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2009 Meas. Sci. Technol. 20 055102
(http://iopscience.iop.org/0957-0233/20/5/055102)
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IOP PUBLISHING
doi:10.1088/0957-0233/20/5/055102
National Institute for Standards, Tersa St, Elharam, 12211 Giza, Egypt
Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Abbestrae 2-12, 10587 Berlin, Germany
1. Introduction
Thermocouples are the most widely used electrical sensors
in temperature measurements. They are characterized by
a simple construction. Two dissimilar wires electrically
insulated are joined at one end. A temperature difference
between this common junction (measuring junction) and the
open end (reference junction) causes a potential difference
which can be measured between the two dissimilar wires
at their open ends. This thermoelectric voltage is called
electromotive force (emf) and occurs in any conductor which
is located in a nonuniform temperature region. It can be
described by equation (1):
dE = S(T ) dT ,
S(T , x) = S(T , x) SN (T ),
(1)
(2)
2. Two-gradient method
The two-gradient method in which a movable heater is
used is a simple and precise method to assess qualitatively
and quantitatively inhomogeneities in thermoelements. A
movable heater or furnace with known temperature gradients
is moved along the thermoelement (or thermocouple) under
investigation with a known and uniform velocity. In this way
the thermoelement is exposed to two temperature gradients,
one on each side of the heated zone. Both temperature
gradients are reversed left to right. Therefore, the two
emfs generated at the positions of the gradients will be of
opposite sign but of the same magnitude as long as there are
no inhomogeneities in the thermoelement. In this case, the
resulting emf measured at the two ends of the thermoelement
will be zero. On the other hand, a spatial variation of the
Seebeck coefficient caused by inhomogeneities will result in
an emf that deviates from zero if such inhomogeneous sections
of the thermoelement are exposed to the temperature gradients.
This emf measured using the two-gradient method will not
directly give a quantitative indication of the inhomogeneity
as obtained using a one-gradient measurement. With the twogradient method, the resulting emf as a function of the position
of the heating zone is actually a measure of the derivative
of the corresponding emf measured by using the onegradient method [9]. Because of the compensating effect of
the two oppositely directed temperature gradients, a direct
reading of the emf differences would result in a quantitative
underestimation of inhomogeneity-caused uncertainties.
Figure 1 shows a model of scanning a thermoelement by
using a movable heater (top) and a corresponding experimental
scanning curve of a copper wire (bottom). In this case, the
maximum temperature of the heater is higher than a critical
temperature TC , at which inhomogeneities will be induced.
Part (a) of figure 1 shows the output emf at different positions
of the heater. Part (b) shows the thermoelement containing
a homogeneous section white, an inhomogeneous section
induced by the movable heater black and a third section
which becomes inhomogeneous by the movable heater during
scanning. The temperature profiles of the movable heater at
different positions (1, 2, 3 and 4) are shown in part (c) of
figure 1. The resultant emf can be described as follows.
3. Experimental set-up
Figure 2 shows the schematic diagram of the experimental
set-up. Both ends of the investigated thermoelement were
maintained at the same temperature in an electrically shielded
box. Therefore, any deviation of the measured emf from
zero is an indication of inhomogeneity when the short, welldefined heating zone is moved along the wire. The heater
was moved with a constant velocity of 2 mm min1 . The
measured emfs using a nanovoltmeter Keithley model 2182
were recorded, displayed and stored automatically using a
R
program. The measurement uncertainty of the
LabVIEW
emfs was estimated to a value of about 0.1 V, mainly
caused by the short-time stability of the nanovoltmeter during
the scans. The stability of the heater temperature can
be neglected because of the applied two-gradient method
(difference measurement). Environmental influences were
minimized by using the shielded terminal box and would
influence both junctions equally. Therefore, almost no
parasitic emfs have to be considered.
The temperature profiles of the movable heater used
to perform the inhomogeneity tests were measured using a
sheathed type J thermocouple. The thermocouple was inserted
into an alumina tube and maintained at a fixed position. A
second sheathed thermocouple identical to it in geometry was
inserted into the alumina tube from the other side to adjust
a symmetrical condition concerning heat flux effects along
the alumina tube during the measurement of the temperature
profiles. The heater was moved along the type J thermocouple.
For example, two different temperature profiles, but of the
same maximum temperature (about 227 C), are shown in
figure 3. The profile with the wider heating zone was achieved
by inserting a small aluminum tube into the heater coil. The
width of the heater is dg .
0.5
0.4
emf, V
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
distance, mm
14000
12000
emf, V
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
distance, mm
120
140
160
180
1.8
1.6
emf, V
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
distance, mm
120
140
160
180
Figure 4. Inhomogeneity scan at 200 C of the pure copper wire before and after inducing inhomogeneity.
12000
10000
emf, V
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0
6
7
8
distance, mm
10
11
12
13
14
1.8
measured data
calculated data
1.6
emf, V
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
distance, mm
Figure 6. Comparison of the measured and calculated emfs of the homogeneous copper wire.
2.8
measured data
calculated data
2.4
emf, V
2
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
distance, mm
Figure 7. Measured and calculated emfs of the copper wire containing the induced inhomogeneity at 200 C.
0.6
0.4
0.2
emf, V
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0
100
200
300
distance, mm
400
500
600
Figure 8. Scanned platinum wire using the movable heater with wide and small heating zones before inducing an inhomogeneity at 227 C.
0.3
0.2
0.1
emf, V
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
0
100
200
300
distance, mm
400
500
600
Figure 9. Scanned platinum wire using the movable heater with the small heating zone at 227 C before and after inducing inhomogeneity.
0.6
0.4
0.2
emf, V
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0
100
200
300
distance, mm
400
500
600
Figure 10. Scanned platinum wire using the movable heater with the wide heating zone at 227 C before and after inducing inhomogeneity.
0.6
0.4
0.2
emf, V
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0
100
200
300
distance, mm
400
500
600
Figure 11. Scanned platinum wire using the movable heater with wide and small heating zones after inducing inhomogeneity at 227 C.
0.8
measured data
calculated data
0.6
emf, V
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
0
100
200
300
distance, mm
400
500
600
Figure 12. Measured and calculated data of the scanned platinum wire at 227 C using the movable heater with the small zone.
one [9] by using the small heating zone. The same position of
the inhomogeneity (peak in the recalculated curve, inflection
point in the measured curve) was found at about 290 mm
from the starting point of the scanning. Also in figure 13,
the position of the inhomogeneity in both curves is the
same. Furthermore, comparing figures 12 and 13, independent
of the different geometries of the temperature profiles,
the same position of the inhomogeneity could be found.
Simultaneously, the maximum emf differences in both
calculated emf curves were found to have about the same value
of (1.0 0.1) V. It should be mentioned that the maximum
emf differences in the directly measured curves differ from
each other considerably, 0.6 V and 1.0 V for the heater
with the small and wide zones, respectively.
The results of several scanning runs of the inhomogeneous
platinum wire at 227 C and 410 C (two runs at each
temperature) are presented in figures 14(a) and (b) to prove the
reproducibility of the homogeneity tests. Here, the movable
heater with a small heating zone was used. Figure 14(a) shows
the measured emfs and figure 14(b) shows the calculated data
according to Holmsten.
0.8
measured data
calculated data
0.6
0.4
emf, V
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0
100
200
300
distance, mm
400
500
600
Figure 13. Measured and calculated data of the scanned platinum wire at 227 C using the movable heater with the wide zone.
1
at
at
at
at
emf, V
0.5
227C
227C
410C
410C
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
distance, mm
(a)
2
at
at
at
at
1.5
227C
227C
410C
410C
emf, V
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0
100
200
300
distance, mm
400
500
600
(b)
Figure 14. Reproducibility of the homogeneity tests for measured and calculated data of the scanned platinum wire at different temperatures.
(This figure is in colour only in the electronic version)
S(P t) = emf/T .
8
(3)
Table 1. Quantitative estimation of the induced inhomogeneity of the platinum wire at different temperatures.
Temperature of
heater TH ( C)
227
303
410
SN (Pt) at TH
(V K1 )
9.53
10.83
12.46
Maximum emf
difference (V)
T (K)
S(Pt) (V K1 )
S(Pt)/SN (Pt)
0.9
1.3
2.2
204
280
387
4.41 103
4.64 103
5.68 103
4.63 104
4.29 104
4.56 104
References
[1] Reed R P 1992 Thermoelectric inhomogeneity testing: Part I.
Principles Temperature: Its Measurement and Control in
Science and Industry vol 6 ed J F Schooley (New York:
American Institute of Physics) pp 51924
[2] Bentley R E 2000 A thermoelectric scanning facility for the
study of elemental thermocouples Meas. Sci. Technol.
11 53846
[3] Jonathan V P 2007 Quantitative determination of the
uncertainty arising from the inhomogeneity of
thermocouples Meas. Sci. Technol. 18 348995
[4] Jahan F and Ballico M 2003 A study of the temperature
dependence of inhomogeneity in platinum-based
thermocouples Temperature: Its Measurement and Control
in Science and Industry (Chicago, IL, 2002) (AIP Conf.
Proc.) pp 46974
[5] Kim Y-G, Gam K S and Lee J H 1997 The thermoelectric
inhomogeneity of palladium wires Meas. Sci. Technol.
8 31721
[6] Kim Y-G, Gam K S and Kang K H 1998 Thermoelectric
properties of the Au/Pt thermocouple Rev. Sci. Instrum.
69 357782
[7] Reed R P 1992 Thermoelectric inhomogeneity testing:
Part II. Advanced methods Temperature: Its
Measurement and Control in Science and Industry vol 6
ed J F Schooley (New York: American Institute of Physics)
pp 52530
[8] Zvizdic D and Veliki T 2006 Testing of thermocouples for
inhomogeneity XVIII Imeko World Congress: Metrology for
a Sustainable Development (Brazil)
[9] Holmsten M, Ivarsson J, Falk R, Lidbeck M and Josefson L-E
2007 Inhomogeneity measurements of long thermocouples
using a short movable heating zone Int. J. Thermophys.
29 91525
[10] Roberts R B 1981 The absolute scale of thermoelectricity II
Phil. Mag. B 43 112535
6. Summary
Two thermoelements (a copper wire and a platinum wire) were
investigated for inhomogeneity by using a movable heater with
two symmetrical temperature gradients. In the case of the
copper wire the investigation technique was demonstrated.
The main benefit of the two-gradient method is the simple
local verification of inhomogeneities in thermoelements,
independent of the shape and magnitude of the heating
zone.
The quantitative estimation of inhomogeneities
concerning their influence on the uncertainty of a temperature
measurement requires a numerical recalculation of the directly
measured emf curve, which is a measure of the derivative of
the corresponding emf measured by using the one-gradient
method. It was found that the magnitude of the directly
measured emf depends on the temperature and on the shape of
the heating zone, i.e. on the temperature gradients T and on
the width dg of the zone. Applying the method of Holmsten
[9], the recalculated emf was found to be independent of the
shape of the heating zone but proportional to its temperature,
i.e. directly proportional to the value of the Seebeck coefficient
of the thermoelement.