RUDDER THEORY

Mohd. Hanif Dewan, Chief Engineer and

Maritime Lecturer and Trainer, Bangladesh

When a rudder is turned to some angle (), a force (F) is produced due to the high and low
pressure regions generated by the water flow. On one side of the rudder the flow reduces in
speed whilst on the other it increases. By Bernoulli, lower velocities are associated with higher
pressure, whilst higher velocities give lower pressure so that a rudder force is produced as
shown in the sketch.

WATER
FLOW

The total force generated can be assumed to act as a

single force at the centre of pressure of the rudder, more
often referred to as the `centre of effort'.

CENTRE OF EFFORT
LIFT

The force F has two components:

DRAG

a `lift component' which is the transverse

component of the rudder force, causing the
ship to turn;
a `drag component' which is the longitudinal
component of the rudder force.
The torque imposed by the water flow
needs to be overcome by the steering
is the force on the rudder multiplied by
0.4
distance from the centre of effort to the
rotation. If the rudder were assumed to
about its leading edge and the distance
centre of effort was `b' as in the sketch,
torque would
0.2

(which
gear)
the
axis of
rotate
to the
the

Centre of Effort as a
Fraction of Rudder Area

e F x b.

10

20
Rudder Angle

30

40

The position of the centre of effort from the leading edge varies with rudder angle () as shown in
the graph. Therefore, if the rudder has between 20% and 40% of the rudder area forward of its
axis of rotation, then at some rudder angle, the axis of rotation and the centre of effort will
coincide and the torque on the rudder will be zero. At this angle the rudder is said to be `fully
balanced'

Lift to Drag Ratio of Rudder:

STALL ANGLE

= 10

= 30

= 20

= 40

There is a maximum angle at which a

conventional rudder is effective. This is
due to the stalling effect. At stall, the flow
of water around the rudder becomes very
turbulent, with eddying on the aft side. At
this point the lift force drops sharply
whilst the drag increases greatly. The
rudder is then acting as a brake rather
than a turning device. Hydrodynamic
work has shown this to be at
approximately 350 for an aerofoil shaped
rudder.

 Rudder angle normally does not exceed 35 degrees. Why?

a. avoid stalling of rudder
b. avoid flow separation on low pressure side
c. avoid reduction of effectiveness of control surface
d. avoid sudden discontinuity of lift force on downstream surface of rudder OR increase in
drag force

RUDDER SHAPE
Although there are different types of rudder, their
section, in plan view, is usually of hollow, aerofoil
shape.

Compared to an equivalent mass, single plate rudder, the hollow aerofoil shape offers the
following benefits:

Greater buoyancy, therefore less weight acting down on the

steering gear, carrier bearing etc.
More streamlined shape since all of the stiffening required can
be fitted inside the rudder;
Higher stall angle than a single plate rudder.

Size and shape of rudder is governed by:

a. shape and type of stern
b. area of rudder deemed necessary
c. capacity of steering gear
d. service condition of ship

RUDDER CLASSIFICATION
Rudders are classified as one of three types:

Unbalanced;
Semi-balanced;
Balanced.

An unbalanced rudder has all of its area aft of its axis of

rotation, resulting in a high torque on steering gear, rudder
stock and pintles.

CENT RE OF EFF ORT

AXIS O F
ROT AT IO N

CE

AXIS OF
ROTATION

A semi-balanced rudder has up to 20% of its area forward of its axis of rotation. This results in
a lower torque on steering gear, rudder stock and pintles than the unbalanced
.

A balanced rudder has between 20% and 40% of its area

forward of its axis of rotation. This not only results in a
lower torque than the semi-balanced rudder, but also
means that at some rudder angle, the axis of rotation and
centre of effort coincide. At this angle the torque is zero
and the rudder is said to be `fully balanced'. This will
usually occur at a rudder angle of approximately 1

CE

AXIS OF
ROTATION

50.

BALANCED RUDDER
The sketch shows the after end of a vessel having
a `simplex' balanced rudder. The rudder has an
axle passing through it to take up thrusts
perpendicular to the stock.

STOCK

AXLE

STERNFRAME

The rudder will have a filling hole and drain hole

and air hole for testing. A lifting tube is fitted to
allow unshipping of the rudder.

A detail of the rudder shows a hollow aerofoil

section being stiffened internally by horizontal and
vertical webs.

The tail of the rudder is finished with a solid round

bar to facilitate a better welded joint.

SECTION
THROUGH
VERTICAL
WEB

HORZ

WEB

HORZ

WEB

HORZ

WEB
AXLE

There is a problem fitting the closing plate of the

rudder since it cannot be welded from the inside.
HORIZONTAL WEB

Slots are cut in the closing plate and these align with flat bars welded to the vertical and
horizontal webs. The closing plate is then securely attached to webs by `plug welding' onto the
flat bars.

The connections at the top and

rudder axle are shown in the following sketches.
The top connection shows the `jumping clearance' (see later note)

bottom of the

TOP CONNECTION

BOTTOM CONNECTION
BRONZE LINER

TUFNOL STAVES
BRONZE CAGE

BRONZE LINER
TUFNOL STAVES
BRONZE CAGE

HARD STEEL UPPER

BEARING RING
CASTING
PALM COUPLING
AND BEARING TUBE

MILD STEEL LOWER

BEARING RING

Another type of balanced rudder, generally fitted with multiple screw vessels, is the spade
rudder. The rudder is entirely supported by the stock. Thus it must be of sufficient strength to
take the tensile stress due to the rudder weight, as well as the twisting and bending moments.
This can be achieved because the rudder is of the balanced type and thus has a very low torque,
nevertheless it has a very large diameter stock.

PORTABLE PLATE
DECK
40mm BEARING PLATE
OIL TUBE

22mm PHOSPHOR BRONZE BEARING

20mm GUNMETAL BUSH
TILLER LINKS

25mm STUDS
CAST STEEL BEARING

GUNMETAL GLAND
PACKING
STEERING GEAR FLAT
20mm GUNMETAL BUSH

SEMI-BALANCED RUDDER
The rudder shown in the sketch is very popular nowadays. It is a semi-balanced rudder (also
referred to as a semi-spade rudder) generally fitted with a single pintle.

RUDDER TRUNK

PLATE FLOORS ON EACH FRAME STATION

S G FLAT

STOCK

INTERCOSTAL GIRDER
MAINPIECE
PINTLE

OPEN WATER STERNFRAME

The pintle fitted in the semi-balanced rudder is shown in

detail. The pintle takes up the bending moment that would
otherwise be applied to the stock and thus allows a
smaller diameter stock than the spade rudder. If the pintle
clearances were allowed to become too large, then
bending stresses would be incurred in the stock, which it
was not designed to accommodate.
Also, vibration would increase, and since the stock is
generally a forged (rough) surface with a large change of
section at the palm coupling, the result could be stock
fracture.

BRONZE CAGE
TUFNOL STAVES
BRONZE LINER

3 - 6mm

JUMPER BAR
RUDDER MAINPIECE

The palm coupling must be very secure due to the effects of vibration and stress. Surveys have
revealed that nuts have loosened, or are missing and fretting is a problem. To overcome these
problems, palms are sometimes `stepped', or have keys fitted, and fitted bolts are used for the
connection.

UNBALANCED RUDDER
The `unbalanced' rudder illustrated is an older type of rudder requiring a `rudder post' on the
sternframe for attachment of pintle connections.

LOCKING PINTLE

BEARING PINTLE

At the top is a locking pintle whilst at the bottom is a bearing pintle.

Intermediate pintles may also be fitted.

 Effect on rudder stock of different rudder configuration

a. balanced rudder.centre of pressure on turning axis, no torque on rudder stock
b. unbalance rudder..centre of pressure is furthest from turning axis, high torque on rudder
stock

R U D D E R C O N S T R U C T I O N:
Modern rudders are of streamlined form except those on small vessels, and are
fabricated from steel plate, the plate sides being stiffened by internal webs. Where the
rudder is fully fabricated, one side plate is prepared and the vertical and horizontal
stiffening webs are welded to this plate. The other plate, often called the closing
plate, is then welded to the internal framing from the exterior only. This may be
achieved by welding flat bars to the webs prior to fitting the closing plate, and then slot
welding the plate as shown in Figure 21.4. Other rudders may have a cast frame and
webs with welded side and closing plates which are also shown in Figure 21.4.
Minor features of the rudders are the provision of a drain hole at the bottom with a
plug, and a lifting hole which can take the form of a short piece of tube welded
through the rudder with doubling at the side and closing plates. To prevent internal
corrosion the interior surfaces are suit- ably coated, and in some cases the rudder
may be filled with an inert plastic foam. The rudder is tested when complete under
a head of water 2.45 m above the top of the rudder.

R U D DE R PI NT LE S:
Pintles on which the rudder turns in the gudgeons have a taper on the radius, and
a bearing length which exceeds the diameter. Older ships may have a brass or bronze
liner shrunk on the pintles which turn in lignum vitae (hardwood) bearings fitted in the
gudgeons. Modern practice is to use synthetic materials like Tufnol for the bearings,
and in some cases stainless steels for the liners. In either case lubrication of the
bearing is provided by the water in which it is immersed. Until recently it has not been
found practicable to provide oil-lubricated metal bearings for the pintles, but Queen
Elizabeth 2 has this innovation.
R U D D E R STOCK:
A rudder stock may be of cast or forged steel, and its diameter is determined in
accordance with the torque and any bending moment it is to withstand. At its lower
end it is connected to the rudder by a horizontal or vertical bolted coupling, the bolts
having a cross-sectional area which is adequate to withstand the torque applied to
the stock. This coupling enables the rudder to be lifted from the pintles for inspection
and service.

SECTION AA
Welded tube

Horizontal web

Rudder stock

Rudder stock
Bolted coupling
Vertical web

Bolted palm

Cast frame
Slot weld

Bolted
palm
Upper
bearing

Lifting hole
Vertical
web

Side plate
Slot weld
DETAIL OF
SLOT WELD

Side plates
welded to cast
frame

Lifting tube welded

through rudder
Horizontal web
RUDDER WITH
CAST FRAME

Side plates
are slot
welded to
tube

Drain plug
Lower bearing

FIGURE 21.4 Rudders

R U D D E R B E A R I N G:
The weight of the rudder may be carried partly by the lower pintle and partly by a
rudder bearer within the hull. In some rudder types, for example, the spade type which is
only supported within the hull, the full weight is borne by the bearer. A rudder bearer may
incorporate the watertight gland fitted at the upper end of the rudder trunk as shown in
Figure 21.5. Most of the rudders weight may come onto the bearer if excessive wear
down of the lower pintle occurs, and the bearers illustrated have cast iron cones which limit
their wear down.

RU DD E R T R U N K
Rudder stocks are carried in the rudder trunk, which as a rule is not made watertight at
its lower end, but a watertight gland is fitted at the top of the trunk where the stock enters
the intact hull (Figure 21.5). This trunk is kept reasonably short so that the stock has a
minimum unsupported length, and may be constructed of plates welded in a box form with
the transom floor forming its forward end. A small opening with water- tight cover may be
provided in one side of the trunk which allows inspection of the stock from inside the hull in an
emergency.
RUDDER LIFTING
During pitching, the after end suffers `slamming' impact and the rudder may also experience this
impact force, as well as a sudden increase of buoyancy as the rudder is alternatively immersed and
emerged. The tendency is for the rudder to lift, forcing the rudder stock up through the steering gear.
This is resisted by having a small jumping clearance (3 - 6mm) by welding a doubler onto the top of
the balanced and semi balanced rudders. The unbalanced rudder has a shoulder machined on the
bottom of the locking pintle to restricted upward movement.

3 - 6mm

3 - 6mm
JUMPER BAR

3 - 6mm

JUMPER BAR

SHOULDER

Construction of Rudder

Inside of the rudder is coated with bitumastic preservative or filled with inert foam

Vent plugs are provided for venting and draining

The rudder stock is connected to the rudder by vertical or horizontal coupling with fitted bolts
and are locked by pins

Advantages of a Double Plate Rudder

Lighter , stronger

Reduce appendages resistance because of its streamlined , smooth surface/shape

Greater lift force produce due to aerofoil cross-section

Buoyancy reduced carrier bearing and coupling load

Perforation of one side due to corrosion/damage does not reduce its effective area.

Special Rudders

In addition to the conventional types of rudder, there are some special types of rudder in use
depending on the service condition of the ships.

Spade Rudders

Also known as skeg rudder, it is a free hanging fully balanced rudder in the shape of a spade.

It has no external supports in the form of pintles and is entirely supported by its
stockpurpose of this design?

The stock is 30% heavier; shape tends to shift the C.P to turning axis and reduce B.M on
stock; no pintles benefits

Rudder Theory

Flettner/Becker Rudders

Flap or flaps of small area are hinged to the trailing edge of the rudder

These flaps are independently controlled and can improve steering capability when activated
without increasing its drag force at large angle

The flap having a high aspect ratio gives a high lift to drag ratio which improves steering
capability.

Borg Rudders

It is a rotary unit that provide maximum manoeuvrability while operating at low speeds and
while carrying heavy load

It uses the magnus effect to steer the ship..a cylindrical body, rotating in a fluid develops a high
lifting force at right angles to the flow on the side of the rotor turning in accord with the fluid
flow.

Lift force increases rapidly as the surface speed of the cylinder increases

Pleuger Active Rudders

It is an active rudder that does not depend on the speed of the ship to be effective

It has a stremlined body mounted on it that houses an electric motor coupled to a ducted
propeller

This arrangement can actually turn the ship around its own length even when she is at rest

Rudder Pintles and Carriers

A head is fitted to the upper pintle to prevent undue vertical movement of the rudder locking
pintle

The bottom pintle is known as a bearing pintle since it rests on a hardened steel pad

Bearing pintles are only required to support the weight of the rudder in the event of the rudder
carrier failing

It is essential that the centreline of stock and pintles are in the same line, otherwise the rudder
will not turn

Appreciable wear of bearing generally is due to the misalignment of the rudder stock

The major part of the rudders weight is carried by the rudder carrier

Watertight Gland for Rudder Stock

A separate watertight gland is often fitted where the stock enters the rudder trunk.

A small opening with watertight cover may be provided in one side of the trunk, which allows
access to a greater length of the rudder stock

It also removes the need for a watertight construction of the carrier bearing and reduces the
unsupported length of the stion.

Inspection of Rudder in Dry-Dock

Watertightness (Air tested to a pressure equivalent to a head of 2.45m above the top of the
rudder)

Dent

Crack

Holed

Wastage

Corrosion

Any Question?

Thank you!