Chapter 4 Tempered distributions

4.1

Topology on S(R)
We know that S(R) is a vector space. On S(R), we can introduce a family of

seminorms pn,m defined as follows:



pn,m (f ) = sup xm f (n) (x) .
xR

Then this family induces a locally convex topology on S(R). Equivalently, the topology can also be defined in terms of the increasing family of seminorms

pk (f ) = sup 1 + x

2 k

xR

k
X
 (j) 
f (x) .
j=0

In fact, each pk is a norm and we can use them to define a metric d on S(R) by

d(f, g) =

X
k=0

2k

pk (f g)
.
1 + pk (f g)

Notice that d is translation invariant in the sense that d(f, g) = d(f g, 0). When
equipped with the topology introduced by the above seminorms or equivalently, with
the metric topology, the operations (f, g) 7 f + g and (, f ) 7 f become
continuous making S(R) into a topological vector space. Let {n } be a Cauchy
sequence in S(R). Then
pk (n m )  0 as n, m for all k N0 . This in

s

 d
ds
turn will imply that xr s n xr s m  0 as n, m for all r, s N0 . Then
dx
dx

109



s
r d
it follows from Cauchy criterion that x
n converges uniformly on R for all
dxs
r, s N0 . Assume that n converges to on R. An application of closed graph
theorem will lead to the convergence of pr,s (n ) to pr,s () as n . This will lead
to the convergence of {n } with respect to the metric d. Thus S(R) is a complete
metric space.
Using this topology on S(R), we can define the class of tempered distributions
S 0 (R) as the dual space of S(R). In other words, every element of S 0 (R) is a continuous
linear functional on S(R). We say that S 0 (R) if : S(R) C is linear and
continuous. The continuity of can be taken as follows:
If {n } is a sequence of functions converging to in S(R), then a function
: S(R) C is said to be continuous if {n } converges to {} as a sequence
of complex numbers. Since is linear, we can say that is continuous if {n } is a
sequence of functions converging to 0 in S(R) then {n } converges to 0 as a sequence
of complex numbers.
Examples 4.1.1. (1) Fix x R. Define x : S(R) C by x () = (x). Then
x S 0 (R) and is called the Dirac delta function at x R.
R
(2) Let f Lp (R), 1 p . Define f () = f (x)(x) dx for all S(R). Then
R

f S 0 (R). In fact, |f ()| kf kp kkp0 < as S(R) is contained in Lp (R). If

{k } converges to 0 in S(R), then
0
kk kpp0

Z
=

1 + x2

lp0

|(x)|p 1 + x2

c sup 1 + x2

lp0

xR

110

|k (x)|p ,

lp0

dx

tends to 0 as k for every positive integer l. This means k 0 in Lp norm.

Thus |f (k )| kf kp kk kp0 0 showing f is continuous on S(R). Clearly, it is
linear on S(R), proving that f S 0 (R).

4.2

Convergence in S 0(R)

Definition 4.2.1. A sequence {n } in S 0 (R) is said to converge to in S 0 (R) if

n () () as a sequence of complex numbers for each S(R).
Theorem 4.2.2. Let {fn } be a sequence of nonnegative functions on R such that
R
R
fn (x)dx = 1 for all n. Suppose it also satisfies
fn (x) dx 0 as n for
R
|x|
R
every > 0. Define f n () = fn (x)(x) dx. Then {f n } converge to the dirac
R

delta function 0 in S 0 (R) as n .

Proof. Define fn by fn (x) = f n (0), where f n (x) = fn (x). Then, by theorem,

f n (0) (0). But (0) = h0 , i. Thus the result follows.

4.3

Some properties of S 0(R)

Definition 4.3.1. Let S 0 (R). The derivative 0 of is defined as 0 () = (0 )

for all S(R). More generally, for m 1, the m-th derivative of is defined as
(m) () = (1)m ((m) ) for all S(R). Clearly, (m) is well defined and it is
linear on S(R). We can show that (m) S 0 (R). Suppose {n } is a sequence in


S(R) which converges to 0 in S(R). This means xj Dk n (x) 0 for all j, k Z








(m)
and x R. But sup xj Dk n (x) = sup xj Dk Dm n (x) = sup xj Dk+m n (x) from
xR

which it follows that

xR

(m)
{n }

xR

(m)

also converges to 0 in S(R). As S 0 (R), (n )

converges to 0 as a sequence of numbers, which means {m (n )} converges to 0 as a

sequence of numbers. Thus, m S 0 (R).

111

Examples 4.3.2. (1) Fix x R. Consider x , the Dirac delta function. By definition
of derivative of a tempered distribution, x0 () = x (0 ) for all S(R). But
x (0 ) = 0 (x). Thus x0 () = 0 (x).
(2) Let

1 x0
H(x) =
0 x < 0.
The function H is called the Heaviside function or unit step function. Let S(R).
Then
Z
H() =

Z
H(x)(x) dx =

Z
(x) dx =

(1 + x2 )(x) dx
1 + x2

Then |H()| M sup |(1 + x2 )(x)| and as H is linear on S(R), it follows that
xR
0

H S (R). Consider, for S(R),

H () = H( ) =

H(x) (x) dx =

0 dx = (0) = 0 (),

which shows that the derivative of H is the Dirac delta function 0 .

(3) Let

x
x0
(x ) =
0 otherwise.
Then it can be easily shown that S 0 (R). The derivative 0 of is given by

() = ( ) =
0

112

x0 (x) dx

[x(x)]
0

Z
+

(x) dx
0

Z
(x) dx = H() S(R),

=
0

which shows that 0 is the Heaviside function H.

(a) Heaviside function.

(b) The function .

Definition 4.3.3. Let V be an open set in R. We say that an element S 0 (R)

vanishes on V if () = 0 for every belonging to S(R) which has support in V .
Definition 4.3.4. Let S 0 (R). Let denote the union of all open sets in R on
which vanishes. Then the complement c of in R is called the support of and
it is denoted by supp.
Examples 4.3.5. (1) Supp x = {x}, x R.
(2) Supp H = [0, ). It is clear that S 0 (R) is a linear space. In fact, (1 + 2 ) () =
1 ()+2 () S(R) for the tempered distribution 1 , 2 and ()() = ()
for all S(R) for C and S 0 (R). Let S(R) and S 0 (R). Then
113

the product is defined by () = () for all S(R). For , C,

1 , 2 S(R)

(1 + 2 ) = [(1 + 2 )]
= [(1 )] + [(2 )]
= (1 ) + (2 ) = ()1 + ()2 ,

showing that is linear on S(R). If {n } converges to 0 in S(R), then using

Leibnitzs formula one can show that {n } converges to 0 in S(R). This shows that
{(n )} converges to 0. Thus S 0 (R).

4.4

Fourier transform on S 0(R)

b
Definition 4.4.1. Let S 0 (R). The Fourier transform of is defined by ()
=

()
b for all S(R). The inverse of Fourier transform is defined by () = ( )

for all S(R), where is the inverse Fourier transform of given by the inversion
R

formula (x) = ()e2ix d. Since the Fourier transform is continuous from S(R)
R

onto itself, it also maps S 0 (R) onto S 0 (R). Similarly, S 0 (R) for all S 0 (R).

b
One can easily verify that = = for all S 0 (R).
Remark 4.4.2. The Fourier transform on S 0 (R) can be thought of as an extension of
the Fourier transform on L2 (R). In fact, let f L2 (R). Then f defines a distribution
f which belongs to S 0 (R). We have for every S(R), the Fourier transform of
the tempered distribution f is given by
Z
b f () = f () =

Z
f (x)(x)
b dx =

fb(x)(x) dx = (bf , ),
R

114

showing that Fourier transform treated as an L2 function definition coincides with

Fourier transform treated as a tempered distribution.
Examples 4.4.3. (1) Let R. Then for all S(R), ( )b() = ()
b = ()
b
=
R
(x)e2ix dx. In particular if = 0, then b0 = 1.
R

(2) Let R. Then for all S(R), (0 )b() = 0 ()

b = (
b0 ) =
b0 () =


R
R
2i x(x)e2ix dx = 2i xe2ix (x) dx = g (), where g = 2ixe2ix .
R

The Fourier transform and inverse Fourier transform are continuous on S 0 (R). In fact,
if {n } is a sequence in S 0 (R) such that n in S 0 (R), then n () () for all
b n () and ()
b
S(R). This shows that n ()
b ().
b But n ()
b =
b = ().
b n () ()
b
cn
b in S 0 (R).
Thus
for all S(R) which in turn implies that
This shows that the Fourier transform is continuous on S 0 (R). Similarly, the inverse
Fourier transform can also be shown to be continuous on S 0 (R).
Proposition 4.4.4. Let S 0 (R). Then for all S(R),
 (m) b
b

() = (2ix)m (),
b
[(2i)m ]b() = (1)m (Dm )().
Proof.
 (m) b

() = (Dm )b() = Dm ()
b = (1)m (D m )
b


= (1)m [(2ix)m (x)]b
b [(2ix)m (x)]
= (1)m


m
mb
= (1) (2ix) ()


mb
= (2ix) ().

115

[(2i)m m ]b() = ((2i)m m ) ()

b = [(2i)m m ]
b
b m )
= ((Dm )b ) = (D
b [(1)m Dm ]
= (1)m
b
= (1)m (Dm )().

Definition 4.4.5. Let S(R) and S 0 (R). Then the convolution of and

is defined to be ( )(x) = (x ) for all x R, where (x) = (x), x R, and

x () = ( x), R.
Proposition 4.4.6. Let S(R) and S 0 (R). Then C (R) and Dm ()
= (Dm ) = (Dm ), m N.
Proof. Fix x0 R. Suppose x x0 R. Then, it can be easily shown that

x x0 as x x0 . This in turn will imply that (x ) (x0 ). This means

( )(x) ( )(x0 ) which shows that is continuous on R.
We shall show that is differentiable. Consider for x R and > 0,

(x+ ) (x )
( )(x + ) ( )(x)
=

(x ) (x )
=

!!

= x
.

But

x+ (u) x (u)
(u x ) (u x)
0
lim
= lim
= x
0
0

in S(R). Thus

()(x + ) ( )(x)
0
= (x ( )) = (x (0 )) = ( 0 )(x ).
0

lim

116

Hence is differentiable and ( )0 = 0 . Further for all x R,

0

( )(x) = (x ) = (x )

= (x ( )) = ( 0 )(x).

This shows that

( )0 = 0 = 0 .
By induction, this leads to
Dm ( ) = (Dm ) = (Dm ) for any m N.
Proposition 4.4.7. Let S 0 (R) and S(R), then S 0 (R).
Proof. We have, for any x, y R, 1 + (x + y)2 2(1 + x2 )(1 + y 2 ). Therefore,
k 

P
(j) (x), satisfies the following:
pk () = sup(1 + x2 )k
xR

j=0

pk (x ) 2k (1 + x2 )k pk (), x R.
Since, is a continuous linear functional on S(R), the norms pk define the topology of
S(R), there is a k and c < such that |()| cpk (). (See Appendix A.4.4.) Thus




is a tempered distribution. Thus | (x)| = (x ) c2k pk ()(1 + x2 )k . This
shows that has polynomial growth. If a continuous function on R has polynomial
m

growth, then it defines a tempered distribution. In fact, if |g(x)| c (1 + x2 ) , then

Z

|g ()|

|g(x)| |(x)| dx c
R

(1 + x2 )m |(x)| dx

Z
=c

(1 + x2 )m+1 |(x)|

1
dx c pm+1 () < .
(1 + x2 )

Thus, it follows that S 0 (R).

117

b
Theorem 4.4.8. Let S 0 (R), S(R). Then ( )b =
b .
Proof. Since S 0 (R), has Fourier transform in S 0 (R). Let D(R).
Then has compact support. Let K = supp(). Then

bb
b = ()
( )b()
= ()
Z

= ( )(x)(x) dx
R
Z

( )(x)(x) dx

=
R
Z

(x )(x) dx

=
R

Z
=

(x )(x) dx
K


Z

=
(x)x dx
K

= (( ) )


b ( )b
=
b
b
= (
b)
b
b ).
=
b(
Hence K = {x : x K}. Since D(R) is dense in S(R) and the class of Fourier
transform of members of D(R) is also dense in S(R), the result follows for every
b
S(R). Thus ( )b =
b .

118

4.5

Exercises

4.5.1. Check whether ex , x R is a tempered distribution.

4.5.2. Show that ex cos ex , x R is a tempered distribution.
4.5.3. Show that every polynomial defines a tempered distribution.
Z
f (x)
dx is a tempered distribution.
4.5.4. Show that lim
0
x
|x|

4.5.5. Find the derivative and Fourier transform of sgn(x), where

1 for x > 0

sgn(x) =
0 for x = 0

1 for x < 0.
4.5.6. Find the Fourier transform of (x x0 ), x0 R.

4.5.7. For  > 0, let f =
. Then show that f x0 in S 0 (R) as
(x x0 )2 + 2
 0.

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