Topic 1 The building blocks of cells

PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

The structure of cells can be studied using a light microscope:
o Light microscopes shine light on the specimen (i.e the cell to be studied)
o The image is then passed through lensesis magnified (i.e made bigger)
o the different parts of a cell can be seen
Plant and animal cells have some features in common:
Cell membrane:
o It separates the contents of the cell and its surroundingscontrols the
movement of substances (e.g oxygen, glucose, carbon dioxide) into and
out of the cell
Cytoplasm:
o This is where many of the cells chemical reactions take place
o It contains many organelles (tiny structures that carry out specific jobs)
Nucleus:
o Its an organelle that contains DNA (the genetic material)
o It controls all the activities of the cell
Mitochondria:
o These are organelles in which aerobic respiration (i.e respiration in the
presence of oxygen) takes place
Plant cells also have some other structures:
Cell wall:
o Its made of tough cellulose, which supports the cell and gives it shape
Large permanent vacuole:
o its filled with cell sap - helps support plants by keeping cells turgid (i.e
filled with water)
Chloroplasts:
o These are organelles that contain chlorophyll a green substance that
absorbs light energy used for photosynthesis

INSIDE BACTERIA
Light microscopes can magnify specimens more than 1500 times:
o this allows us to also see inside bacteria single-celled organisms that
are much smaller than animals or plant cells
o E.g light microscopes can show that bacteria dont have nuclei

In the 1930s the electron microscope was invented - this uses a beam of electrons
to magnify specimens up to about 2,000,000 times!
electron microscopes can allow us to study the structure of cells in even more
detail
E.g electron microscopes have shown us that bacterial cells:
o have two types of DNA:
Chromosomal DNA giant loop of DNA containing most of the
genetic material
Plasmid DNA comes in small loops and carries extra information
o have a cell wall:
Its different to the cell wall in plants it is not made of cellulose,
and it is more flexible
However, it does a similar job (i.e provides support and shape)
o (some) have flagella on the outside:
These are long, whip-like structures that bacteria can use to move
themselves along
DNA
Chromosomes inside nuclei (plural of nucleus) contain the genetic material
they are made of DNA
Sections of DNA are called genes:
o Each gene codes (i.e carries instructions) for a specific protein
o Often, genes work together to produce what is needed for a particular
feature:
E.g eye colour is determined by lots of different proteins that are
coded by several different genes
The structure of DNA:
A DNA molecule consists of two strands that are coiled together to form a spiral known as a double helix
The two strands of DNA are linked together at regular intervals by chemicals
called bases
Bases always pair up in the same way because they have complementary (i.e
matching) shapes:
o Adenine (A) always pairs with thymine (T)
o Guanine (G) always pairs with cytosine (C)
o The matching bases are known as complementary base pairs
Base pairs are joined together by weak hydrogen bonds
The order of the bases in DNA (i.e the DNA sequence) determines the proteins
that are made in the body
We each have a slightly different order of bases in our DNA/genesall of us
make slightly different proteins this is what makes us all different
DNA DISCOVERY
In the 1950s, Wilkins and Franklin were investigating the structure of DNA:
o They directed beams of x-rays at purified DNA and used photos to record
how the DNA molecules scattered the x-rays
At the same time, Watson and Crick were trying to build a 3D molecular model of
DNA, using data obtained by other scientists:

o The detailed x-ray images of Wilkins and Franklin gave Watson and Crick
the clues they needed to come up with their double helix model
At the time, when Watson and Crick published their findings, Wilkins and
Franklin were barely mentioned
Eventually, though, it became clear that all 4 scientists (i.e not just Watson and
Crick) were key to the discovery of the structure of DNAthey were all (except
for Franklin, who died beforehand) awarded Nobel Prizes
The human genome:
The human genome project (HGP) involved finding out the sequence (order) of
the 3 billion base pairs that make up the human genome
o The HGP was a huge international effort, involving scientists in 18
different countries it took 13 years
Although each human being has a unique DNA sequence, everyone has at least
99.9% of their DNA in common (its that 0.01% that makes us different)
Knowing the sequence of the human genome has many implications for science
and medicine - it is being used to develop:
o improved testing for genetic disorders
o new ways of finding genes that may increase the risk of certain diseases
o new treatments and cures for disorders
e.g gene therapy, where scientists try to replace faulty genes that
cause a disorder with normal genes
o new ways of looking at changes in the genome over time i.e how humans
have evolved
o personalised medicines these are medicines that work best (i.e are more
effective and have fewer side-effects) on certain people
GENETIC ENGINEERING
Scientists can remove a gene from one organism and insert it into the DNA of
another organism this process is called genetic engineering
E.g production of human insulin by genetically modified bacteria:
Scientists can insert the gene for human insulin into bacterial plasmid DNA
Stages of process:
o 1. Bacterial plasmid DNA is removed from bacteria
o 2. Bacterial plasmid DNA is cut by cutting enzymes
o 3. Bit of the chromosome that contains the human insulin gene is cut by
cutting enzymes
o 4. The human insulin gene is stuck onto the bacterial plasmid DNA by
sticking enzymes
o 5. The bacterial plasmid DNA, with the additional human insulin gene, is
reinserted into bacteria
The genetically modified (GM) bacteria now have the human insulin gene in their
plasmid DNAcan make human insulin, which is used by people with diabetes
Organisms like these GM bacteria are known as genetically modified organisms
(GMOs)
Advantages of producing human insulin using GM bacteria:
o In the past, insulin used to be extracted from dead cattle and pigs:
Although similar, the insulin from dead cattle and pigs is not the
same as human insulin

The supply of the animal insulin could be affected by animal

diseases or by the numbers of animals slaughtered
o Human insulin produced by GM bacteria doesnt have these drawbacks:
It is the same as the insulin produced by body cells in the pancreas
It can be used by vegans (vegans dont eat any animal products
would not take animal insulin)
It can be made in vast quantities and more cheaply
The slight disadvantage of producing human insulin using GM bacteria is that
different bacteria produce insulin slightly differentlythis may not suit everyone
E.g2 beta-carotene in golden rice to reduce vitamin A deficiency in humans:
Lack of vitamin A:
o can cause the immune system to stop working properlycan lead to death
o can cause blindness
Beta-carotene is needed by humans to make vitamin A
Two extra genes can be inserted into normal rice plants to make them produce
beta-carotene in their grains
o Rice plants that make beta-carotene in their grains are called golden rice
plants and they make yellow rice
Disadvantages of this process:
o 1. Some people are concerned that the GM rice will crossbreed with wild
rice plants and contaminate the wild rice DNA
o 2. Others worry that eating GM organisms might be harmful (though there
is no evidence for this)
o 3. Some people say the levels of beta-carotene in golden rice are not high
enough to make much of a difference
o 4. GMOs can be expensive
E.g3 production of herbicide-resistant crop plants:
Herbicides are used to kill weeds
Scientists have added genes to some plants to make them herbicide resistant
o This means farmers can use one large spray of herbicide rather than
several smaller doses (reduces the amount of crop spraying needed)
Possible disadvantages of this process:
o 1. Cross-pollination can take place between plants and weeds (i.e they
fertilise each other)
some weeds may inherit the herbicide resistance genes
weeds can become herbicide resistant (i.e theyre no longer
killed by herbicides)
o 2. Fewer weeds surviveloss of food and shelter for animals
MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
Mitosis:
All human body cells (i.e all cells except sperm and egg cells) contain two sets of
23 chromosomes (46 in total) in their nucleus
o One set of 23 chromosomes comes from the father and the other set of 23
chromosomes comes from the mother
o So human body cells contain two copies of each chromosometheyre
said to be diploid

To make more cells during growth and/or to repair damaged cells, body cells
divide by a process called mitosis:
o 1. Chromosomes first make copies of themselves - this process is called
DNA replication
o 2. The copies of the chromosomes separate and then the cell divides
o 3. This division produces two daughter cells, which are:
diploid (each daughter cell has 46 chromosomes in their nucleus
so they have two copies of each chromosome)
genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell
Note: n = 23 chromosomes in nucleus2n = 46 , 4n = 92

Diploid cell has 46 chromosomes2n

1st stage: diploid cell replicates46x2 = 92 chromosomes4n
2nd stage: chromosomes separate but no further division occursstill 4n
3rd stage: cell divides to form two diploid daughter cells, each containing
46 chromosomes (2n)
Asexual reproduction:
As well as in growth and repair, cell division by mitosis also occurs in asexual
reproduction
o Asexual reproduction is when organisms reproduce by themselves (i.e
without a partner)
Bacterial cells often reproduce asexually by splitting in half
Some plants can also reproduce asexually
Sexual reproduction:
Sex cells (i.e sperm cells and egg cells) are called gametes
o Gametes are different to body cells as they only contain one set of
chromosomes in their nucleus (so have a total of 23 chromosomes)
o gametes are haploid cells
When a sperm cell fertilises an egg cell, the gametes fuse to produce a diploid
body cell (with 46 chromosomes two sets of 23) called the zygote
o The zygote develops into a ball of cells called the embryo, which then
develops to form a new individual
Note: it is important that gametes only have 23 chromosomes, because if they had
46, then after fusion, the body cells formed would end up with 92 chromosomes in
their nuclei!
Meiosis:
In order for haploid gametes to be produced, a different type of cell division called
meiosis is required
o
o
o
o

o 1. First step is DNA replication (this first step is the same as in mitosis)
o 2. This is followed by two cell divisions - i.e the cell is first divided into
two and then divided again into four
o 3. This produces 4 haploid daughter cells, each containing one set of (23)
chromosomes (i.e the haploid daughter cells have half the number of
chromosomes in the nucleus than diploid cells)
Chromosome pairs in a diploid cell contain the same genes but may have different
versions of the genes (i.e different alleles) because they come from different
parentschromosomes in a pair are slightly different
In meiosis, these slightly different chromosomes are split between the daughter
cells in a random waythe haploid gametes produced in meiosis are genetically
different from each other
Note: n = 23 chromosomes in nucleus2n = 46 , 4n = 92

o Diploid cell has 46 chromosomes2n

o 1st stage: diploid cell replicates46x2 = 92 chromosomes4n
o 2nd stage: two cell divisions split the cell into two and then into four
o four haploid cells are produced each containing 23 chromosomes (n)
CLONES
Clones are individuals that are genetically identical (i.e that have the same DNA
sequence)
The process of cloning producing an identical individual is an example of
asexual reproduction
Benefits and risks of cloning mammals:
Cloning animals isnt easy because its not possible to make a whole new animal
from an arm or a leg
It wasnt until 1996 that the first large animal (a sheep called Dolly) was cloned
Unfortunately
o very few embryos produced during cloning develop successfully (Dolly
was the only lamb produced after 237 attempts!)
o Dolly grew older much more quickly than normal and died young
Scientists arent sure whether this was due to health problems
caused by the cloning or whether it just happened by chance
However, cloning can also be useful

It can be used to make a genetically identical copy of an adult organism that has a
desirable trait:
o This can be a desirable natural trait - e.g bulls whose sperm produces high
quality calves are valuableare worth cloning
o This can be a desirable genetically engineered trait - e.g cows engineered
to produce human insulin in their milk can be clonedtwo clones can then
be bred together so that their offspring will also have this engineered trait
How to clone a mammal:
1. A diploid nucleus is removed from a body cell of the animal that is going to be
cloned
2. The diploid nucleus is inserted into an enucleated egg cell (i.e a cell that has
had its nucleus removed)
3. The egg cell is stimulated to start dividing by mitosis
4. It is then implanted into the uterus (womb) of a surrogate mother where it will
develop into a new individual
o Note: the surrogate mother hosts the embryo but isnt actually the mother
because the organism being produced doesnt have any of the surrogate
mothers DNA/genes
STEM CELLS
When stem cells divide, they not only produce more stem cells but they can also
develop into specialised (differentiated) cells - e.g muscle cells, skin cells
o Once a cell becomes specialised, it cannot turn into another type of cell
There are two types of stem cells:
o Embryonic stem cells these can develop into nearly all types of cells
o Adult stem cells - these can develop into only a few types of cells
The ability of embryonic stem cells (in particular) to develop into lots of different
types of cells means they could be used to treat many medical problems...
Two steps:
o 1. Embryonic stem cells first need to be extracted (see below for problems
associated with this)
o 2. They are then put wherever in the body they are needed so that they can
develop into the appropriate specialised cell
e.g if the patient has a heart problem, embryonic stem cells are put
in the heart so they can develop into a specialised heart cell
General risks of using stem cells:
o If stem cells are put into the body, they could produce the wrong kind of
cells or even create cancer cellsmore research is needed to make sure
stem cells are safe
o People may try to use embryonic stem cells to produce human clones
this is illegal
Problems associated with extracting embryonic stem cells:
One way of extracting embryonic stem cells is to use leftover embryos created for
couples having fertility treatment
o However, extracting the embryonic stem cells kills the embryo
o This is controversial because some people think that because embryos go
on to develop into people, destroying embryos is the same as murder
Two ways scientists are trying to solve this issue:

o 1. Use adult stem cells to make cloned embryos - the embryonic stem cells
could then be extracted from the clones without any natural embryos
having to be killed
o 2. Turn specialised body cells into stem cells by reprogramming them if
this works, it will help to completely avoid the ethical problem of using
embryos
Treating leukaemia:
Due to the ethical issues associated with extracting embryonic stem cells, most
established methods use adult stem cells, which are easier to extract
e.g adult stem cells are used in bone marrow transplants to treat leukaemia (a
cancer of white blood vessels)
Note: remember, though, that adult stem cells cant develop into as many different
types of cellsthe number of diseases they can treat is limited
PROTEIN MANUFACTURE (SYNTHESIS)
Protein synthesis takes place in two stages transcription and translation
Transcription:
Transcription takes place inside the nucleus
The DNA is first unzipped by breaking the weak hydrogen bonds between the
bases in the double helix this separates the two strands of DNA
One of the DNA strands then acts as a template:
o RNA bases that are complementary (i.e that match) to the bases on the
DNA strand link together
o This forms a strand of messenger RNA (mRNA) that is complementary to
the DNA template strand - see diagram below

RNA vs DNA:
o RNA only has one strand (not two like DNA has)
o RNA has a base called uracil (U) instead of thymine (T)
in RNA: adenine (A) bases pair with uracil (U) bases
in DNA: adenine (A) bases pair with thymine (T) bases
in the diagram above
an adenine (A) base on the strand of DNA is matched by a
complementary uracil (U) base on the mRNA strand
a thymine (T) base on the strand of DNA is matched by a
complementary adenine (A) base on the mRNA strand
Translation:
Translation takes place on ribosomes (an organelle found inside the cytoplasm)

mRNA is small enough to leave the nucleus, enter the cytoplasm and then attach
itself to a small structure called a ribosome
In the ribosome are also transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules:
o These each have attached a triplet of bases (i.e 3 bases) and an amino acid
o The triplet of bases on the tRNA controls which amino acid is attached
o tRNA (like mRNA) contains uracil (U) bases instead of thymine (T) bases
Process:
o The ribosome moves along the mRNA, decoding it in groups of 3 these
base triplets on the mRNA strand are known as codons
o As the ribosome moves along the mRNA, the tRNA with complementary
triplet of bases lines up with the codon
o The tRNA then releases the amino acid it was carrying
The amino acid joins on to the growing amino acid chain
The tRNA is now free to collect another amino acid
o The ribosome then moves onto the next codon and the process continues
until the chain of amino acids is long enough

The chain of amino acids is called a polypeptide (chain)

Most proteins are made of many polypeptide chains, linked up
Note:
o Its important to realise that the order of bases in DNA decides the order of
amino acids in a protein
o This is because order of bases in DNA decides the mRNA sequence, which
then decides how tRNA molecules carrying amino acids line up along the
mRNA strand
MUTATIONS
Each protein is made up of a different sequence (i.e different number and order) of
amino acids
The sequence of amino acids affects the way the polypeptide chain folds up
gives the protein its specific 3D shape
o Some proteins form long fibrous molecules (e.g keratin - found in human
hair and nails)

o Other proteins have a round globular shape (e.g insulin, haemoglobin,

enzymes)
The shape of proteins is important for their function:
o E.g the round shape of haemoglobin helps it move around inside cells and
around the rest of the body easily
o E.g2 enzymes are specific to one reaction - their shape determines which
reaction this is (see enzyme sections below for more details)
The effect of mutations:
A mutation is a change in the sequence of bases in the DNA (genetic code)
Some mutations (i.e some changes in the genetic code) have no effect on the
amino acid sequenceshape of the protein produced is not affected
Other mutations result in one amino acid being replaced by anotherprotein folds
up differently (different 3D shape)this affects the way the protein works...
o E.g sickle cell anaemia:
mutation in the gene that produces haemoglobin causes red blood
cells to become sickle-shaped and pointy
they stick together in long fibres and get stuck in small blood
vessels
Mutations can sometimes be beneficial to the organism:
o E.g some mutations make bacteria resistant to the effects of antibiotics (i.e
theyre not killed by antibiotics)
ENZYMES
What are enzymes?
Each reaction that is going on in the body is controlled by a particular group of
proteins called enzymes
A substance that helps a chemical reaction go faster without itself being changed
by the reaction is called a catalyst enzymes are biological catalysts
o Without enzymes, the reactions may still happen, but at too slow a rate for
cells to do all they need to do to stay alive
Some enzymes help break a large substance into smaller molecules (e.g in
digestion)
Other enzymes help smaller molecules join together to make larger ones
(synthesis)
Enzymes catalyse (i.e speed up) reactions inside cells:
During DNA replication in mitosis and meiosis:
o The weak hydrogen bonds holding the two strands of DNA together are
broken downthe DNA double helix unwinds this reaction is catalysed
(i.e sped up) by a specific enzyme
o As new bases line up along each separate DNA strand, a different enzyme
catalyses the reaction joining the complementary base pairs together
o This makes two DNA molecules that are identical to each other and to the
original DNA molecule
o The enzymes are unchangedthe process can be repeated when needed

Enzymes are also used to speed up reactions during protein synthesis e.g the
reaction that joins one amino acid to another (in the formation of a polypeptide
chain) is catalysed by a specific enzyme
Enzymes catalyse reactions outside cells:
Food molecules (e.g carbohydrates, proteins and fats) are too large to pass across
the cell membranes of the gut wall and into the bloodthey first need to be
broken down in a process called digestion
o The reactions that take place during digestion are catalysed by different
enzymes that are released into the mouth, stomach, and small intestine
Microorganisms and fungi also release digestive enzymes:
o However, microorganisms and fungi dont have a gutthey grow on the
food theyre digesting this can be seen as mould on e.g fruits
After the enzymes have digested the food, microorganisms absorb the small food
molecules through their cell walls
Some of the enzymes that are involved in digestion are now used in laundry
detergents to help digest (remove) food and other large molecules on
dirty/stained clothes
ENZYME ACTION
Enzymes work by binding to molecules called substrates once bound, enzymes
catalyse the change of substrate molecules into product molecules
Each enzyme only works with a particular substrate or a small group of similar
substratesenzymes are highly specific for their substrate
Explanation using the lock and key hypothesis:
o Substrates bind to an enzymes active site this is where the reaction
turning the substrates into products takes place
o The active site has a different shape in different enzymes
o In order for substrates to bind to the enzymes active site, they must have a
complementary (i.e matching) shapeall substrates that fit into a
particular enzymes active site have the same 3D shape
o The analogy is the that the enzymes active site is the lock and the
substrate is the key only the substrate (key) with the right shape can fit
into the active site (lock)
Factors affecting enzyme action:

There are 3 main factors that affect how well an enzyme works (i.e how well it
can catalyse/speed up a chemical reaction)
1. Temperature:
o Most enzymes work best at normal body temperature - i.e they have an
optimum temperature of around 40C (37.5C to be exact)

2. pH:
o Most enzymes work best at about pH7 (neutral)

o However, some enzymes work best at other pH values e.g enzymes in the
stomach have a much lower optimum pH
Small changes in pH or temperature (away from optimum conditions):
o change the shape of the enzymes active sitesubstrates dont fit as well
enzyme activity is reducedrate of reaction is reduced
This is partly what happens when you get a fever (body
temperature risesenzymes dont work as wellreactions take
place more slowlyyou feel ill)
Large changes in pH or temperature (away from optimum conditions):
o can cause bonds within the enzyme to breakactive site is destroyed (it
completely loses its shape)substrates can no longer fit into the active site
An enzyme that has lost its specific 3D shape/structure (under conditions of
extreme temperatures and pH) is said to be denatured
3. Substrate concentration:
o As the substrate concentration increases, there are more molecules that can
bind to the active sites of enzymesrate of reaction increases
o However, at very high substrate concentrations, all the active sites of the
enzymes are occupied all the time
the enzymes cant work any faster
adding more substrate will make no difference to the rate of
reaction