condition
reported weaker tendencies than subjects in the neutral scent condition to
resolve future conflicts through avoidance and competition (refer to Table
3). Thus, consistent with initial predictions, subjects exposed to pleasant
scents reported weaker preferences for two relatively confrontational

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ROBERT A. BARON

Table 3

Mean Reported Likelihood of Resolving Future Conflicts With the

Accomplice Through Avoidance and Competition as a Function of
Scent Condition
Mode of
resolving
conflict

Scent condition
Neutral scent

Positive scent

Avoidance
Competition

2.47a
4.67a

2.15b
4.27b

Note. For each dependent measure, means that do not share

a subscript differ significantly ( p < .05).
modes of conflict resolution than subjects not exposed to such environmental conditions.
In order to determine whether these differences were in fact mediated
by positive affect, separate analyses of covariance were performed on the
data for the items dealing with avoidance and competition. In both cases,
subjects ratings of their feelings along the positive-negative dimensions
were employed as the covariate. The results of these analyses indicated
that when affect was entered as a covariate, the difference between the
neutral and positive scent conditions was no longer significant, F(1,79) =
0.67,0.45, p > .20 for avoidance and competition, respectively. These findings suggest that differences between the two scent conditions with respect to preferred modes of handling future conflicts were largely attributable to differences in subjects positive affect in these two
conditions.
Discussion
The results of the present investigation offer some support for the suggestion that positive affect, induced by exposure to pleasant artificial
scents, can influence several aspects of behavior. Moreover, consistent
with the results of previous research on the impact of positive affect,
several of these effects were beneficial in nature (cf., Isen, 1987). Subjects
in the positive scent condition (who reported elevated levels of positive
affect) set higher goals on the clerical task than subjects in the neutral

ENVIRONMENTALLYINDUCED POSITIVE AFFECT

379

scent condition. This finding agrees with the results of previous studies
indicating that positive affect can increase confidence in ones judgments
or ability (Williams & Keating, 1987).
Second, subjects in the positive scent condition were more likely than
those in the neutral scent condition to adopt what, in some respects,
might be viewed as a relatively efficient strategy for performing a fairly
complex task involving coding operations. This finding agrees with
recent evidence (Isen et al., 1987) suggesting that positive affect enhances
creative approaches to the performance of several different tasks.
Exposure to pleasant scent also enhanced reported self-efficacy
(subjects perceived ability to perform the clerical coding task). However,
such effects occurred only among males. One possible explanation for the
absence of similar effects among females may involve the fact that they
generally employ a wider range of scented products (e.g., cosmetics)than
males (Newsweek Research Report, 1984). Because of such differential
use, and resulting sensory habituation, females may have had weaker affective reactions than males to the air fresheners. This possibility can be
investigated in future studies by directly comparing the sensitivity of
males and females to a wide range of scented products, including air
fresheners of the type used in the present research (cf., Von Toller &
Dodd, 1988).
Turning to negotiations, subjects in the pleasant scent condition
reported higher monetary goals than those in the neutral scent condition.
Thus, they expected more favorable outcomes from the negotiations. In
addition, subjects in the pleasant scent condition made more concessions
with respect to both the division of available funds and the division of
required position cuts. Similar beneficial effects of positive affect on
negotiation have been reported by Carnevale and Isen (1986). These
researchers found that subjects who experienced heightened positive affect as a result of exposure to humorous cartoons and receipt of a small
gift were less likely to adopt contentious tactics during bargaining and
attained higher joint outcomes than subjects not exposed to such affectenhancing procedures. The present findings serve to extend these earlier
results by suggesting that such effects can occur in negotiations involving
different issues and as a result of different affect-inductions than those
employed by Carnevale and Isen (1986).
Subjects preferred modes of handling future conflicts with the accomplice, too, were affected by the experimental treatment. Individuals
in the pleasant scent condition reported weaker preferences for dealing
with such situations through avoidance and competition. These results
agree with those of several studies concerned with human aggression (cf./

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ROBERT A. BARON

Baron, 1983a). In these investigations, individuals exposed to conditions

that generated positive affect demonstrated lower levels of anger and
hostility than individuals not exposed to such conditions. The present
results are also consistent with those of a study by Dobbins and Russell
(1986) indicating that managers are more likely to punish a poorlyperforming subordinate associated with negative affect (feelings of disliking) than one associated with more positive reactions (feelings of liking).
In addition, analyses of covariance indicated that differences in these dependent measures did in fact stem from differences in subjects affective
states. The results of these analyses indicated that when such differences
in affective state were statistically controlled, differences between the adjusted means for avoidance and competition in the neutral and positive
scent conditions were no longer significant.
Contrary to expectations, however, subjects in the pleasant scent condition of the present experiment did not express stronger preferences for
collaboration and compromise than subjects in the natural scent condition. One potential explanation for these negative results involves the
operation of ceiling effects. Subjects reported preferences for both collaboration and compromise were quite high even in the neutral scent
condition (overall means above 5.0 for compromise, and approaching 6.0
for collaboration on 7-point scales). As a result, it may have been difficult
for scent-induced positive affect to increase such preferences still further.
The potential impact of ceiling effects can be examined in future research
by arranging for the accomplice behave in an even more provocative
manner. Under such conditions, subjects preferences for compromise
and collaboration may be reduced, thus leaving room for scent-induced
positive affect to influence their behavior.
Another possibility is that the modest increments in positive affect
produced by exposure to pleasant scent were sufficient to counter
negative reactions stemming from the accomplices confrontational actions during the negotiations, but not sufficient to enhance subjects tendencies to cooperate with this person on future occasions. This suggestion can be examined by future studies by increasing the pleasantness of
the scents employed, and thus the intensity of the positive affect
generated. Presumably, higher levels of positive affect might indeed enhance subjects preferences for cooperative conflict-resolution strategies.
In sum, the present findings offer support for the suggestion that positive affect induced by an environmental factor that has hitherto received
relatively little attention can influence several aspects of behavior. Should
these results be replicated with other subject populations and in other
contexts (e.g., in actual work settings), several practical implications

ENVIRONMENTALLY INDUCED POSITIVE AFFECT

381

would be suggested. In particular, such findings would point to the

conclusion that introducing pleasant artificial scents into work environments may be one technique for enhancing positive affect among the persons in these settings, and so for producing such benefits as enhanced
morale (job satisfaction), increased productivity, and reduced interpersonal conflict. In view of recent evidence indicating that several physical
aspects of workspaces play an important role in reported job satisfaction,
the possible occurrence of such effects seems at least feasible (Oldham &
Fried, 1987).
Obviously, additional research is necessary to determine whether, and
to what extent, environmentally induced positive affect actually yields
such benefits. As noted previously, habituation to artificial scents may be
quite rapid, thus potentially limiting the practical usefulness of this factor
in work settings. It is possible, however, that the positive affect generated
by pleasant scents may persist, and continue to influence work-related
behavior, even after individuals are no longer able to detect their
presence (cf., Isen & Baron, in press). It should also be noted that while
pleasant scent exerted significant effects on several different dependent
measures, these effects were generally quite modest in size. This suggests
the necessity for research specifically designed to determine whether the
impact of artificial scent is of sufficient magnitude to influence behavior
in natural settings. These and related issues should be carefully examined
in subsequent studies. Given the relative ease with which pleasant artificial scents can be introduced into many settings and the modest costs associated with their production, further investigation of this procedure as
a potential technique for enhancing the quality of work environments
seems worthwhile.
References
Arkes, H.R., Herren, L.T., & Isen, A.M. (1988). The role of potential loss in
the influence of affect on risk-taking behavior. Organizational Behavior
and Human Decision Processes, 42,181-191.
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