Process – 3 Drilling

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 Laser Cutting

Process Description:

Laser cutting is a technology that uses a laser in cutting different kinds of materials,
mostly metals such as carbon steel, aluminium, stainless steel and copper alloys. It is
widely used in the metal fabrication industry to increase cutting speed and cutting
capacity, reduce production costs, increase productivity and improve cutting quality.

A laser or LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is a

device that generates a highly concentrated monochromatic and coherent beam of
light. The light is produced through the process of stimulated emission.

Laser manufacturing activities currently include cutting, welding, heat treating,

cladding, vapour deposition, engraving, scribing, trimming, annealing, and shock
hardening. Laser manufacturing processes compete both technically and economically
with conventional and non conventional manufacturing processes such as mechanical
and thermal machining, arc welding, electrochemical, and electric discharge
machining (EDM), abrasive water jet cutting, plasma cutting, and flame cutting.

Some of the most interesting uses of lasers are in materials processing. There is
something about a beam of light cutting through steel that fascinates almost everyone,
possibly because it is so close to the image of lasers we see in science fiction. High
power lasers are a mainstay of modern industrial manufacturing. Chief among them is
the carbon dioxide gas laser. The CO2 laser can be designed to provide beam powers
of a few watts to tens of thousands of watts. Typically it takes beam powers of at least
500 watts to begin to working on thin metals. Compare this to the few thousandths of
a watt available from most semiconductor diode lasers.
Gas lasers typically produce higher quality beams than semiconductor lasers. There
are a number of reasons for this. First, gas laser tubes are physically larger than diodes
so the mirrors are separated by a greater distance. This results in a beam that is more
directional than a semiconductor laser can provide. The larger size of gas lasers also
means that more active material can be placed between the mirrors, resulting in
markedly higher output powers. Gas lasers are typically found in applications where
size, weight, cooling and power requirements are not a problem, such as in large
factories.

In cutting and welding applications, lasers can provide some distinct advantages over
other methods. Lasers produce smooth, clean cuts, unlike cutting torches. The heat
applied to a metal work-piece is sharply focussed so it affects only a small area
around the cut. With a cutting torch, the heat-affected zone is larger. The metal in the
heat affected zone becomes more brittle than the rest of the work-piece, so in many
applications such as aircraft parts, the heat affected metal must be removed by
grinding. This results in longer manufacturing times, higher costs and reduced
accuracy. With the laser, the cut is very smooth and the heat-affected zone around the
cut is very small, so grinding is kept to a minimum. In some cases, cuts are so smooth
that no grinding is required. The laser is stationary and the beam transmitted to the
work-piece through a set of mirrors mounted on a computer-controlled gantry. The
computer directs the laser to cut any shape out of the work-piece with perfect
accuracy and repeatability.

Because the beam is so powerful, stringent safety precautions must be taken by the
operator, and the beam path must be completely enclosed. The beam from a CO2 laser
is infrared and is invisible to the naked eye. However, you can easily see the sparks
flying from the heat the beam generates.

CO2 lasers are used by a number of manufacturers for heat-treating parts to harden
them against extraordinary wear. Much higher laser powers are usually required.
Traditional methods using torches or furnaces waste energy and can take hours, but
the laser completes the task in only a few seconds. Car manufacturers make extensive
use of lasers to harden transmission gear surfaces for a long and reliable service life.
Carbon Dioxide lasers are also available with lower powers, perfect for engraving and
product marking. CO2 lasers can easily engrave glass or ceramics as well.
This CO2 laser is engraving serial number plates in anodized aluminium. A small
computer controls a pair of mirrors that scan the beam over the surface to be
engraved. This process can also be used to engrave lot numbers on soft drink cans or
other consumer goods.

CO2 lasers produce excellent quality cuts in plastic materials. Here, a 500 watt beam
is cutting letters and logos from a plexiglass sheet. As with metals, the speed of the
cutting depends on beam power and the thickness of the material. The CO2 laser
produces a polished edge in plastic as it cuts, so in most cases, no further processing is
required.
Lasers are also useful in cutting materials that are difficult to process with other tools.
In this example a 200 watt CO2 laser is cutting aircraft parts from solid kevlar, a very
strong composite plastic. Kevlar fibres are used in bullet-proof vests, so solid kevlar is
extremely tough and it quickly dulls conventional tools like saws and drill bits.
However, the laser quickly cuts this material and will never get dull, making the
process very efficient and repeatable.

Solid state lasers are also found in many industrial applications. The lasers most
widely used make use of the rare-earth element neodymium as the active material.
The neodymium can either be dissolved in a glass rod, or in a crystal host like yttrium
aluminium garnet, or YAG. YAG lasers can be cooled more efficiently than glass
lasers so they are found more often on the factory floor. The wavelength of the YAG
laser makes is more suitable for working metals like brass, aluminium and stainless
steel, where the beam from a CO2 laser would be reflected. YAG lasers can be pulsed
or continuous and are often used for making precision welds in specialized
applications like cardiac pacemaker housings.

Lasers can effectively cut, weld or drill hard or brittle materials like metals, ceramics
and glass… or soft, spongy materials like rubber that would deform under the
pressure applied by any mechanical tool. Most industrial lasers work by applying
precise amounts of heat to a work-piece. However, the Eximer gas laser processes
materials in a different way. Eximer lasers produce intense beams of ultraviolet light
that breaks apart the molecular bonds of the target substance, and ejecting debris in a
miniature explosion. There is no danger of any thermal damage to surrounding areas
not exposed to the beam. This, combined with the ability of ultraviolet wavelengths to
be focussed down to extremely small spot sizes, gives the eximer laser the precision
required for micromachining.

Eximer lasers can etch very high resolution patterns on various materials in numerous
manufacturing applications. The laser beam is scanned across a mask containing the
desired pattern, while a series of lenses focuses the pattern down to the required size
on the work-piece. This arrangement can be used to manufacture sensors, electronic
parts, medical devices or any part that requires a high-resolution network of holes or
channels.

Design and Simulation:

The parts are first designed in a CAD system and then output as 2D geometry files
such as DXF.
The files are then imported into the programming system. For example, the start up of
one such programme ‘Jetcam’ is shown in above screenshot.

Here, the design of the part (to be manufactured) is imported in the software package.
For example, the design of star is as shown in above screen shot.
Here we select and set various parameters as per requirement of the design. For
example, we set the margin on the border of plate, we set the positioning of the
clamps, and we set the number of components to be cut.

After setting of all the parameters, here we see the actual simulation of the cutting
process as shown in above screenshot. The software gives us the idea of how the parts
will be cut.
The NC programme is then loaded into the machine using upload/download
capability. All cutting parameters are selected from the process library according to
desired cutting process, material type and thickness and cut quality.

The software automates the cutting process by controlling cut speed, kerf, gas
pressure, and delay times. By automating process setup, the correct cutting parameters
are used every time.

Merits of the process:

1. Burr-free cut (no finishing work required).

2. Small heat affected zone.
3. Small holes are possible.
4. High measurement accuracy.
 5. Fast processing speed.
6. Low noise emission.
7. Low amount of slag.
8. Few waste gases.
9. Many different materials can be cut.
10. Easily integrated into manufacturing plants.

Constraints of the process:

1. Material Considerations: Laser cutting becomes less effective when material

thickness increases. For instance, lasers may be ineffective for cutting carbon steel
thicker than .4 inches. Laser cutting thickness limitations are determined by heat
conductivity, surface reflection at 10.6 microns, the vaporization point of alloys, the
types of alloys, surface tension of molten materials, and part geometry. As thickness
increases, the likelihood of a blowout or thermal runaway also increases.
2. Part Geometry: Certain part geometries are affected more than others by the
thermal process. For instance, corner or smaller areas of a part absorb more heat,
and consequently the probability of thermal runaways or violent reactions like
blowouts increases. Generally, the more complicated the part geometry, the more
difficult it is to maintain constant cutting speeds. Often, speed and productivity are
compromised when cutting shapes with varying curves and angles. It is generally
more efficient to speed up a laser when cutting curves to prevent overheating the part
and deteriorating edge quality.
3. Material Composition: Material composition affects laser processing more
dramatically than it does other processing methods. Laser processing is influenced by
conductivity and the viscosity of metal in a liquid state. The surface tension of liquid
metal affects the degree of dross that adheres to the exit edge of the part. If the
viscosity is thin, the dross will blow away. However, if it is thick, the dross will cling to
the material and usually elevate the temperature of the part. In such cases,
secondary operations may be required to remove the recast.
4. Material Quality: Laser processing is more sensitive to material quality than are
other processes. The surface finish can dramatically affect the quality of cutting. In
most cases, steel must be clean, pickled, and oil-free. Impurities on low-grade steel
are highly reactive to the thermal process, especially when oxygen is used as a
processing gas. Hot rolled steel presents serious quality problems in cutting because
of the surface scale. The surface tends to melt in with the metal, creating an
undesirable finish. If the material surface is not smooth, the assist gas and laser focus
can be altered, affecting the quality of the cut.
5. Setup Time: Setup time for a laser can be lengthy when preparing to cut unfamiliar
materials. Nozzle size, power, optical focal length, assist gas, gas pressure, speed,
and focal length can all influence the process. These parameters are so important to
the process that if they are not set correctly, the material cannot be cut. However,
when the combinations are correct, the speed of cutting can be several times faster
than that of other cutting methods.
6. Distortion: A heat-affected zone (HAZ) is produced during laser cutting. A HAZ
forms in metals when the temperature rises above the critical transformation point. In
laser cutting, this is localized near the cutting zone. In carbon steel, the higher the
hardenability, the greater the HAZ. Laser cutting creates more stresses in material
than do other methods such as water jet cutting. In most cases, laser processing
produces little distortion in material, but this depends on the laser's parameters, the
material thickness, and its composition. Laser cutting creates more stresses in
material than do other methods such as waterjet cutting. In most cases, laser
processing produces little distortion in material, but this depends on the laser's
parameters, the material thickness, and its composition.

7. Drilling: Drilling starting holes is faster with a laser but not as safe as other methods.
While lasers can drill holes very quickly, a blowout may occur during the drilling
process. Blowouts are more likely to take place if the hole diameter is small in relation
to the material thickness. Using a continuous-wave laser creates a high probability of
a blowout when piercing metal. Many times, the solution calls for changing
parameters so that the pierce is completed by pulsing the laser. The rest of the
cutting can be done with a continuous wave.
 CNC Milling

Process Description:

CNC stands for computer numerically controlled. As a milling technique, this means
that a design can be specified on a computer using cad tools, and that a computer can
handle the milling process. CNC milling finds application making a wide range of
custom parts. CNC milling is a cutting process in which material is removed from a
block metal or plastic by a rotating tool. In CNC milling the cutting tool (called a
“mill”) is moved in all three dimensions to cut a desired shape from stock. In this
process, the material is usually removed by both the end and the side of the cutting
tool. Unlike a drill which removes material only from the end, in CNC milling the
cutting tool rotates about an axis that is perpendicular to the table that holds the work.
Cutting tools of various profile shapes are available including square, rounded, and
angled. A wide variety of part shapes and geometries are possible. The most common
are the “end mill” which finishes to a flat bottom surface while a “ball mill” has a
rounded end. A wide variety of 2D and 3D shapes are possible in the process. Some
of the examples of CNC milling are engine components, custom jigs and mould
tooling, complex mechanisms, enclosures, etc. The thing CNC Milling does especially
well is create complex shapes block material. While CNC milling can be used on 2D
projects, there are lots of other choices for thin stock. Waterjet cutting and plasma
cutting, for example, come to mind. But thick stock, needing metal removed? That’s
where CNC milling shines. The CNC Milling process proves to be cost effective for
short runs. The easy way to get started making custom CNC parts is to design them in
free 3D CAD software. Once a part is draw, it can be assigned to different machines
and prices and deliveries compared. A wide variety of 2D and 3D shapes are possible
in the process.

Design & Simulation:

To start with, a block of 100 mm x 100 mm x 16 mm is designed in CATIA. Care is

taken while extruding that it should be carried out in negative ‘Z’ direction because
while milling process, the tool will move in same direction.

Now, choosing with one of the planes of the block, the initials of name are drawn with
the help of line tool in the same design software. For example, letter ‘M’ is drawn as
shown in below screen shot.

Now, the sharp corners of the letters are chamfered with ‘Chamfering Tool’ with a
radius of 3 mm. This is done so that there should be enough space for tool to move
around corners and it should not get stuck in.

The letter is extruded by 5 mm using pocket command in negative ‘Z’ direction.

Then, the file is saved in ‘.IGES’ format. This is required for opening the file in
simulation software called ‘Power Mill’. The IGES (International Graphics Exchange
Service) format is generally used almost exclusively by CAD programs. This format
is the most universally accepted and consistent. Similar to .DXF, it is limited in its
font information since only the font name is provided and not the details about the
font geometry. IGES is the best for transferring information about 3-D surfaces
because of the large variety of surface types that can be described.

After opening the design in PowerMill, first we select the working area as the datum
is not kept in centre while designing the component in CATIA. This can be seen in
above screenshot.

Then, we set the tool specificatios and other data to be used during the actual milling
process as shown in above screenshot.In the first instance, the diameter of end mill
cutter was taken as 5 mm, due to which the cutter gets stucked in while machining on
right hand portion as shown in screen shot. This is due to the reason that design is not
similar on both sides of the component.so, we have to change the cutter diameter from
5 mm to 4 mm to get the full simulation of the process.

Once the part to be machined is represented by a computer model, a set of machining

instructions must be produced. These instructions are needed to guide the path of the
cutter over the raw material.So,next step is to select the Tool Path. This type of
software allows the user to input parameters such as cutter size, finish quality, and
number of passes over the material. Based on the specified parameters, the CAM
program then calculates the toolpath. There are four options availiable in the system
but we chose the one highlighted in the screenshot i.e. Offset AreaClear Model.
Then, we select the controller for the process from the directory as shown. In this
case, we selected “Heid400” controller for the process beacuse this is compatible with
the machine availiable in Workshop.

Now, we click on Toolpath option and drag the file into NC program and hence our
program is ready for simulation.
Here are some of the screen shots of the simulation of the process.
Constraints of the process:

http://www.thefabricator.com/article/lasercutting/the-challenges-of-laser-cutting-
overcoming-some-common-obstacles

http://ezinearticles.com/?Laser-Cutting&id=277054
Milling:

http://www.afroarticles.com/article-dashboard/Article/The-CNC-Milling-
Process/80443