Introduction

Earth Science is the study of the Earth and its neighbors in space. It is an exciting science with many interesting and
practical applications. Some Earth scientists use their knowledge of the Earth to locate and develop energy and
mineral resources. Others study the impact of human activity on Earth's environment and design methods to protect
the planet. Some use their knowledge about Earth processes such as volcanoes, earthquakes and hurricanes to plan
communities that will not expose people to these dangerous events.
The Four Earth Sciences
Many different sciences are used to learn about the earth, however, the four basic areas of
Earth science study are: geology, meteorology, oceanography and astronomy. A brief
explanation of these sciences is provided below.
Geology: Science of the Earth
Geology is the primary Earth science. The word means "study of the Earth". Geology deals
with the composition of Earth materials, Earth structures, and Earth processes. It is also
concerned with the organisms of the planet and how the planet has changed over time.
Geologists search for fuels and minerals, study natural hazards, and work to protect Earth's
environment.
Meteorology: Science of the Atmosphere
Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere and how processes in the atmosphere
determine Earth's weather and climate. Meteorology is a very practical science because
everyone is concerned about the weather. How climate changes over time in response to
the actions of people is a topic of urgent worldwide concern. The study of meteorology is of
critical concern for protecting Earth's environment.
Oceanography: Science of the Oceans
Oceanography is the study of Earth's oceans - their composition, movement, organisms and
processes. The oceans cover most of our planet and are important resources for food and
other commodities. They are increasingly being used as an energy source. The oceans also
have a major influence on the weather and changes in the oceans can drive or moderate
climate change. Oceanographers work to develop the ocean as a resource and protect it
from human impact. The goal is to utilize the oceans while minimizing the effects of our
actions.
Astronomy: Science of the Universe
Astronomy is the study of the universe. Here are some examples of why studying space
beyond Earth is important: the moon drives the ocean's tidal system, asteroid impacts have
repeatedly devastated Earth's inhabitants and energy from the sun drives our weather and
climates. A knowledge of astronomy is essential to understanding the Earth. Astronomers
can also use a knowledge of Earth materials, processes and history to understand other
planets - even those outside of our own solar system.
The Importance of Earth Science
Today we live in a time when the Earth and its inhabitants face many challenges. Our
climate is changing and that change is being caused by human activity. Earth scientists
recognized this problem and will play a key role in efforts to resolve it. We are also
challenged to: develop new sources of energy that will have minimal impact on climate;
locate new sources of metals and other mineral resources as known sources are depleted;
and, determine how Earth's increasing population can live and avoid serious threats such as
volcanic activity, earthquakes, landslides, floods and more. These are just a few of the
problems where solutions depend upon a deep understanding of Earth science.

NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
Most researchers conclude that Earth and the other planets formed The solar system
evolved from an enormous rotating cloud called the solar nebula. Earth and the other
planets formed at essentially the same time. The nebula was composed mostly of hydrogen
and helium. About 5 billion years ago, the nebula began to contract. It assumed a flat,
disk shape with the protosun (pre-Sun) at the center.Inner planets begin to form from
metallic and rocky clumps. Larger outer planets began forming from fragments with a
high percentage of ices.
Tagalog
Unang ipinanukala ng pilosopong Aleman na si Immanuel Kant ang Teoryang Nebular[1] noong 1755. Naniwala si
Kant na ang solar system ay nagmula sa isang malaki, mainit, at umiikot na nebula. Habang bumibilis ang pag-ikot
ng nebula, ang gitna nito ay namuo at naging araw. Ang maliliit na matter naman ang naging mga planeta.
Sinang-ayunan ni Pierre Simon de Laplace ang teorya ni Kant. Si Laplace ay isang mathematician, physicist, at
astronomong Pranses noong ika-18 siglo.
Ayon kay Laplace, nagmula sa nebula ang sistemang solar, kasama na ang daigdig. Mga namumuong gas at
alikabok ang nebula na nakikita sa kalangitan sa pamamagitan ng mga radyasyon na ultra violet na nagmula sa
isang mainit na bituin. Nagkaroon ng interaksiyon ang mga ion sa mga malayang electron sa ulap at naging dahilan
ng pagsabog nito ng liwanag sa lahat ng direksiyon. Mabilis na nagpaikut-ikot sa sansinukob ang nebula sa loob ng
ilang milyong taon. Pagdaan ng panahon, unti-unti itong bumagal sa pag-ikot. Naging dahilan ito ng paglamig at
pagtigas ng nasabing masa hanggang sa unti-unting natuklap ang mga ibabaw nito. Subalit nagpatuloy pa rin ito sa
pag ikot dahil sa lakas ng puwersang centrifugal.

TEORYANG PINAMULAN NG MUNDO Teoryang Nebular - Si Emmanuel Kant, isang

pilosoper na Aleman ang nagpanukala noong hinggil sa pinagmulan ng daigdig. Ayon
kay Kant, ang daigdig, pati na ang ibang nebula, ay nagtataglay ng gas. Sa simula, ito
ay malamig, ngunit sa katagalan, ang mga partikulo sa loob ng nebula ay naguumpugan dahil sa puwersa ng grabidad na siya naming nagtulak sa mga ito upang
umikot. Habang umiigting ang masa, itoy uminit ng uminit, hanggang sa itoy naging
bolang araw na naghahasik ng mga bolang gas na natanggal, dahil sa lakas ng
centrifugal hanggang ang mga ito ay lumamig at naging planeta. Ito ay tinawag na
Nebular Hypothesis. - Ang teorya ni Kant ay sinang-ayunan ni Pierre Simon Marquis de
Laplace, isang sayantist na Pranses noong 1796.
Teoryang Planetisimal - Isa pang paniniwala ang Teoryang Planetisimal nina Prop.
Thomas Chamberlain at Forest Moulton na binago ni Harold Jeffreys. Batay sa teorya,
ang sistemang solar ay mula sa isang malaking bituin na sumabog nang mapalapit ito sa
isa pang bituin. Ang isang kimpal na sumabog na bituin ay naging araw, samantalang
ang ibang kimpal ay naging pamilya ng planeta ang bawat isa. Teoryang Big Bang - Ang
pinaka popular na teorya ngayon ay ang Teoryang Big Bang. Ayon sa teoryang ito, ang
sandaigdigan ay nabuo matapos ang malakas na pagsabog (kaya ito ay tinawag na Big
Bang). Ang pagsabog na ito ay tinatayang naganap mga 20 bilyong taon na ang
nakalilipas at lumikha ng malaking bola ng apoy. Nang magtagal, ang higanteng bola ng
apoy na ito ay nagkadurug-durog, naging mga bituin, planeta, araw, buwan, at iba pa. May dalawang aspekto ang Teoryang Big Bang. Ayon sa isa, simula ng maganap ang
malaking pagsabog, patuloy na lumalayo ang mga piraso ng bolang apoy sa isat isa
kayat patuloy ring lumalawak ang nasasakupang espasyo ng sandaigdigan. Ayon naman
sa ikalawa, ang patuloy na paggalaw ng mga bituin, gas, at iba pang sangkap ng
sandaigdigan ay maaaring tumigil sa paglayo sa isat isa at sa halip ay puwedeng
bumalik, magsalubong, at magbanggaan. Kapag nangyari ito, anila, ang simula at wakas

ng sandaigdigan ay parehong magsisimula sa isang malakas na pagsabog. Teoryang

Kondensasyon - Ang Teoryang Kondensasyon ni Robert Jostrow, ang isang araw o bituin
ay nagsimula sa pamumuno ng mga masa ng hydrogen, gas, at ng atomic dust. Sa
kalawakan na tumatanda, sumasambulat at nagsasabog ng mga pira-pirasong masa at
sumasama sa mga bagong namumuong mga araw tulad ng mga planeta at bituin. Ang
pangyayari ay paulit- ulit at walang katapusan. Teoryang Dynamic Encounter - Si George
Buffon ay isang naturalista na nagsasabing ang daigdig ay nagsimula sa mga natunaw
na sangkap na lumayo sa araw, pagkatapos ng pakikipagsagupaan sa isang Kometa. At
itoy kanyang tinawag na Dynamic Encounter.
PLATE TECTONICS
Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth's outer shell is divided into several plates that glide
over the mantle, the rocky inner layer above the core. The plates act like a hard and rigid
shell compared to Earth's mantle. This strong outer layer is called the lithosphere.
Developed from the 1950s through the 1970s, plate tectonics is the modern version
of continental drift, a theory first proposed by scientist Alfred Wegener in 1912. Wegener didn't
have an explanation for how continents could move around the planet, but researchers do
now. Plate tectonics is the unifying theory of geology, said Nicholas van der Elst, a
seismologist at Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory in Palisades, New
York.

**The concept of plate tectonics was formulated in the 1960s. According to the
theory,Earth has a rigid outer layer, known as the lithosphere, which is typically about 100 km (60
miles) thick and overlies a plastic layer called the asthenosphere. The lithosphere is broken up
into about a dozen large plates and several small ones. These plates move relative to each
other, typically at rates of 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 inches) per year, and interact along their
boundaries, where they converge, diverge, or slip past one another. Such interactions are
thought to be responsible for most of Earths seismic and volcanic activity, although
earthquakes and volcanoes are not wholly absent in plate interiors. Plate motions cause
mountains to rise where plates push together, or converge, and continents to fracture and
oceans to form where plates pull apart, or diverge. The continents are embedded in the
plates and drift passively with them, which over millions of years results in significant
changes in Earths geography.
The theory of plate tectonics is based on a broad synthesis of geologic and geophysical
data. It is now almost universally accepted, and its adoption represents a true scientific
revolution, analogous in its consequences to the Rutherford and Bohratomic models in physics or
the discovery of the genetic code in biology. Incorporating the much older idea of continental drift, as
well as the concept ofseafloor spreading, the theory of plate tectonics has provided an overarching
framework in which to describe the past geography of continents and oceans, the processes
controlling creation and destruction of landforms, and the evolution of Earths
crust, atmosphere, biosphere, ancient oceans, and climates.
During the late 20th and early 21st centuries, it became apparent that plate-tectonic
processes profoundly influence the composition of Earths atmosphere and oceans, serve as a
prime cause of long-term climate change, and make significant contributions to the chemical and
physical environment that continues to facilitate the evolution of life
According to the theory of continental drift, the world was made up of a single continent through
most of geologic time. That continent eventually separated and drifted apart, forming into
the seven continents we have today. The first comprehensive theory of continental drift was
suggested by the German meteorologist Alfred Wegener in 1912. The hypothesis asserts that
the continents consist of lighter rocks that rest on heavier crustal materialsimilar to the

manner in which icebergs float on water. Wegener contended that the relative positions of
the continents are not rigidly fixed but are slowly movingat a rate of about one yard per
century.
According to the generally accepted plate-tectonics theory, scientists believe that Earth's surface
is broken into a number of shifting slabs or plates, which average about 50 miles in
thickness. These plates move relative to one another above a hotter, deeper, more mobile
zone at average rates as great as a few inches per year. Most of the world's active
volcanoes are located along or near the boundaries between shifting plates and are called
plate-boundary volcanoes.
The peripheral areas of the Pacific Ocean Basin, containing the boundaries of several plates,
are dotted with many active volcanoes that form the so-called Ring of Fire. The Ring
provides excellent examples of plate-boundary volcanoes, including Mount St. Helens.
However, some active volcanoes are not associated with plate boundaries, and many of
these so-called intra-plate volcanoes form roughly linear chains in the interior of some
oceanic plates. The Hawaiian Islands provide perhaps the best example of an intra-plate
volcanic chain, developed by the northwest-moving Pacific plate passing over an inferred
hot spot that initiates the magma-generation and volcano-formation process .

Layers of earth
CRUST --The thin, outermost layer of the earth is called the crust. It makes up only one
percent of the earth's mass. This consists of the continents and ocean basins. The crust has
varying thickness, ranging between 35-70 km thick in the continents and 5-10 km thick in
the ocean basins. Within the crust, intricate patterns are created when rocks are
redistributed and deposited in layers through the geologic processes. The crust is composed
mainly of alumino-silicates.
MANTLE -- The mantle is a dense, hot layer of semi-solid rock approximately 2,900 km thick
and is composed mainly of ferro-magnesium silicates. This is where most of the internal
heat of the Earth is located. Large convective cells in the mantle circulate heat and may
drive plate tectonic processes.
CORE - Below the mantle is the core. It makes up nearly one third the mass of the earth.
The Earth's core is actually made up of two distinct parts: a 2,200 km-thick liquid outer core
and a 1,250 km-thick solid inner core. The outer core is made of iron and is very dense. As
the Earth rotates, the liquid outer core spins, creating the Earth's magnetic field. The inner
core is made of solid iron and nickel. Many scientists believe it is kept in the solid state
because of the extreme pressure from the other layers.
Other ppt
1. Hydrosphere Ocean is the most prominent feature of the hydrosphere. - Is nearly 71%
of Earth's surface - Holds about 97% of Earth's water
Also includes fresh water found in streams, lakes, glaciers, and groundwater
2. Atmosphere Thin, tenuous blanket of air 90% lies within 16 km (abt 10 miles) of the
earths surface
3. Biosphere Includes all life Concentrated in a zone that extends from the ocean floor
upward for several kilometers into the atmosphere
4. Geosphere Based on compositional differences, it consists of the crust, mantle, and
core. - Crustthe thin, rocky outer layer of Earth. - Mantlethe 2890-kilometer-thick layer

of Earth located below the crust. - Corethe innermost layer of Earth, located beneath the
mantle.