Professional Documents
Culture Documents
JYOTI Chemistry IGCSE Revision Notes
JYOTI Chemistry IGCSE Revision Notes
JYOTI Chemistry IGCSE Revision Notes
Matter
o
Anything that has mass and occupies space (has volume)
o
Matter is composed of particles (molecules, ions, atoms)
o
Spaced apart and seen with scanning electron microscope
o
Are in constant motion attracting one another with inter-particle
forces (or cohesive)
o
Strength of inter particle force and space between particles
determines state
o
Scientists have developed a model called the kinetic theory, which explains
the behavior of matter and their physical properties.
Kinetic means movement, and so kinetic energy means movement
energy.
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Example: Ice
Example: Water
Very closely
packed and
regularly arranged
in lattice
Closely packed
and irregular
arrangement /
pattern
Intermolecular
Spaces
Almost none
Negligible
Minimal Tiny
spaces
Very large
Intermolecular
Forces
Strong forces of
attraction between
particles
Weaker or less
strong attractive
forces than solids
Almost no intermolecular
forces
(Non- existent)
Particles
Arrangement
Movement of
Particles
Particles move
around and slide
past each other;
that is why a liquid
can be poured.
Fixed Volume;
because the
particles cant
move closer, so
the volume does
not change.
No fixed shape
Depends on the
container
Fixed Volume;
because the
particles cant
move closer, so the
volume does not
change.
High
Moderate to high
Low
Compressibility
Cannot be
compressed
Can be hardly
compressed
Fluidity
Generally flows
easily
Very compressible;
because particles are far
apart and can be pushed
together
Flows easily
Diffusion
Cannot diffuse
Diffuses slowly
Shape
Volume
Increase in
volumeexpansion
Decrease in
volumecontraction
Density
Particles vibrate to
and fro, but not
move apart and
cant change
position therefore
have fixed volume
and shape.
[Vibrate around
a fixed point]
Fixed definite
shape
Diffuses quickly
As a result, a solid has a stable, definite shape, and a definite volume. Solids
can only change their shape by force, as when broken or cut.
Liquids:
A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid which is able to conform to the shape
of its container but retains a (nearly) constant volume independent of
pressure.
Gases:
A gas is a compressible fluid. Not only will a gas conform to the shape of its
container but it will also expand to fill the container.
In a gas, the molecules have enough kinetic energy so that the effect of forces
is small, and the typical distance between neighboring molecules is much
greater than the molecular size.
A gas has no definite shape or volume, but occupies the entire container in
which it is confined.
These also show differences in how they respond to a change of pressure or
temperature:
Generally, all show an increase in volume when the temperature is increase.
They decrease in volume when their temperatures are lowered.
But they have different magnitudes of expansion:
Gases
Amount of expansion
Liquids
Solids
INCREASES UPWARDS
Heating the liquid will cause particles to take in heat energy. So they move
around and as the particles will gain even more kinetic energy and start
moving even faster, pushing each other away. Some particles gain enough
energy to overcome the forces of attraction between them, and escape as a
gas. This is evaporation. Further, when at a certain point, all the remaining
particles gain enough energy to escape. The liquid boils to a gas.
OR
On heating, the particles move faster and the liquid expands. In the liquid,
some particles have enough energy to escape from the surface- evaporation
takes place. As the temperature rises, more particles have enough energy to
escape evaporation is faster at higher temperatures. At the boiling point,
the particles have enough energy to break the forces attracting them
together the particles move very fast and separate from each other the
liquid boils.
During the process of melting and boiling the temperature remain constant,
because the energy is used to break the bonds between the particles.
On the other hand, cooling a gas will make its particles lose their
kinetic energy and move closer and slower. Eventually the forces of
attraction will hold them together forming a liquid (condensation). And if a
liquid is cooled, its particles will move closer and slower until the forces of
mixture of liquid and gas. At point E the state is gas. Temperature X is the
melting point while temperature Y is the boiling point.
Heating curve
The following figure is a cooling curve of a gas. At point A the state is gas.
At point B the gas is condensing; the state is a mixture of gas and liquid. At
point C the state is liquid. At point D the liquid is freezing, the state is a
mixture of liquid and solid. At point E the state is solid. Temperature X is
the melting point and temperature Y is the boiling point.
Cooling Curve
Some liquids evaporate extremely quickly at room temperature, they are
said to be volatile liquids.
Physical
Melting
state at
point/ oC
room
temperatu
re
gas
-219
Boiling
Point/ oC
Comment: WHY
-183
Ethanol
(alcohol)
liquid
-117
78
Water
liquid
100
( 0>20oC
)
( 100>20oC
)
801
1465
oxygen
Sodium
chloride
(common
salt)
solid
An impure substance (that has impurities in it) like sea water has salts and
other impurities dissolved in it. This make the sea water have a lower
melting point and a higher boiling point.
In other words, the impurity can also reduce the sharpness of the melting
or boiling point. An impure substance sometimes melts or boils over a range
of temperatures, not at a particular point.
The presence of an impurity in a substance:
Lowers the melting point, and
Raises the boiling point of the substance
When a solid is melted, or a liquid is boiled, the temperature stays constant
until the process is complete. The same is true in reverse when a gas
condenses or a liquid freezes.
Describe evidence for the movement of particles in gases and liquids (a treatment of
Brownian motion is not required)
Some evidence for particles:
Demonstrating Diffusion in Liquids:
When a potassium permanganate crystal is suspended at the bottom
of a beaker, filled with water, the permanganate crystals will tend to
disperse themselves evenly throughout the beaker. After 2 hours, a
purple solution of the same shade was observed.
Explanation: When you drop a crystal of purple potassium manganate
(VII) into water, the purple colour spreads through the water. This is
because- the particles leave the crystal. They collide with moving
water particles and bounce away again. In this way, they mix and
spread all through the liquid.
Precautions:Do not stir or shake the mixture in anyway that may aid it to mix
Provide a short distance for diffusion, in other words do not over fill the
beaker, prolonging the time taken for distribution.
Experiment could also be done through Copper (II) Sulphate crystals in
water:
A copper 2 sulphate crystal is put in water beaker. It is then left to stand. At
first the water next to the crystal becomes blue as the solid dissolves.
Particles move off the surface of the crystal. Eventually the crystal dissolves
completely and the whole solution becomes blue. The particles of the
crystal have spread out evenly in the liquid.
Gases with larger molecules have higher densities than gases which
have small molecules. E.g. Chlorine molecules are 35.5 larger than
hydrogen molecules and chlorine is denser than hydrogen.
Heavier particles move more slowly than lighter particles at the same
temperature; larger molecules diffuse more slowly than smaller
(lighter) ones. And we can also say that, dense gases diffuse more
slowly than gases of low density.
Thus, the rate of diffusion depends on the molecular mass/density of
gas.
Rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to mass.
Particle mass decreases rate of diffusion increases and vice
versa (this is shown by the following experiment).
Temperature:
The higher the temperature, the faster a gas will diffuse.
Because particles gain energy as they are heated.
So, the more kinetic energy the particles have, the faster they move
and diffuse.
For example- When Potassium Permanganate (KMnO) crystals diffusing
in warm and cool water, respectively, are compared; it is shown that
the KMnO diffuses considerably faster in the warm water. This supports
kinetic theory in that the warmer particles have more energy, so they
can diffuse faster.
Temperature increases rate of diffusion increases
The average speed of the particles increases with an increase in
temperature.
Presence of other substance:
Diffusion is faster when it occurs in an area where there are fewer
particles of other substances present. This is why diffusion is extremely
fast in vacuums. This is because the diffusing particles have less other
particles to stand in their way.
Intermolecular spaces:
This is why gases diffuse faster than liquids and solids do not diffuse.
Note:
The pressure of gas is the result of collisions of the fast - moving
particles with the walls of the container.
Comparing the rates of diffusion for gases:
Even at the same temperature, gases do not diffuse at the same rate. Look
at this experiment.
White smoke of