Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Cooling Towers
Cooling Towers
Tower
Although the worlds total fresh water supply is abundant, some areas have water usage
demands that are heavily out of balance with neutral replenishment. Conservation and efficient
reuse of this precious and versatile resource are mandatory if such areas are to achieve proper
development. Cooling Tower used to reuse of water in Industry.
A Project Report on
Submitted by
DECLARATION
I Mr./ Ms. Vedant Vasantrao Khadkekar, hereby declare that this project report is the
record of authentic work carried out by me during the period from July 2012 to May 2013 and
has not been submitted to any other University or Institute for the award of any degree / diploma
etc.
Signature
Name of the student : Mr. Vedant Vasantrao Khadkekar
Date : 01/05/2013
Being submitted by Mr. Vedant Vasantrao Khadkekar, for the award of the degree of
Date: 20 / 05 / 2013.
Prof. P.G.Jadhav
Head of Department
(Project Guide)
Acknowledgment
The satisfaction that accompanies the successful completion of any task would be
incomplete without mentioning the people who made it possible. We are grateful to a number of
individuals whose professional guidance along with encouragement have made it very pleasant
endeavor to present this project.
We have a great pleasure in presenting the project report on Design of Cooling Tower
with the kind permission from respected Dr. L. M. Waghmare, Director and Prof. P. G.
Jadhav, Head, Department of Chemical Engineering of S.G.G.S.I.E. &T., Nanded.
We are truly grateful to our Project guide Prof. P. G. Jadhav for his valuable guidance
and encouragement. Her encouraging words went a long way in providing the patience and
perseverance which were needed to present this project successfully. Also her true criticism
towards technical issues provided me to concentrate on transparency of our project.
We take an opportunity to thank all the staff members of our department. Finally we
express our sincere thanks to all those who helped us directly or indirectly in many ways in
completion of this work.
Projectees
III
INDEX
Particulars
Page No.
I.
Declaration
II.
Certificate
II
III.
Acknowledgment
III
IV.
Index
IV
V.
List of Tables
VI
VI.
List of Symbols/Abbreviations
VII
VII.
List of figures
VIII
VIII.
Abstract
IX
1. Introduction
1.1. Classification
1.3. Parameters
10
11
14
2. Literature Review
16
17
21
22
23
24
4. Cooling Tower Technical Specifications
27
28
28
29
5. Experimental Procedure
33
IV
35
6.1 Observations
36
36
37
41
44
46
10. Conclusion
49
11. Bibliography
51
IX.
Appendix
53
LIST OF TABLES
Table no.
Particulars
Page no.
1.
29
2.
29
3.
Observation table
37
4.
Observation Table -2
37
5.
48
6.
Steam Table
53
VI
Meaning
CTA
CTR
N
Hlom
Efficiency
Log mean temperature difference
DL
Drift losses
WL
Windage Losses
EL
Evaporation losses
BL
XC
XM
CWT
DBT
G1
G2
H1
H2
Ha1
Ha2
HOG
HWT
KaV/L
KGa
L1
L2
MB
Mw
VII
NOG
Pressure
T1
T2
Ta1
Ta2
WBT
Z
VIII
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. No.
Name of Figure
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7 (a)
Rectangular Fills
1.7(b)
Triangular Fills
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
5.1
6.1
IX
Abstract
Although the worlds total fresh water supply is abundant, some areas have
water usage demands that are heavily out of balance with neutral replenishment. Conservation
and efficient reuse of this precious and versatile resource are mandatory if such areas are to
achieve proper development. And, the need for water conservation does not limit its self only
to arid regions. Recognition of the detrimental environmental impact of high temp. water
discharge into an estuary, whose inhabitants are accustomed to more moderate temperature
levels, make one realize that the re-cooling and reuse of water, however abundant ,conserves
not just that natural resource-It conserves nature as well one helpful means to that end is the
water cooling tower.
Cooling towers are one of the biggest heat and mass transfer devices that are in
widespread use. In this paper, we use a detailed model of cooling towers in investigating the
performance characteristics. The validity of the model is checked by experimental data
reported in the literature. The thermal performance of the cooling towers is clearly explained
in terms of varying air and water temperatures, as well as the driving potential for convection
and evaporation heat transfer, along the height of the tower. The relative contribution of each
mode of heat transfer rate to the total heat transfer rate in the cooling tower is established. The
variation of air and water temperatures along the height of the tower (process line) is
explained on psychometric charts.
In Project, we use a detailed model of cooling towers in investigating the
performance characteristics.
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
A hyperboloid cooling tower was patented by Frederik van Iterson and Gerard
Kuypers in 1918[1]. The first hyperboloid cooling towers were built prior to 1930 in
Liverpool, England to cool water used at a electrical power station that used coal[2]. A
cooling tower is a unit where water is cooled with air. Warm water enters the top of the
tower, runs down the column and chills because it partially vaporizes to air, which flows
upward. Also, the air flow is usually colder than the water flow, so water is chilled because
of the heat exchange. Since both mass and heat transfer phenomena are present, the theory
of cooling towers is a bit complicated. Certain simplifications can be made because the
liquid phase is pure water, and therefore there is no driving force for mass transfer in that
phase. As many other vapor-liquid mass transfer units, the cooling tower is packed with
packing materials, which increases the surface area, in order to enhance the mass and heat
transfer[3].
Cooling towers are a very important part of many chemical plants. The primary
task of a cooling tower is to reject heat into the atmosphere. They represent a relatively
inexpensive and dependable means of removing low-grade heat from cooling water. The
make-up water source is used to replenish water lost to evaporation. Hot water from heat
exchangers is sent to the cooling tower. The water exits the cooling tower and is sent back
to the exchangers or to other units for further cooling. Typical closed loop cooling tower
system is shown in Figure 1.1.
1.1. Classification
1.1.1. Air flow generation methods
With respect to drawing air through the tower, there are three types of cooling towers:
Natural draft Utilizes buoyancy via a tall chimney. Warm, moist air naturally
rises due to the density differential compared to the dry, cooler outside air. Warm
moist air is less dense than drier air at the same pressure. This moist air buoyancy
produces an upwards current of air through the tower.
Mechanical draft Uses power-driven fan motors to force or draw air through the
tower.
o
Induced draft A mechanical draft tower with a fan at the discharge (at
the top) which pulls air up through the tower. The fan induces hot moist air
out the discharge. This produces low entering and high exiting air velocities,
reducing the possibility of recirculation in which discharged air flows back
into the air intake. This fan/fin arrangement is also known as draw-through.
Forced draft A mechanical draft tower with a blower type fan at the
intake. The fan forces air into the tower, creating high entering and low
exiting air velocities. The low exiting velocity is much more susceptible to
recirculation. With the fan on the air intake, the fan is more susceptible to
complications due to freezing conditions. Another disadvantage is that a
forced draft design typically requires more motor horsepower than an
equivalent induced draft design. The benefit of the forced draft design is its
ability to work with high static pressure. Such setups can be installed in
more-confined spaces and even in some indoor situations. This fan/fill
geometry is also known as blow-through.
Fan assisted natural draft A hybrid type that appears like a natural draft setup,
though airflow is assisted by a fan.
Gravity water distribution allows smaller pumps and maintenance while in use.
Typically lower initial and long-term cost, mostly due to pump requirements.
flows
downward
through
the
fill,
opposite
to
the
air
flow.
Typically higher initial and long-term cost, primarily due to pump requirements.
The interactions of the air and water flow allow a partial equalization of
temperature, and evaporation of water.
The air, now saturated with water vapor, is discharged from the top of the cooling
tower.
A collection or cold water basin is used to collect and contain the cooled water after
its interaction with the air flow.
Both cross flow and counter flow designs can be used in natural draft and in mechanical
draft cooling towers.
1.3. Parameters
Range: It is the difference between the cooling tower water inlet and outlet
temperature.
Approach: It is the difference between the cooling tower outlet cold water
temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature. Although, both range and approach
should be monitored, the `Approach is a better indicator of cooling tower
performance.
Capacity: Cooling capacity is the heat rejected in kCal/hr or TR, given as product
of mass flow rate of water, specific heat and temperature difference.
Evaporation loss: It is the water quantity evaporated for cooling duty and,
theoretically, for every 10,00,000 kCal heat rejected, evaporation quantity works out
3
Blow down losses depend upon cycles of concentration and the evaporation
losses and is given by relation:
Blow Down = Evaporation Loss / (C.O.C. 1)
Frame and casing: Most towers have structural frames that support the exterior
enclosures (casings), motors, fans, and other components. With some smaller
designs, such as some glass fiber units, the casing may essentially be the frame.
Fill: Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to facilitate heat transfer
by maximizing water and air contact. Fill can either be splash or film type.
With splash fill, water falls over successive layers of horizontal splash bars,
continuously breaking into smaller droplets, while also wetting the fill surface.
Plastic splash fill promotes better heat transfer than the wood splash fill. Film fill
consists of thin, closely spaced plastic surfaces over which the water spreads,
forming a thin film in contact with the air. These surfaces may be flat, corrugated,
honeycombed, or other patterns. The film type of fill is the more efficient and
provides same heat transfer in a smaller volume than the splash fill.
Cold water basin: The cold water basin, located at or near the bottom of the tower,
receives the cooled water that flows down through the tower and fill. The basin
usually has a sump or low point for the cold water discharge connection. In many
tower designs, the cold water basin is beneath the entire fill.
In some forced draft counter flow design, however, the water at the bottom
of the fill is channeled to a perimeter trough that functions as the cold water basin.
Propeller fans are mounted beneath the fill to blow the air up through the tower.
With this design, the tower is mounted on legs, providing easy access to the fans
and their motors.
Drift eliminators: These capture water droplets entrapped in the air stream that
otherwise would be lost to the atmosphere.
10
Air inlet: This is the point of entry for the air entering a tower. The inlet may take
up an entire side of a towercross flow design or be located low on the side or
the bottom of counter flow designs.
Louvers: Generally, cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The purpose of louvers is
to equalize air flow into the fill and retain the water within the tower. Many counter
flow tower designs do not require louvers.
Nozzles: These provide the water sprays to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution
at the top of the fill is essential to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface.
Nozzles can either be fixed in place and have either round or square spray patterns
or can be part of a rotating assembly as found in some circular cross-section towers.
Fans: Both axial (propeller type) and centrifugal fans are used in towers. Generally,
propeller fans are used in induced draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal
fans are found in forced draft towers. Depending upon their size, propeller fans can
either be fixed or variable pitch.
A fan having non-automatic adjustable pitch blades permits the same fan to be
used over a wide range of kW with the fan adjusted to deliver the desired air flow at
the lowest power consumption. Automatic variable pitch blades can vary air flow in
response to changing load conditions.
11
Liquid fed to it falls through by gravity. if tower is 16 ft. high and no initial velocity
imparted to the droplet ,it falls in approximate according with the free fall low,
Z=1/2g2,
Where, Z is the height, g the acceleration of gravity, and the time. A droplet of
water will fall through height of the tower in 1 sec. if liquid is fed at the rate of one droplet
per second and there is no obstruction, one droplet be always present in the tower and one
droplet will continuously remove from the tower per second[4].
Now suppose that by introducing some geometrical forms on which the droplet may
impinge or be deflected it is possible to make a droplet take 4 sec to fall through the height
of the tower. Then as shown in fig.1.6 ,one droplet is fed per sec at the top and one droplet
is continuously removed at the bottom but four remain in the tower. The effective surface in
Dept. of Chemical Engineering
12
13
14
15
16
Chapter 2
Literature Review
This chapter has the research from other people regarding the performance of
cooling tower. The explanation on types, parts and theory involving cooling tower are
describe thoroughly as the cooling tower used in the industry. Without cooling tower, a big
facility or building tower might not stable at it will increased the heat to the people in the
building. There are also some explanation about the system and the transfer between air and
the cooling tower.
17
18
19
20
21
Chapter 3
Analysis of Cooling Tower
3.1. Analysis of Cooling Tower
A schematic of a counter flow cooling tower, the major assumptions that are used to
derive the basic modeling equations are:
Heat and mass transfer is in a direction normal to the flows only;
Negligible heat and mass transfer through the tower walls to the environment;
Negligible heat transfer from the tower fans to the air or water streams;
Constant water and dry air specific heats;
Constant heat and mass transfer coefficients throughout the tower;
Constant value of Lewis number throughout the tower;
Water lost by drift is negligible;
Uniform temperature throughout the water stream at each cross section; and
Uniform crosses sectional area of the tower.
Ta1
22
23
Fig. 3.3, Temperature and concentration profile in upper part of cooling tower
3.3. Characteristics of cooling tower
The basic function of a cooling tower is to cool water by intimately mixing it with
air. This cooling is accomplished by a combination of sensible heat transfer between the air
and the water and the evaporation of a small portion of the water. This type of transfer is
represented by the following equation:
This equation is commonly referred to as the Merkel equation. The left-hand side of this
equation is called the "tower characteristic," which basically indicates the 'degree of
difficulty to cool' the water or the 'performance demand' of the tower.
Dept. of Chemical Engineering
24
The lower curve known as the Air Operating Line, represents the condition of air
flowing through the cooling tower. The origin of this line, point C, is vertically below B
and is positioned to have an enthalpy corresponding to that of the entering wet bulb
temperature. As the water is cooled one degree, the enthalpy of the air is increased 1 Btu
multiplied by L/G [water circulation -lbs.per unit time/ air circulation -lbs. per unit time].
Thus, the L/G ratio is the slope of the air operating line C-D. Point D, representing the air
leaving the cooling tower, is the point on the air operating line vertically below point A.
The projected length C-D is the cooling range.
The Merkel Equation primarily says that at any point in the tower, heat and water
vapor are transferred into the air due [approximately] to the difference in the enthalpy of the
Dept. of Chemical Engineering
25
26
27
Chapter 4
Cooling Tower Technical Specifications
4.1. Cooling Tower Technical Specifications
Water Flow Rate, (L2)
0.116 m3/hr
45 0C
35 0C
29 0C
0.762 m
30 0C
39 0C
150 m3/hr
188.4 kJ/kg
146.6kJ/kg
0.025 Kg Water / Kg
dry air
28
29
= 0.149 kg0K / kJ
4. Effectiveness in %
Effectiveness = Range / (Range + Approach)
= 100* (cooling water Inlet Temperature- cooling water Inlet Temperature) /
(Cooling water Inlet Temperature-Wet Bulb Temperature)
Dept. of Chemical Engineering
30
5. Cooling Capacity
Cooling Capacity = mass flow rate of water *Specific heat *Temperature difference
= 116 * 4.185 * (45-35)
= 4854.6 kJ/hr
6. Evaporation Losses
Evaporation Losses = 0.00085 * 1.8 * circulation rate (m3/hr) * (T1-T2)
= 0.00085 *1.8 *0.116 * 10 = 1.7748 *10-3 m3/hr
31
32
33
Chapter 5
Experimental Procedure
1- Introduce water and record its flow rate.
2- Put the heaters on so that water is heated to the required temperature.
3- Introduce air and record its flow rate.
4- Wait for steady state then record steady state dry and wet bulb temperature of air at the
entrance and exit.
5- Record the inlet and outlet temperature and flow rate of water also record temperature at
different stages.
6- Change the air flow rate & Water flow rate and repeat step 3.
34
35
Chapter 6
Observations & Discussion
6.1. Observations
1. Inlet water Temperature= 450C
2. Wet Bulb Tempreture =29 0C
3. Air flow rate =2.5 m3/min
Sr. No.
Water Temperature,0C
Inlet
outlet
1.
0.0847
45 0C
32 0C
2.
0.1101
45 0C
35 0C
3.
0.213
45 0C
36 0C
Tower Type
Stand Pipe
PVC
Flow Type
Counter Flow
Flexible Pipe
PVC
0.116 m3/hr
Distributer
Steel Sheet
45 0C
Mechanical Equipment
35 0C
Blower
Centrifugal
29 0C
Manufacturer
Flow Rate
2.5 m3/min
Structural Details
Height of CT
2.5 ft
Water Motor
Manufacturer
YANG Pumps
Flow rate
6 lit/min
Tower Frame
Acrylic Sheet
Power Consumption
18W
Casing
Aluminium
Plastic Material
inch
Filling
PVC
Distributer Area
0.34 ft2
Bolt Nuts
Cast Iron
70.68 mm2
36
37
Location of the operation range. The saturation line has a varying curvature. In
fig.6.1(d) an operating line H1- H2 is shown with a range from 105 to 700F. Suppose
it is desired to design a tower using the same inlet air but to cool water from 95 to
Dept. of Chemical Engineering
38
SGGS IE&T, Nanded
39
e. Staying. One of the means of overcoming the small L/G ratio in the preceding
paragraph can be accomplished by the use of two towers. This is staying. The water
at the top of the first tower is hot and contacts air of enthalpy H2 along the operating
line H1-H2 as shown in fig. 6.1(e). the water is removed from the basin at
temperature T2 and is pumped over the second tower, which also uses atmospheric
air of enthalpy H1. The second tower operates between H1 and H3. In this way both
operating line may have large slopes without intersecting the saturation line. The
fixed charges and operating cost of two towers increases the cost of water
considerably, but water produced in this manner should be regarded as chilled
water, and its cost and range compared with that of refrigerator water.
f. Elevation. Some plants are located at high elevations. Should this be mentioned in
the process conditions? At reduced atmospheric pressure, as seen in fig. 6.1(f), the
saturation line is higher, which in turn increases the potential and reduces the
required size of tower if all other conditions are the same. This occurs because the
partial pressure of the water is fixed whereas the total pressure has been decreased.
The humidity of saturated air at higher elevation is also greater.
40
41
Chapter 7
Cost Estimation
Total Cost = Fixed Cost + Operating Cost
Rs. 6600
42
43
Chapter 8
Energy Saving Opportunities
From the above data of the design of cooling tower and observations & discussions
we are able to conclude some energy saving opportunities for the cooling tower is as given
below:
Optimize cooling tower fan blade angle on a seasonal and/or load basis.
Correct excessive and/or uneven fan blade tip clearance and poor fan
balance.
On old counter-flow cooling towers, replace old spray type nozzles with new
square spray ABS practically non-clogging nozzles.
Cover hot water basins to minimise algae growth that contributes to fouling.
Replace slat type drift eliminators with low pressure drop, selfextinguishing, PVC cellular units.
44
Consider energy efficient FRP blade adoption for fan energy savings.
45
46
Chapter 9
Typical Problems and Trouble Shootings for
Cooling Tower
Problem /
Possible Causes
Remedies/Rectifying
Difficulty
1.
Action
absorbed current / 2a. Incorrect angle of axial fan Adjust the blade angle
electrical load
blades
2b. Loose belts on centrifugal Check belt tightness
fans (or speed reducers)
3.
Overloading
excessive
air
owing
flow-fill
of tower section
4. Low ambient air temperature
The
motor
is
cooled
operation
of
unit
of the fill
3. Defective or displaced droplet Replace
eliminators
or
realign
the
eliminators
3.Loss
of
from basins/pans
level
47
Lack
of
equalizing Equalize
connections
the
basins
the
flow
in
Check
Flowing
of
to
the
by
direction
of
increased
temperature range
possible)
3a.
Recycling
of
humid Check
discharge air
the
air
descent
velocity
tubes
Clean
material
or
replace
(washing
the
with
48
49
Chapter 10
Conclusion
It is deduced that the condition of the surface area and the distribution of water on
the sheets such as the distance between the repeated ribs and their angle to air flow
and water flow play an important part in the efficiency of each pack, resulting from
the influence of the different water distribution on the two sides of the sheets. It has
been found that a packing with high air turbulence in combination with relatively
low fluid velocity is more economic than a fairly smooth and straight packing in
combination with high liquid velocity.
The mass transfer and heat transfer is decreased with increase inlet air humidity and,
the objective of use packing is to increase area of contact between water and air.
The cooling tower does not use in the place which the air have high humidity.
50
51
Chapter 11
Bibliography
[1] Improved Construction of Cooling Towers of Reinforced Concrete. UK Patent No.
108,863
[2] Power Plant Cooling Towers Like Big Milk Bottle" Popular Mechanics, February 1930
bottom-left of pg 201
[3] Richardson & Coulson, Chemical Engineering, Fifth Edition 2002, University of Wales
Swansea.
[4]D. Q. kern, Process Heat Transfer, Tata McGraw-Hill Edition 1997.
[5]McCabe Smith, Harriott, Unit operation of Chemical Engineering, Fifth Edition 1993,
Tata McGraw Hill.
[6] Perry R. H. and Chilton, C. H., eds., Chemical Engineering handbook,5th Edition, Tata
McGraw Hill,1973.
[7] London. A. L., W.E. Mason and L.M. K. Bolter, Trans. ASME, 62, Page no. 41-50
(1940)
[8] Robert E. Treybal, Mass transfer Operations, Third Edition, Tata McGraw Hill, 1981.
[9] R. Burger, Wiley, Maintenance, Upgrading and Rebuilding Cooling Tower Technology,
Wiley, 1995.
[10] S. Johnson, A. Barz, Comparative performance characteristic of cooling tower
packings, in: LAR 7th Cooling Tower and Spring Pond Composium, Leningrad, Russia,
1990.
[11] F. McQuiston, Heat, mass and momentum transfer data for ve plate n tube heat
transfer surfaces, ASHRAETrans. Part 1 84 (1978) 226308.
[12] Narendra Gosain, Ph.D., P.E. and Farouk Mahama, Ph.D., Walter P. Moore And
Associates, Inc., Complex Structural Analysis Simplifies Repair Phasing In Restoration Of
Hyperbolic Cooling Towers 2010.
52
Appendix
53
1. Steam Table
54
55
2. Psychometric Chart
56