The Religious Theme in Beowulf

Greg Kaminsky
ENGL E-106
Prof. Donoghue
May 9, 2012

Beowulf, lines 138 - 188

ws afynde him elles hwar

Then there was no shortage of those who found

germlcor rste shte

rest elsewhere, further away, a bed in the private

bed fter brum him gebacnod ws

dwellings, when the malice of the halls occupier

gesgd slce sweotolan tcne

was made clear to them, truly told by

healegnes hete hold hyne syan

unmistakable signs; whoever escaped the fiend

fyr ond fstor s am fonde twand.

stayed further and safer afterward. Thus he ruled

Sw rxode ond wi rihte wan

and made war on justice, alone against all, until

na wi eallum o t del std

the finest of houses stood empty. The time was

hsa slest ws so hwl micel

long the space of twelve winters the friend of

twelf wintra td torn geolode

the Scyldings endured anguish, every bitter woe

wine Scyldenda wana gehwelcne

and immense miseries. For it was made clearly

sdra sorga form secgum wear

known to the offspring of men in mournful ballads

ylda bearnum undyrne c

that Grendel had long been in a struggle with

gyddum gemore tte Grendel wan

Hrothgar, waged hostility, torment and deadly

hwle wi Hrgr hetenas wg

feud for many seasons of continual strife. He

fyrene ond fahe fela missra

wanted no peace with any man of the Danish

single sce sibbe ne wolde

power; or to cease the deadly destruction, to

wi manna hwone mgenes Deniga

settle it with payment; none of the counselors had

feorhbealo feorran fa ingian

any reason to hope for splendorous compensation

n ar nanig witena wnan orfte

at the hands of the slayer. But the monster that

beorhtre bte t banan folmum

dark death-shadow was persecuting warriors old

ac se aglaca htende ws

and young, he lurked and ambushed, held the

deorc dascua dugue ond geogoe

misty moors in endless night; men do not know

seomade ond syrede sinnihte hold

where hells familiars roam in their haunts. Thus

mistige mras men ne cunnon

that foe of mankind, terrible lone traveler, often

hwyder helrnan hwyrftum scra.

committed hard afflictions; he dwelt in Heorot, the

Sw fela fyrena fond mancynnes

richly decorated hall, on dark nights. He was not

atol ngengea oft gefremede

allowed to respectfully approach the throne or

heardra hna Heorot eardode

treasures by the Maker, nor did he feel love for it.

sincfge sel sweartum nihtum

That was a great misery for the friend of the

n h one gifstl grtan mste

Scyldings, breaking his spirit. Many of high rank

mum for Metode n his myne wise

often sat at council, deliberated a plan, what

t ws wrac micel wine Scyldinga

would be best for strong-minded men to do

mdes breca. Monig oft gest

against the awful horror. Sometimes they pledged

rce t rne rad eahtedon

offerings to idols at hilltop temples, prayed that a

hwt swferhum slest ware

soul-slayer would offer aid against that calamity of

wi fargryrum t gefremmanne

the people. Such was their custom, the hope of the

hwlum he gehton t hrgtrafum

heathens; they pondered hell in the depths of

wgweorunga wordum badon

their hearts; they did not know the Maker, the

t him gstbona goce gefremede

judge of deeds; they did not know the Lord God, or

wi odraum swylc ws aw hyra

how to worship heavens protector, ruler of

haenra hyht helle gemundon

glories. Woe to him who must thrust his soul

in mdsefan Metod he ne con

through dire terror, into fires embrace, expecting

dada dmend ne wiston he Drihten God

no relief, nor any change; well to him who may

n he hru heofena helm herian ne con

seek the Lord after the death-day and wills for

wuldres waldend. W bi am e sceal

peace in the fathers embrace.

urh slne n swle bescfan

in fres fm frfre ne wnan
wihte gewendan wl bi am e mt
fter dadge Drihten scean
ond t fder fmum freoo wilnian.

The theme of religion in Beowulf has proven fertile ground for scholars and its analysis offers
insights into the poem and the times in which it was written. As a student of the history of religion and
religious movements, this particular aspect of Beowulf is fascinating. In simple terms, the poem can be
described as a retrospective on pagan Scandinavia through the lens of Christian morality. But in reality,
incomplete historical background and internal inconsistencies within the poem leave some room for
interpretation and even speculation about the authors motives and intentions, illustrated by Thomas D.
Hills The Christian Language and Theme of Beowulf. Lines 138 to 188 are an excellent example of the
religious theme which runs through the poem. In this section, the reader is presented with descriptions
of the monster Grendel and his nighttime occupation of the Danes hall, the Danes heathen religious
practices intended to ameliorate the monsters deadly hold, and finally the monotheistic moralization
that is provided as the proper alternative to the paganism of the past. In order to analyze the theme of
religion in Beowulf, this paper will summarize the background of the problem, then focus on a
translation of the specific section of the poem considering vocabulary, allusion, apposition in the ways
divinity is described, and the comparison of heathenism with monotheism. A brief consideration of the
inconsistency of the translated section with the poem will provide some insight into the authorship
question. Last, the way this section has been treated by Seamus Heaney in Beowulf: A Verse Translation
will afford another measure by which the treatment of religion can be reviewed.
The reason why the theme of religion in Beowulf is so intriguing to scholars is summarized in the
beginning of Hills article, The Christian Language and Theme of Beowulf.
One of the traditional topics of medieval English literary criticism is the question of paganism
and Christianity in Beowulf If after over a century of learned discussion and commentary on
Beowulf, it continues to be necessary to discuss an issue, there must be something rather
problematic about it. And there is most comparable early medieval epic texts are either

emphatically and militantly Christian or unapologetically pagan or secular in their viewpoint

Beowulf is neither and this question remains an important issue in modern Beowulf criticism.1

According to Hill, the poets subtlety in conveying his message was unique for the times in which it was
written, causing scholars to examine the underlying reasons. According to Orchards A Critical
Companion to Beowulf, The older view that the surviving text of Beowulf represents a Christian reworking (or perhaps several re-workings) of an originally pagan text is no longer in vogue, just as the
efforts of Beowulf-scholars are no longer primarily directed toward the recovery of such a putative
original text.2 This viewpoint, although now out of favor, was popularized by no less than J. R. R.
Tolkien in his monumental essay Beowulf: The Monsters and Critics.3 While the monotheistic elements
are very much present with references to the Lord God, the Father, etc., as well as mentions of the story
of Cain and Abel, the giants and the flood, there is no specific reference to Jesus Christ (although
allusions certainly exist). Hill identifies this as monotheistic Noahidism, referring to the seven laws that
God gave Noah. At the same time, the pagan or heathen references abound in descriptions of the Danes
and Geats, but noticeably absent are any names of Norse deities. So while religious faith and belief
systems are a crucial component of the poem and monotheism is favored over paganism, it is not as
overt as one might expect in this milieu. Hill notes that the Beowulf poet acknowledges the pagan past
in a comparatively tolerant manner suggesting that the worth of ancestry and the values of pagan
society were considered important enough to treat with some degree of reverence. This is identifiable in
the warrior ethos and gnomic wisdom that is presented as endemic to the society portrayed in the
poem. However, there are also some incongruities that cannot be overlooked with regard to the
treatment of the religious theme which become clearer once the translated section is analyzed.

Donoghue, Beowulf, 197198.

Orchard, A Critical Companion to Beowulf, 130.
3
Donoghue, Beowulf, 105106.
2

Beowulf lines 138 to 188, more than any other section of the poem, deals with the juxtaposition
of paganism and monotheism. In the beginning of the section, lines 138 - 169, the poet tells how the
Danes sought refuge far from Heorot in order to escape the deadly clutches of Grendel. The monsters
hatred, or malice (hete), is clear to the Danes because of the murder and mayhem which he inflicts upon
them. In the next verses, Grendel is made to be an evil ruler (Thus he ruled and made war on justice,
alone against all ), who wanted no peace or to cease his destruction. He was not interested in
conducting himself according to the rules of mankind and holds the moors in endless night (sinnihte).
Grendel is described as that foe of mankind (fond mancynnes), terrible lone traveler or roamer (atol
ngengea). Finally, in lines 168 169, Grendel is not allowed to approach the gift-throne (n h one
gifstl grtan mste mum for Metode). What prevents Grendel from approaching the throne? The
Old English word Metode, indicating the Maker, or God. If metod were to be translated in an
unconventional manner as fate or destiny based on the definition for the word metodsceaft as
destined end, the overall tone of the verses in which it appears (lines 169 and 180) would be modified
while the meaning remained the same.4 While the literal translation is describing that Grendel was not
able to approach Hrothgars throne in Heorot, the allusion is to the throne of God, a well-developed
concept in the Abrahamic faiths. Only the righteous were allowed to approach Gods throne according
to tradition. Therefore, Grendels description in these passages implies the concept of Ha-Satan
opposer of the Pentateuch. This is an interesting distinction because as Hill notes in his article, the
monotheism of the poem is Noahide in nature, not overtly Christian. Thus, a satanic figure that is
traditionally found in the Hebrew Bible (opposer / accuser) is more internally consistent than the chief
of the fallen angels from the New Testament. This portrayal of Grendel as a satanic figure fits rather well
into the thematic landscape of the poem and is done in such a way that it is recognizable, yet not overt.

Mitchell and Robinson, Beowulf, 279.

The next section of the passage, lines 170 -178, describes the Danes reaction to Grendel. First,
Hrothgar was miserable as a result of years of Grendels torment his spirit was broken (mdes breca).
The high-ranking Danes met often in council to figure a plan, but instead of any worldly action, they
sought aid from a soul-slayer (gstbona) through idol worship at a hilltop temple. The specific words
used to describe this practice are useful in an attempt to better understand the meaning. The Old
English, hwlum he gehton t hrgtrafum wgweorunga wordum badon t him gstbona goce
gefremede wi odraum (lines 175 -178), can be translated as, Sometimes they pledged offerings
to idols at hilltop temples, prayed that a soul-slayer would offer aid against that calamity of the people.
Idol worship and animal sacrifice are historically acknowledged as religious practices in Norse religion,
but are prohibited by both the Noahide laws as well as the Ten Commandments of Judeo-Christianity.
The poet then makes the distinction between the pagan religious practices of the Danes and
monotheism, stating that these customs are the hope of the heathens, implying that there is no hope
at all for those who violate the accepted religious dictates against idol worship and animal sacrifice.
The next section of this passage, lines 179 -182, begins the moralization against heathenism that
is quite strident. Without any equivocation, the poet informs us that the Danes did not know the one
true God, how to worship, nor did they expect any relief or change. The language allows no room for
misinterpretation, they did not know the Maker, the judge of deeds; they did not know the Lord God,
or how to worship heavens protector, ruler of glories. In this single verse there are five labels for
divinity, further reinforcing the separation of the Danes from potential salvation. In contrast, there is no
mention of any label for the pagan deity or deities, implying that while the heathens sacrificed animals
and worshipped idols, it was all for naught. It could be interpreted that the ongoing trouble with
Grendels occupation over a dozen years was evidence of the ineffectiveness of the Danes heathen
worship. But it could also be argued, despite the poets insistence to the contrary, that Beowulfs arrival
is the answer to their prayers, although not as timely as they would have preferred.

In the last section of this passage, lines 183 -188, the final comparison between paganism and
monotheism is drawn the difference between the fires embrace and the fathers embrace. The
allusion is to the fires of hell consuming the non-believers, or heathens, compared with the loving
consolation of divinity offering eternal peace to those who know the Lord God and how to worship. This
lament is redolent of the type of strident religiosity that we might expect of medieval texts which
espouse the virtues of Christianity over paganism, yet it is only found within these few verses. While the
motive of the poet seems clear, we are left to wonder why this editorializing is not more prevalent
throughout Beowulf. Is it possible that condemning the Danes beyond what was done in this passage
would be excessive in light of the fact that in the distant past of the poem, the Danes were never
exposed to monotheism or Christianity? Other questions arise from Hills article, in which he observes
that,
In Beowulf, however, such historically pagan figures as Beowulf and Hrothgar know, worship
and thank the one God of Judeo-Christian faith for the blessings of their lives, know that God
judges deeds, and if we accept the straightforward literal significance of the formulas which
characterize their deaths, ascend to heaven after their deaths.5

For instance, how did Beowulf and Hrothgar know God, but not anyone else? Also, if Hrothgar did in
fact know God, why would Grendels reign of terror not be brought to an end more quickly? If the
translated passage is taken at face value, the religious knowledge possessed by Beowulf and Hrothgar is
incongruous with heathenism. This raises the specter of interpolations and multiple poets. Although this
is not direct evidence, it is difficult to reconcile these incongruities considering that most medieval texts
that contain overtly Christian morality condemn pagans and their religion with ferocity.6
However, if the single-poet theory is accepted, there are possibilities that might explain these
apparent discrepancies. Hill offers one in The Christian Language and Theme of Beowulf. It is likely,
5
6

Donoghue, Beowulf, 203.

Ibid., 205206.

according to Hill, that the Beowulf poet wrote during a time of religious transition, and anticipated by
generations the humanism and tolerance of thinkers like Erasmus 7 He cites as evidence the fact that
an Icelandic text, Vatnsdla saga, is an epic that, like Beowulf, is set in pre-Christian times and whose
heroes are portrayed as monotheists. This is strong evidence and it does tend to make Beowulf seem
less unique with regard to the treatment of religious themes in the poem. In terms of the overall poem,
aside from lines 171 188, this explanation seems valid. Yet if the single-poet theory is maintained, does
Hills argument also address the inconsistency between the overall respectful ways that the paganism of
is treated in most of the poem, with the exception of the translated section? Hill even makes allowances
for this in his article when he states,
The condemnation of the Danes idol worship is absolute; either the Beowulf-poet forgot for a
moment to maintain the careful balance which he maintains elsewhere in the poem in which
the admirable heroic figures in the poem speak about religious matters from a monotheistic
perspective, but know nothing of revealed religion or someone else added that passage to the
poem.8

Another option may be that the poet included this section early on in the story in order to placate
religious authorities while maintaining the overall tone of respect and resignation about the doomed
nature of the past. While this is pure speculation, it is not out of the realm of possibility.
Seamus Heaneys treatment of this section is a useful comparison because his lyrical skills and
ability to convey subtleties of meaning often highlight ideas that may be lost in a more literal
translation. The change in tone from the literalist translation to the lyrical can be described as a
movement from a lament or warning to a condemnation. Lines 180 188 in Heaneys Beowulf: A Verse
Translation is the most useful section. Here Heaney cuts back the appositive references to divinity from

7
8

Ibid., 211.
Ibid., 204.

five to four, but the language is stronger in tone than the literalist translation. In the literalist translation
offered in this paper we have,
they did not know the Maker, the judge of deeds; they did not know the Lord God, or how to
worship heavens protector, ruler of glories. Woe to him who must thrust his soul through dire
terror, into fires embrace, expecting no relief, nor any change; well to him who may seek the
Lord after the death-day and wills for peace in the fathers embrace.

In comparison, Heaney has written:

The Almighty Judge
Of good deeds and bad, the Lord God,
Head of the Heavens and High King of the World,
was unknown to them. Oh, cursed is he
who in time of trouble has to thrust his soul
in the fires embrace, forfeiting help;
he has nowhere to turn. But blessed is he
who after death can approach the Lord
and find friendship in the Fathers embrace. 9

The use of capitalization stands out as Heaney highlights the titles for divinity and uses key words like
cursed and blessed. This lyrical translation is much more in alignment with what we might expect
after centuries of Judeo-Christianity being the dominant religion in many parts of the world. His
language is less equivocal and, if possible, condemns the heathens even more than the original. This is
not unusual in modern translations, most likely due to our religious and cultural background which is so
far removed from the times when the Latin Church was still relatively young.

The theme of religion in Beowulf continues to intrigue students and scholars because of the vast
evidence which does not always seem to fit together based on our limited historical knowledge of the
poem itself. However, one thing is clear the Beowulf poet condemned heathenism and exalted
monotheism. The problem lies in the fact that he did so with greater fervor in the translated section

Ibid., 7.

than anywhere else in the text. If we discount the authorship question and assume a single poet, the
intent and motive of the poet must be examined. The discrepancy between this translated section and
the treatment of the Norse in the remainder of the text demands it. Finally, due to the subtleties of
translation, the slight evolution of meaning from a lament or warning to a condemnation in language
that echoes Christian prayer is noticeable in Heaneys translation and others. Through the process of
translation and analysis, it becomes clearer that the Beowulf poet did a masterful job of reconciling the
Norse pagan past with the monotheistic Christian times in which he wrote. Along with the plot,
symbolism, and poetic language, the treatment of the religious theme is one aspect of the poem which
allows readers from the past or present to appreciate Beowulf not only as a work of fiction, but also as
an artifact that permits scholars to understand the history of religion with greater clarity.

Bibliography
Bosworth, Joseph. An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Based on the Manuscript Collections of the Late Joseph
Bosworth ... The Clarendon press, 1908.
Donoghue, Daniel, ed. Beowulf: A Verse Translation. Translated by Seamus Heaney. New ed. W. W.
Norton & Company, 2002.
Fulk, R. D., trans. The Beowulf Manuscript. Harvard University Press, 2010.
Mitchell, Bruce, and Fred C. Robinson, eds. Beowulf: An Edition. Revised. Wiley-Blackwell, 2006.
Orchard, Andy. A Critical Companion to Beowulf. Boydell & Brewer Ltd, 2003.