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Colloidal Stability
Colloidal Stability
TECHNICAL
SUBMISSIONS
REPORTS
1909
chemical and physical transformations and encounter a multitude of solution conditions important for aggregation, including solution pH, dissolved ions, naturally occurring organic
matter, clays, and biocolloids.
This review focuses on three questions: (i) Can basic colloid
science predict the behavior of nanomaterials in the environment? We provide a brief overview of colloid science. Several
excellent resources are available for additional information
on colloid science (Evans and Wennerstrom, 1999; Hiemenz
and Rajagopalan, 1997; Bue et al., 1998; Elimelech and
OMelia, 1990; OMelia, 1980). (ii) Where are challenges to
existing theory posed by manufactured nanomaterials? We
discuss the intrinsic NP properties that raise these challenges.
(iii) How will these challenges aect studies of fate and transport, reactivity, and risk to the environment? We describe
several case studies examining environmental implications of
nanomaterial aggregation.
(e.g., NPclay particle attachment). Real environmental systems contain natural particles (e.g., clay particles) in numbers
far greater than the number of manufactured NPs, so heteroaggregation is an important fate process for manufactured NPs.
The probability that two particles attach is given by a sticking coecient, also known as the attachment eciency ()
(i.e., when = 1, sticking occurs 100% of the time; when =
0.5, sticking occurs 50% of the time). Particles attaching at rst
contact ( = 1) form large dendritic aggregates, whereas particles sticking only after several collisions ( < 1) form denser
and less dendritic aggregates (Bue and Leppard, 1995). The
concept of fractal dimension is used to describe aggregate structure. Fractal dimension (Df ) can range from 1 (a line) to 3 (a
sphere). These are limits that come from Euclidean dimension,
where 1 is a straight line (e.g., x1), 2 is a at surface (e.g., x2),
and 3 is a volume (e.g., x3). Fractal dimensions are those that
lie between Euclidean dimensions. Ideal fractal structures are
self-similar throughout. Homoaggregation under controlled
laboratory conditions produces aggregates of reasonably predictable fractal dimension (Barbot et al., 2010; Chakraborti
et al., 2003; Hansen et al., 1999), whereas heteroaggregation
typically forms natural fractals (statistically self-similar over a
limited range of length scales), making aggregation state more
dicult to predict. The physical dimensions of the aggregates
formed can aect the reactive surface area, reactivity, bioavailability, and toxicity. Aggregate structure must therefore be
determined and considered when interpreting fate, transport,
and toxicity data.
X/DLVO
DLVO
Electrostatic
double layer
DLVO
Equations
Origin
s (4a + s )
V VDW
A 2a 2
2a 2
=
+
+ ln
2
kT
6kT s (4a + s ) (2a + s )
(2a + s )2
interactions of
electrons in particles
charged surfaces
Delgado et al.
(2007), Stumm and
Morgan (1996)
aligning electron
spins
entropic penalty of
separating hydrogen
bonds in water
concentration of
ions between two
particles (Fig. 4)
molecules on
particle surfaces
resist loss of entropy
due to compaction
surface molecules
bridge to other
particles
VEDL 64n kT ( a + )
ze d
tanh
=
kT
( s + 2a ) 4kT
2
( s 2 )
exp
References
N 2 2 2
e z i ni
= i
rs 0kT
Magnetic
attraction
XDLVO
VM =
8o M S2 a 3
s
9 + 2
a
Hydrophobic (Lewis
acid-base)
XDLVO
VAB
s s
= G sAB
exp 0
0
surface area
Osmotic
repulsion
XDLVO
2d s OSM = 0
kT
2
a 4 2 1
s
V
d s < 2d OSM =
p d
2
v1
2
kT
a 4 2 1
1
V
s
s
s < d OSM =
p d 2
ln
v1
2
2d 4
d
kT
Elastic-steric
repulsion
XDLVO
d s elas = 0
kT
2 a
s s 3 s d
V
d > s elas =
p d 2 p ln
d d 2
kT MW
3s d
s
6 ln
+ 3 1 +
2 d
Bridging
attraction
XDLVO
NA
Particle Size
The small size of most NPs conicts with a fundamental assumption of DLVO. Equations describing EDL are mathematically incorrect if this
assumption does not hold (Delgado et al., 2007).
This is because when a particle reaches a small
enough size, its surface curvature is too substantial
to assume it is at (i.e., when the assumption of
*a >>1 no longer applies). Therefore, this is one of the primary challenges when considering NP aggregation in a DLVO
framework. Aside from this, vdW and EDL forces (Table 1)
scale similarly with particle size (Evans and Wennerstrom,
1999; Hiemenz and Rajagopalan, 1997; Israelachvili, 1991),
so moving from microscale to nanoscale particles should theoretically aect a change on vdW and EDL forces to a similar
degree. However, as a particle decreases in size, a greater percentage of its atoms exist on the surface. Electronic structure,
surface charge behavior, and surface reactivity can be altered as
a result. Recent studies suggest that redistribution and changing coordination environment of charge and atoms at the surfaces of NPs strongly inuences their reactivity (Hochella et al.,
2008). He et al. (2008) reported that as the particle size became
smaller, the particles became more susceptible to surface charge
titration. They found an inverse correlation between particle
size and the measured point of zero charge (PZC); 12, 32, and
65 nm hematite particles had PZCs of 7.8, 8.2, and 8.8 pH
units, respectively (He et al., 2008). These hematite NPs were
synthesized using the same method so they would be identical in every aspect except for size. However, for these particles,
at pH 7 the smaller particles are less charged than larger particles, leading to lower EDL repulsion forces and subsequently
greater aggregation tendency. Indeedgiven the same ionic
strengthsmaller hematites have faster aggregation rates than
larger ones (He et al., 2008). This suggests that size polydispersity in manufactured NPs aects their aggregation behavior.
Polydispersion is the reality in large-scale applications. For
example, reactive nano-scale zerovalent iron (NZVI) particles
used for environmental remediation are highly polydisperse
(Liu et al., 2005; Phenrat et al., 2007; Phenrat et al., 2009a).
Unlike van der Waals attraction, long-range magnetic attraction between two NZVI particles increases with particle radius
to the sixth power (Table 1). Polydispersity and particle size
therefore greatly aected the aggregation of NZVI having particle sizes ranging from 15 to 260 nm, with aggregation being
proportional to the fraction of large particles in the dispersion
(Phenrat et al., 2009a).
Fig. 1. van der Waals force (dashed line), electrostatic double layer (EDL) force (gray
line), total Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeak (DLVO) forces, and elastic force plotted
together to find total potential as a function of separation distance. XDLVO, extended
Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeak. V/KT, potential energy divided by Boltzmanns
constant and absolute temperature.
Fig. 2. Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeak (DLVO) frames particle aggregation by modeling two solid spheres approaching in suspension. The
sum of van der Waals (VDW) force and electrostatic double layer (EDL) force determines if the particles attach or repulse. Nanoparticles present
challenges to DLVO frameworks because of shape, structure, composition, size, and macromolecule considerations. Not drawn to scale.
Chemical Composition
Colloid science captures the eect of chemical composition on
aggregation through the Hamaker constant, which governs van
der Waals attraction; saturation magnetization, which control
magnetic attraction; hydrophobicity, which controls hydrophobic interaction (Wu et al., 1999); and surface charge, which
governs electrostatic double layer (EDL) interaction (Table 1)
(Evans and Wennerstrom, 1999).
Hotze et al.: Nanoparticle Aggregation: Environmental Transport and Reactivity
Particles with a high Hamaker constant have greater aggregation tendency compared with particles with a low Hamaker
constant at the same solution and surface chemistry. Because
the origin of van der Waals attraction is permanent or induced
dipoles, a bulk material with electronic or molecular structure
that favors generation of permanent or induced dipoles normally has a large Hamaker constant value. For example, the
Hamaker constants of gold, silver, and polystyrene are 45.3,
39.8, and approximately 9.8 1020 J, respectively (Hiemenz
and Rajagopalan, 1997). van der Waals attraction forces are
approximately ve times stronger for gold particles in comparison with polystyrene (see equation in Table 1). In addition to
controlling van der Waals attraction, some materials can originate forces that challenge the DLVO framework, including
magnetic and hydrophobic interactions that promote aggregation. For example, ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials,
such as zerovalent iron and magnetite, can cause long-range
magnetic attraction without an applied magnetic eld (Table
1) (Elena et al., 2009; Phenrat et al., 2007). This magnetic
force contributes to abnormally rapid aggregation. Moreover,
carbon-based nanomaterials, such as C60 or CNTs, have hydrophobic surfaces in aqueous environments. Interaction of allcarbon surfaces with water molecules involves a signicant
entropic penalty driving an aggregation process that might
1913
diameter) and dimensions (diameter of 40200 nm and nominal lengths of 2, 4, 6, and 10 m) in various polar solvents
and compared the aggregate morphology of the nanowires with
that of spherical WO3 NPs (40 nm in diameter) (Kozan et al.,
2008). The aggregates of spherical WO3 NPs were more compact and more spherical in shape (Df ~ 2.6 and Rg ~3.8 m)
than aggregates of nanowires with diameter of 200 nm (Df ~
2.3 and Rg ~2.2 m). Moreover, aggregation of the nanowires for 7 d in a quiescent environment resulted in no signicant Rg increase but an increase in Df (Kozan et al., 2008).
This reorganization is related to the theoretical prediction that
anisometric particles are likely to aggregate under a secondary
minimum (Vold, 1954). The degree of secondary minimum
aggregation is dependent on shape and is most favorable for
platelets, less favorable for rods and cylinders, and least favorable for spherical NPs (Vold, 1954). Loose aggregates formed
in the secondary minimum might gradually restructure into
denser aggregates in the primary minimum. Nanoparticless
designed with a myriad of unique shapes (Cai and Sandhage,
2005; Kawano and Imai, 2008; Sanchez-Iglesias et al., 2009)
therefore challenge colloid science to understand their aggregation behavior in the environment because of the model complexity of understanding these shapes in a DLVO framework.
Although nonconventional theories, such as surface element
integration (Bhattacharjee and Elimelech, 1997), may account
for interfacial forces in irregular shapes (e.g., ellipsoids), these
theories are dicult to apply to the unique (e.g., helical) and
diverse types of nanomaterial shapes.
Surface modifier
amphiphilic alkyl-modified
polyacrylic acid
Purpose
alter particle hydrophilicity and modify quantum
dot interactions with other biological compounds
References
Luccardini et al. (2006)
Titanium dioxide
polyacrylic acid
Fe0/Fe-oxide
Carbon nanotubes
Silver
Findings
A linear relationship exists between the surfactant chain length and the logarithm of
the dispersion concentration (cdc), where cdc is defined as the lowest concentration of a
surfactant necessary to disperse hydrophobic particles.
Stabilization of CNT with nonionic surfactants increased with molecular weight (e.g., Brij
78 [MW = 1198 g mole1] stabilized 4.3% of CNT, while Brij 700 [MW = 4670 g mole1] could
stabilize 6.4% of CNT)
Type of ionic
head groups
Self-assembly
structure
Sodium dodecyl sulfate, anionic surfactant, forms cylindrical micelles as helices or double
helices and hemicellar structures on CNT. Random adsorption of surfactants on CNT
hypothesized to enhance stabilization of the CNT dispersions.
References
Dederichs et al. (2009)
1915
Fig. 4. Osmotic plus elastic repulsive forces (VOSM + Velas) of polyelectrolytes are dependent on surface layer thickness.
1916
Findings
Correlate to dispersion stability of polymer modified Fe0Fe
oxide nanoparticles.
Dispersion stability of carbon nanotubes increased as the
molecular weight of Pluronic increased.
Adsorption of polyacrylic acid on TiO2 enhanced at 150C
versus 20C. This resulted in the enhanced dispersion stability.
More polyacrylic acid adsorbed on TiO2 in dimethylformamide
than in water.
References
Phenrat et al. (2008)
Moore et al. (2003)
Kanehira et al. (2008)
Kanehira et al. (2008)
Table 5. Examples of particle stabilization and destabilization by natural organic matter and biomolecules.
System
TiO2 (positively charged)
at pH 2 to 6 with 1 mg L1 FA
TiO2 (negatively charged)
pH > PZC with 1 mg L1 FA
Findings
Disaggregation of TiO2, resulting in a smaller particle size (3 nm) than the
original bare TiO2 obtained from the manufacturer (10 nm).
Flocculation of TiO2 due to bridging FA was observed. Aggregation decreased
with increasing ionic concentration. High ionic concentration screened the
negative charges of FA and TiO2, resulting in greater FA adsorption onto TiO2
promoting stabilization, not bridging.
References
Domingos et al. (2009)
Domingos et al. (2009)
AuNP, gold nanoparticle; BSA, bovine serum albumin; CNT, carbon nanotubes; FA, fulvic acid; HA, humic acid; PZC, point of zero charge.
Fig. 5. Hypothesized effects of the environment on nanoparticle aggregation and how aggregation state could alter nanoparticle (NP) environmental interactions. (A) pH and ions. Increasing acidity can lead to charge neutralization at the point of zero charge. Increasing ionic strength
reduces the size of the electrostatic double layer and repulsive forces. Certain ions (e.g., Ca2+) can bridge functional groups on the surface of
nanoparticles. (B) Heteroaggregation. Macromolecules present in the environment coat nanomaterials leading to a steric effect. Larger macromolecules trap NPs in a mesh or gel causing stabilization or destabilization. Nanoparticles also associate with other particles such as clays or
biocolloids. Nanoparticles flow through porous media depending on their aggregation state. (C) Biological interactions. Cells activate phagocytosis mechanisms depending on if a particle is aggregated or not. Nanoparticles containing metals aggregate at the surface of organisms and
release metal ions at varying rates. (D) Transformations. Oxidants or sunlight degrade particle coatings or the particles themselves. Aggregated
photoactive NPs only have the outside particles active.
Hotze et al.: Nanoparticle Aggregation: Environmental Transport and Reactivity
1917
tion, but this information is useful for understanding the inuence of various parameters on aggregation and deposition.
Table 6. Factors governing nanomaterial critical coagulation concentration and dispersion sensitivity toward electrolyte concentration (ionic
strength).
Parameter
Type of ionic
species
Particle size
Type of particles
Particle shape
Surface modifier
Findings
References
Regardless of particle type, CCC for divalent ions (e.g., CaCl2 or MgCl2)
Chen and Elimelech (2007), Evans and
is lower than for monovalent ions (e.g., NaCl).
Wennerstrom (1999), Saleh et al. (2008)
Values of CCC increase with increasing particle size (e.g., CCC values of Fe2O3 with
He et al. (2008)
diameter of 12, 32, and 65 nm have CCCs of 45, 54, and 70 mmol L1 NaCl, respectively).
The CCC of carbon nanomaterials such as fullerene appears to be higher than that of
Chen and Elimelech (2007),
metal oxide such as Fe2O3 [e.g., CCC of C60 [dp = 60 nm] is around 120 mmol L1 NaCl,
He et al. (2008)
whereas that of Fe2O3 [dp = 65 nm] is 70 mmol L1 NaCl). This is presumably due to
stronger van der Waals attractions of Fe2O3 in comparison to C60, making the stability
of metal oxide nanoparticles more sensitive to screening effects.
The CCC of carbon nanotubes is lower than C60 particles. Van der Waals attraction is
greater and EDL repulsion is lower for rod-like shapes than for spherical shapes.
Due to steric repulsions polymeric surface modification decreases the sensitivity
of aggregation induced by ionic species. NZVI (dp = 162 nm) modified by guar-gum
prevented aggregation at ionic concentrations up to 0.5 mmol L1. TiO2 modified
by PAA prevented aggregation in ionic concentrations up to 0.5 mol L1 NaCl.
CCC, critical coagulation concentration; EDL, electrostatic double layer; NZVI, nano zero valent iron; PAA, polyacrylic acid.
Table 7. Parameters altering nanoparticle point of zero charge.
Parameter
Chemical composition
Surface modification
Particle size
Particle transformation
Findings
PZCs of metal NPs, metal oxides, and carbon nanomaterials have a wide range
and need to be measured for each material and preparation method.
Surface modification using anionic polyelectrolytes shifts PZC toward lower
values (e.g., ~3 pH units for Fe0/Fe-oxide nanoparticles).
PZCs for hematite nanoparticles of diameter 12, 32, and 65 nm are ~7.5, 7.8,
and 8.5, respectively.
Aged Fe0/Fe oxide nanoparticles have lower PZC than fresh NPs by ~3 pH
units, presumably due to surface oxidation and hydrolysis.
References
Brant et al. (2005), Kim et al. (2009),
Kosmulski (2009), Sirk et al. 2009
Kim et al. (2009), Sirk et al. (2009)
He et al. (2009)
Kim et al. (2009)
Fig. 6. Nanoparticles are hypothesized to transport differently in the environment depending on their homo- or heteroaggregation state.
Homoaggregated particles are more likely to attach to surfaces and be removed in porous media. Homoaggregation can also lead to the formation of aggregates that are large enough to be settled out of surface waters by gravitational forces. Heteroaggregation may lead to surface particle
coatings that enhance transport in porous media. Heteroaggregation can also lead to stabilization or destabilization effects in surface waters (e.g.,
with bacteria or natural organic matter).
Hotze et al.: Nanoparticle Aggregation: Environmental Transport and Reactivity
1919
high deposition rates in porous media because of increased collisions between NP clusters and aquifer materials via sedimentation and interception as opposed to relying only on Brownian
motion. For example, NZVI injected into the subsurface at high
particle concentrations (110 g L1) aggregate rapidly, and their
mobility in the subsurface suers as a result (Kanel et al., 2008;
Phenrat et al., 2007; Saleh et al., 2007) (i.e., they do not transport far from their injection point).
There are numerous studies that suggest prevention of
aggregation improves transport in porous media. Polymeric
surface modication has been used to decrease NZVI aggregation and therefore deposition (Kanel et al., 2008; Kim et al.,
2009; Phenrat et al., 2009c; Phenrat et al., 2008; Saleh et al.,
2008). He et al. (2009) and Tiraferri and Sethi (2009) observed
enhanced mobility of NZVI modied with adsorbed carboxymethyl cellulose and guar gum (He et al., 2009; Tiraferri and
Sethi, 2009). Phenrat et al. (2009a) demonstrated that NZVI
transport was limited specically by NP aggregation during
transport in porous media by comparing the transport of nonaggregating hematite NPs and aggregating NZVI of the same
size and surface chemistry. When NP deposition is interpreted
by classical ltration theory (i.e., assuming no aggregation
during particle transport in porous media), the eect of aggregation is neglected and can lead to error in the reported attachment coecient. This makes comparisons between dierent
experiments and systems dicult.
In contrast to homoaggregation, heteroaggregation with
mobile, natural colloidal particles (e.g., clay) and with natural particles that have low density (e.g., microorganisms) can
enhance transport of NPs in porous media by decreasing the
particle collision rate. For example, the presence of 20 mg
L1 NOM enhanced NZVI transportability in porous media
(Johnson et al., 2009). Clay particles were also used as NZVI
supports to enhance NZVI mobility (Hydutsky et al., 2007),
which indicates that heteroaggregation between clay and NZVI
enhances NZVI mobility.
In surface waters, homoaggregation can enhance sedimentation if aggregates or agglomerates reach a size where gravity
forces acting on the particles becomes signicant compared
with Brownian diusion (OMelia, 1980). Nanoparticles with
low dispersion stability therefore tend to accumulate in the
sediment near their source (Fig. 6). Heteroaggregation, with
low-density natural colloids, may facilitate stabilization or disaggregation of NPs, which would increase their residence times
in water bodies (Fig. 6). Stabilizing or destabilizing NPs against
aggregation can have far-reaching eects. For example, cerium
oxide NPs stabilized with surfactant remained dispersed as colloids and were not eectively removed by an activated sludge
system (Limbach et al., 2008). Additionally, the removal eciency of functionalized versus nonfunctionalized fullerene
NPs by alum coagulation was compared. Increased steric stabilization by surface functionalization prevented aggregation
and attraction with alum ocs (Hyung and Kim, 2009). In
contrast, surface coatings, such as Tween 20 on SiO2 NPs,
have been shown to enhance their occulation and removal
during water treatment, whereas uncoated SiO2 NPs were not
removed (Jarvie et al., 2009). The ability to predict the aggregation eects of adsorbed or grafted organic macromolecular
coatings on NP surfaces is not possible with current DLVO
1920
Conclusions
The ability to manipulate atoms allows scientists to create
NPs with signicantly dierent reactivity than their microsized analogs (He et al., 2008; Kanehira et al., 2008).
Reports on NP behavior and eects to date indicate that
the aggregation behavior of the NPs will signicantly aect
their fate, transport, reactivity, bioavailability, and eects in
environmental systems. Fortunately, the science of aggregation is well developed. Unfortunately, the translation of that
science into the regime of nanomaterials remains a challenge
due their unique physical and chemical properties (e.g., size,
shape, composition, and reactivity). The presence of organic
macromolecular coatings on NPs including those engineered
as part of the NP, or those that are acquired in the environment (e.g., adsorption of NOM), further complicate analysis
of NP behavior by traditional colloid science. Nanomaterial
aggregation studies, therefore, aim to take into account
how these types of novel surface properties will alter what
is already understood about aggregation science. Ultimately,
this will guide scientists grasp of how nanomaterials and
NPs will occur in and aect environmental systems. Much
work remains to gain a full understanding of NP aggregation
and how to apply these principles to create better applications and lower impacts of nanomaterials.
Acknowledgments
This material is based on work supported by the National Science
Foundation (NSF) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
under NSF Cooperative Agreement EF-0830093, Center for the
Environmental Implications of NanoTechnology (CEINT). Any
opinions, ndings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this
material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reect the
views of the NSF or the EPA. This work has not been subjected to
EPA review, and no ocial endorsement should be inferred.
1921
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