Lipar 59

XVII/ 59 / 2016.
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Editorial Board
aslav Nikoli, Assistant Professor, PhD
Faculty of Philology and Arts, Kragujevac
Editor in Chief
Jelena Arsenijevi Mitri, Assistant Professor, PhD
Managing editor
Vladimir Polomac, Assistant Professor, PhD
Biljana Vlakovi Ili, Assistant Professor, PhD
Ana Jovanovi, Assistant Professor, PhD
Mirjana Sekuli, Assistant Professor, PhD
Nevena Vujoevi, Assistant Professor, PhD
Radomir Mitri,
Associate for digitization and web presentation
University Library of Kragujevac
prof. Persida Lazarevi di Giakomo, Full
Professor, PhD
he G. dAnnunzio University, Pescara, Italia
Marianna Pozza, Assistant Professor, PhD
University of Rome La Sapienza, Italy
Tatjana Aleksi,Associate Professor, PhD
University of Michigan, USA
Jelenka Pandurevi, Associate Professor, PhD
Faculty of Philology in Banja Luka, Bosnia and
Hercegovina
Svetlana Kalezi, Assistant Professor, PhD
Faculty of Philosophy in Niki, Montenegro
Ostap Slavinski, Assistant Professor, PhD
Faculty of Philology, Ivan Franko National
University of Lviv, Ukraine
Borjan Janev, Assistant Professor, PhD
University of Plovdiv, Plovdiv, Bulgaria
Martin Stefanov, Assistant Professor, PhD
Faculty of Slavic Studies,
University St. Kliment Ohridski, Sofia,
Bulgaria
Editorial assistant
Bojana Veljovi
, ,
Journal for Literature, Language, Art and Culture
XVII / 59 / 2016
Year XVII / Volume 59 / 2016
/ THEMATIC ISSUE
: , , /
LATIN AMERICA: LITERATURE, CULTURE, POLITICS
e / Editors
. , .
Ljiljana Bogoeva Sedlar, Full Professor, PhD, Jelena Arsenijevi Mitri, Assistant Professor, PhD

University of Kragujevac
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KAO ........................... 57
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.................................... 75
Marija I. Stojii
CHRISTOPHER HAPTON AND EDUARDO GALEANO:

EUROPEAN (NEO)COLONIALISM IN LATIN AMERICA
AND ITS CONSEQUENCES............................................................ 99
.
INTO THE WATER: ,

, .................. 127
Ivana S. Tai
ART AND ACTIVISM IN THE WORKS

OF HAROLD PINTER AND ARIEL DORFMAN.......................... 159

.................................. 187

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AIM CSAIRE: OD MARTINIKA DO MARTINSKE (Razgovor

sa kazalinim, filmskim i TV redateljem Lawrence Kiiruom) ....... 397
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1 Paul Johnson, A History of Christianity, 1976. Part Five: The Third Force (1500-1648).
2012. o Kindle.
2 Arthur Tilley, Rabelais
and the French Universities, The Modern Quarterly of Language and Literature Vol. 1, No. 3 (November
1898), pp. 207-210. (1483? 1484? 1494?),
1984. (14781535),
, . (Labbaye de Thlme), (1534),
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3 Eduardo Galeano, Open Veins of Latin America: Five Centuries of the Pillage of a Continent (Las
Venas Abiertas de Amrica Latina), 1971.
Lipar / Journal for Literature, Language, Art and Culture / Year XVII / Volume 59
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10
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130 95% .
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. (The arrival of the Europeans meant the interruption and destruction of
various original civilizations, which had their unique ideas and concepts of the world, our own government, writings, languages, education, religion and philosophy.) http://www.telesurtv.net/
english/news/Mexican-Indigenous-Ask-Pope-to-Apologize-for-Massive-Genocide-20160207-0033.
html. , 2010.
The Holocaust We Will Not See http://www.monbiot.com/2010/01/11/the-holocaust-we-will-notsee/, 2012. , :
Deny the British empires crimes? No, we ignore them.
http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/apr/23/british-empire-crimes-ignore-atrocities.
, ,
, 2013. : My coach rolled into Union Station at 3AM, and right
outside, I encountered the homeless, with their belonging stored in trash bags or beat up suitcases.
I then crossed LA Plaza, where many more homeless slept around a statue of a priest brandishing
a crucifix. From afar I assumed it was Saint Francis Xavier, the dude who brought the Inquisition
to India, complete with slow and methodical mutilation of children, with their parents eyelids
removed so they could not shut out the blessed spectacle, and women raped by rapiers, and mens
penises hacked off, you know, the entire package, but thank God, up-close I discovered it was only
Father Jupinero Serra, who merely beat his Indians, as far as we know. American Indians, East
Indians, whatever, all you can do is convert them to Catholicism, blue jeans, knife and fork, happy
hours, Monsanto, a lousy cheeseburger or Neoliberalism. Its all good. http://www.countercurrents.
org/dinh250413.htm
8 Howard Zinn, A Peoples Histry of the United States, 1492-present (updated 2001).
2007. The New York Review of Books,
: My history describes the inspiring struggle of those who have fought slavery and racism
(Frederick Douglass, William Lloyd Garrison, Fannie Lou Hamer, Bob Moses), of the labor organizers who have led strikes for the rights of working people (Big Bill Haywood, Mother Jones, Csar
Chvez), of the socialists and others who have protested war and militarism (Eugene V. Debs, Helen
Keller, the Rev. Daniel Berrigan, Cindy Sheehan). My hero is not Theodore Roosevelt, who loved
war and congratulated a general after a massacre of Filipino villagers at the turn of the century,
but Mark Twain, who denounced the massacre and satirized imperialism. I want young people to
understand that ours is a beautiful country, but it has been taken over by men who have no respect
for human rights or constitutional liberties. Our people are basically decent and caring, and our
highest ideals are expressed in the Declaration of Independence, which says that all of us have an
equal right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. The history of our country, I point out
in my book, is a striving, against corporate robber barons and war makers, to make those ideals a
reality and all of us, of whatever age, can find immense satisfaction in becoming part of that.
: David
Stannard, American Holocaust, Oxford University Press, 1992; Mike Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts:
El Nio Famines and the Making of the Third World (2001); Caroline Elkins, Imperial Reckoning: The
Untold Story of Britains Gulag in Kenya. New York,NY: Henry Holt. 2005; Craig Steven Wilder, Ebony & Ivy: Race, Slavery, and the Troubled History of Americas Universities, Bloomsbury Press, 2013.
11

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Gerald Horne, The Counter-Revolution of 1776: Slave Resistance and the Origins of the United States of
America, New York University Press, 2014.
9 49 2015. :
http://resumen-english.org/2015/10/tricontinental-launches-digital-edition-of-its-magazine/
10 .
, 1966-1972.
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http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/tam_098/bioghist.html
, , : In 1967 Bertrand Russell, along with Jean Paul Sartre and
Vladimir Dedijer, convened the First International War Crimes Tribunal, held in two public sessions, in Sweden and Denmark. The purpose of the Tribunal, which had no legal standing but which
involved the participation of many noted cultural figures and human rights activists, was to expose and publicize war crimes committed during the Vietnam War. After Russells death in 1970
a second Tribunal, concerned with repression in Latin America, was held in Rome and Brussels
in 1974-75. The collection includes records of both tribunals: handouts and reports from various
breakout sessions, materials relating to the organization of the tribunals, press releases and clippings. Bertrand Russell died in 1970, but Lelio Basso was approached, in October 1971, by Brazilian
exiles who were anxious for a new Tribunal to be held on the repression in their country. Basso
agreed and some of the members of the first Tribunal enrolled to be part of the second. This time,
Lelio Basso served as president, and Vladimir Dedijer, Colombian novelist Gabriel Garcia Marque,
Belgian professor of International Law Franois Rigaux, and French historian Albert Soboul served
as vice-presidents. Sartre was made an honorary member. Preparations for the Tribunal lasted two
years, 1972-1973. Originally planned to deal only with the repression in Brazil, after the coup detat
in Chile it was expanded to analyze the situation in all of Latin America. A constituent meeting took
place in Brussels on November 6, 1973. Preliminary reports were given on Brazil and Chile, but also
on Uruguay, Bolivia, Panama, Paraguay and Haiti. Two public sessions were held by the second Tribunal. The first took place in Rome, from March 30th to April 6th 1974, and the second in Brussels,
from January 11th to January 18th 1975. The official name chosen by the constituents was Russell
Tribunal II on Repression in Brazil, in Chile and in Latin America.
11 28. 1986. .
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11. 1973. .
, 1975. . Palme, 2012. , Maud Nycander
Kristin Lindstrm. .
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1990. 1991.

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2010.
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(Its Film in Latin America),
14.
The Black Pimpernel (2007, Juan Carlos Valdivia). IMDb
a rare (and true) story of political courage. An unconventional... Swedish ambassador, Harald
Edelstam, driven by a sense of justice, seeks to save lives during the fascist coup in Chile that
replaces Salvador Allende with Augusto Pinochet. The ambassador places the Cuban embassy under
the protection of the Swedish embassy, gives refuge to hundreds of people, helps some get out of
the country, and falls in love with a female revolutionary. He takes risks no ordinary diplomatic
functionary would take, uses his diplomatic immunity to smuggle people to safety, enters dangerous
zones controlled by soldiers and challenges them, risking his own life.
12 Christina S. McMahon, Globalizing Allegory: Augusto Boals A Lua Pequena e a Caminhada
Perigosa in Brazil and Cape Verde, Latin American Theatre Review., Volume 39, No 1, Fall 2005.
13 2010. . ,
, 1945. , 1967.
, 1971. , 1982.
, 1990. , 1992. , 2001. . .
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, 1980. , 1992.
14 http://revista.drclas.harvard.edu/book/editors-letter-film-latin-america
June Carolyn Erlick: The... film has everything and nothing to do with Latin America. The 1966
movie Battle of Algiers, directed by Gillo Pontecorvo, takes place in North Africa and depicts the
Algerian War against French colonial rule. Ive seen the film at least a dozen times, and it helped me
14
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http://revista.drclas.harvard.edu/files/revista/files/revista_itsfilm.pdf?m=1410443509
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HATUEY EL PRIMERO,
16 , (1972): The inferno of the
living is not something that will be; if there is one, it is what is already here, the inferno where we
live every day, that we form by being together. There are two ways to escape suffering it. The first
is easy for many: accept the inferno and become such a part of it that you can no longer see it. The
second is risky and demands constant vigilance and apprehension: seek and learn to recognize who
and what, in the midst of inferno, are not inferno, then make them endure, give them space. Italo
Calvino, Invisible Cities
17
(TINA There Is No Alternative). Zygmunt Bauman, TINA.
A world without alternatives,http://eutopiamagazine.eu/en/zygmunt-bauman/issue/tina-worldwithout-alternatives#sthash.5qtkuBCe.dpuf, 08.11.2014
16
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, 2014.
Taking It Big: C. Wright Mills and
the Making of Political Intellectuals (Columbia University Press, 2014),

( 2014: ix, x).
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The Sailor, Sex Market, and Mexican (1943).
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Puerto Rican Journey: New Yorks Newest Migrants (1950). 1961.

( , , ) On Latin America, the
Left, and the U.S. 1961. ,
1960.
. Listen, Yankee: The
Revolution in Cuba,
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The Sailor, Sex Market, and Mexican 1943.
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Character and Social Structure: the Psychology of Social Institutions,
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Character and Social Structure The Sociological Imagination,

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32
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2015.,
, Listen, Yankee: Why Cuba Matters,
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decline of utopia and hope is in fact one of the defining features of social life today. The reasons are
various: the dreams of the older left were perverted by Stalinism and never recreated...the horrors
of the twentieth century, symbolized in the gas-ovens and concentration camps and atom bombs,
have blasted hopefulness. To be idealistic is to be considered apocalyptic, deluded. ...The apathy
here is, first subjectivethe felt powerlessness of ordinary people, the resignation before the enormity of events. But subjective apathy is encouraged by the objective American situationthe actual
structural separation of people from power, from relevant knowledge, from pinnacles of decision
making...The American political system is not the democratic model of which its glorifiers speak. In
actuality it frustrates democracy by confusing the individual citizen, paralyzing policy discussion,
and consolidating the irresponsible power of military and business interests.
33
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, Economic
Organisation of a P.O.W. Camp 1945. Economica. , ,
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, Taking It Big: C. Wright Mills and the Making of Political Intellectuals
.
,
,
1996. , , :

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;

, ,
;

,
, .4
4 : http://www.redpepper.org.uk/Caribbean-Cold-War/
35
2014: S. Aronowitz, Taking It Big: C. Wright Mills and the Making of

Political Intellectuals, Columbia University Press.
2015: . , :
, : .
1953: H.Gerth and Ch. W. Mills, Character and social structure: the
psychology of social institutions,Harcourt, Brace & World.
, . . . 23. 2015.
http://www.politika.rs/scc/clanak/345916/Sta-sam-sve-naucio-od-Ce-Gevare
Enzensberger, H. M. On Leaving America. The New York Review of Books. February
29, 1968. http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1968/02/29/on-leaving-america/
1950: Ch. W. Mills The Puerto Rican Journey: New Yorks Newest Migrants.
Harper.
1956: Ch. W. Mills, The Power Elite. Oxford University Press, 1956.
1959: Ch. W. Mills, The Sociological Imagination. Oxford University Press, USA.
1960: Ch. W. Mills, Listen, Yankee: The Revolution in Cuba. McGraw-Hill.
Pilger, J. Man of Peace: Harold Pinter, Winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature. October
17, 2005. http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article10631.htm
2002: . , : , , 1948-1998,
, : .
2011: J. A. Trevino,The Social Thought of C. Wright Mills, Pine Forge Press.
1970: C. Fuentes, Casa Con Dos Puertas. Joaqun Mortiz.
2015: . Hayden, Listen, Yankee: Why Cuba Matters. Seven Stories Press.
1983: I. L. Horowitz, C Wright Mills: An American Utopian. Free Press.
Igor D. Petrovi / CHARLES WRIGHT MILLS: CUBA AS SANCTUARY AND INSPIRATION
Summary / American Sociologist Charles Wright Mills (1916-1962) dedicated an important part of his career to the study of Latin American cultures. His initial interest
in Mexico and Puerto Rico culminated in his visit to Cuba, in the summer of 1960,
several months after the success of the Cuban revolution. This journey had an immense impact on Mills, a professor at Columbia University, helping him to define and
articulate his vision of a new, more humane society. The stay in Cuba resulted in the
publication if his controversial book Listen, Yankee: The Revolution in Cuba. Mills case
was not isolated. The Cuban experience played a crucial role in the careers of several
other representatives of the 1968 generation, such as the German poet Hans Magnus
Enzensberger and the French author and philosopher Rgis Debray, both of whom,
in the late sixties, continued their academic careers at the University of Havana. It
should also be noted that Tom Haydens recent book Listen Yankee: Why Cuba Matters
(2015), published in support of the announced normalization of relations between
USA and Cuba, is a reminder of Mills immense contribution to the understanding of
the issues related to the conflicts between conservative and revolutionary ideologies
which still shape our world.
Keywords: Charles Wright Mills, Cuba, Latin America, Hans Magnus Enzensberger,
Rgis Debray, Tom Hyden
2016.
2016.
36
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2 We have not had a moments rest. Because they tried to change this state of things, nearly two
hundred thousand men and women have died throughout the continent, and over one hundred
thousand have lost their lives in three small and ill-fated countries of Central America: Nicaragua, El
Salvador and Guatemala (...) A reality not of paper, but one that lives within us and determines each
instant of our countless daily deaths, and that nourishes a source of insatiable creativity, full of sorrow and beauty, of which this roving and nostalgic Colombian is but one cipher more, singled out by
fortune. Poets and beggars, musicians and prophets, warriors and scoundrels, all creatures of that
unbridled reality, we have had to ask but little of imagination, for our crucial problem has been a lack
of conventional means to render our lives believable. This, my friends, is the crux of our solitude.
38
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( 1983: 46).

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(1947-1949), ,
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.
, ,
(Cardenal 1974:1).
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39
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:
PEPSIKOLA
PALMOLIVE CHRYSLER COLGATE
CHESTERFIELD
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3 The Bible is the model for and subject of more art and thought than those of us who live within its influence, consciously or unconsciously, will ever know. (
, ,
, Robinson 2011).
41
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( 1983: 28-29).
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4 The struggle against religion is therefore indirectly the struggle against that world whose spiritual
aroma is religion. Religious suffering is the expression of real suffering and at the same time the
protest against real suffering. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, as it is the spirit of spiritless conditions. It is the opium of the people (Marx, Toward a
Critique of Hegels Philosophy of Right, 28, Morgan 2013).
43
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: Theatrum Mundi,
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(Marx 1856).
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5 The social principles of Christianity preach the necessity of a ruling and oppressed class, and for the
latter all they have to offer is the pious wish that the former may be charitable... The social principles of Christianity are sneaking and hypocritical and the proletariat is revolutionary. So much for
the social principles of Christianity! (Marx 1847).
6 : ; (, .
1978: 104).
44
/ , , / XVII / 59
: , ,
( 12: 5, 7, 12, 13).

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47
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. 16
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48
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49
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1970. 1971. 8.
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(Cardenal, 1974: 324).9
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,
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8 (Cardenal 1974),
.
9 ...my trip had been too short: I knew this Revolution only superficially. Yet a great change had
taken in my life; it was the most important experience since my religious conversion. And it was
like another conversion. I had discovered that now, and in Latin America, to practice religion was to
make revolution. There can be no authentic Eucarist except in a classless society () Also in Cuba
I had seen that socialism made it possible to live the Gospels in society.
50
/ , , / XVII / 59
: , ,
, (Cardenal 1974: 321). , (,

, ,
), ( ,
, , , ).

, :
[], .
,
.10 ,
,
.
11.
, , 12.
, .
, .
:

.
, .
.
.
.
. ,
(Cardenal 1974: 272)13.
10 Cardenal 1974: 275. : In
Cuba, the Communist party did not lead the Revolution. It was incapable of recognizing modern
methods of fighting, and it was mistaken in its estimate of the opportunities for victory.
11 A tropical Marxism, Aim Cesaire called this. And he said that Cuba had invented a third way,
which could be that of the whole Third World (Cardenal 1974: 179). ( )
(
, ).
1970. ,
. 26. ,
.
12 The socialist realism of the Russians was so much shit. Cuba, they said, had found its true socialist
realism in pop art. The poets had found their realism in the externalism of Nicaraguan poetry
(Cardenal 1974: 212).
13 I told him that as a priest and as a revolutionary I wanted to see the conflict between the Revolution
and the Church in Cuba disappear, and that I wanted the Church to be revolutionary. This would
51
.
: , , , , 14.
, . , ,
,
.

.
. ,
,
15. ,
.
,
. 16.
,
, . :
,
,
,

.
, (Cardenal,
Castro 1974: )17.
be good for the Revolution and good for the Church. For the Church, because it was a return to the
Evangelical substance of primitive Christianity. For the Revolution, because it would greatly accelerate the revolutionary processes in Latin America. Revolution in Latin America will not occur without
the Church. And it will not be made without Cuba. Cuba is a model for Latin America, but revolution
in Latin America would be easier if there were also the model of a revolutionary Church in Cuba.
14 , . : It seems to me very
important for Catholic revolutionaries and Marxists in Latin America to come to an understanding.
But how can they understand one another if education is nationalized there as it is in Cuba, and
the Marxists make in an atheistic education because Marxism-Leninism is atheistic? I thought for
a while, and then said: To a question stated that way, I have no answer. I dont know. (Cardenal
1974: 118).
15 1983. o II je ( ) .
16 ,
: This priest is a communist. The church has gone to hell! (Cardenal1974: 256).
17 Los cristianos deben optar definitivamente por la revolucin y muy en especial en nuestro continente, donde es tan importante la f cristiana en la masa populardeben venir sin la pretensin
de evangelizar a los marxistas y sin la cobarda de ocultar su f para asimilarse a ellos. Cuando los
52
/ , , / XVII / 59
: , ,

40 , .
.
.
.
, ,
, ,
( , , ,
, ).
, , 1994.
, . 2004. ,
:
.
, ,

(Cardenal 1974: 152).
,
, , ,
18.
, ,
,
.
1986: . , , , , ,
. -, : .
- 1983: . -, . ,
, : , 81-87.
- 1991: . -, :
, . - (.),
cristianos se atrevan a dar un testimonio revolucionario integral, la revolucin latinoamericana ser
invencible
18 (2015), 90 ,
,
. , ,
.
53
, :
,
223-243.
Garca
Mrquez
1982,
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/
laureates/1982/marquez-lecture.html.
Eagleton 2011: T. Eagleton, Indomitable, London Review of Books, February
[ . . Peanik.net,
02.03.2011].
Cardenal 1974: . Cardenal, In Cuba, D. Walsh (tr.), New York: New Directions.
Cardenal, Castro 1974: . Cardenal y F. Castro, Cristianismo y revolucin, Buenos
Aires: Quetzal.
1983: . , , , .
-, : .
Marx 1847: K. Marx, The Social Principles of Christianity, in Marx on Religion, John
Raines (ed.) Philadelphia: Temple University Press, [1847] 2002, 18586.
Marx, . Fourth Anniversary Banquet of the Peoples Paper, Peoples Paper, 19. April,
1856. https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1856/04/14.htm
Morgan, S.What Marx Can Teach Christian Theologyand the Churchabout Being
Christian, June 17, 2013 http://theotherjournal.com/2013/06/17/what-marx-canteach-christian-theology-and-the-church-about-being-christian/
Robinson, M. The Book of Books: What Literature Owes the Bible, The New York
Times, Dec. 22. 2011. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/25/books/review/thebook-of-books-what-literature-owes-the-bible.html.
1978: . , , . - (.),
: .
Krinka Vidakovi Petrov / ERNESTO CARDENAL: POETRY, CHRISTIANITY,
REVOLUTION
Summary / The poetry of Ernesto Cardenal hinges on two basic concepts: Christianity
(its theological, literary and culturological tradition) and revolution (social justice,
equality, change). Cardenals early collection of poems, Epigrams, is focused on the
reality of Somosas Nicaragua. It includes two types of poems: the first type can be
described as a lyrical eulogy to personal integrity, resistance and sacrifice, while the
second type uses irony as a vehicle of criticism and subversion. The poems of Gethsemany, KI are focused on a different reality, the overwhelming pressure of modern,
especially US, consumer society and alienation, contrasted with marginalized Christian
spirituality. Here Cardenal introduces intertextuality (in this case with Biblical texts),
a technique he will use in many of his poems written later. Cardenals interpretation
of concepts generated in the early (primitive) Christian tradition coupled with his
need to not only understand, but also change Latin American reality marks a shift
towards Marxist ideology and political activism. In this context it is interesting to note
that original Marxism had a very negative view of religion (including Christianity),
but that later interpretations of Marxism as a Messianic ideology had the effect of
reintroducing Christian imagery into the poetry of revolutionary writers, and that
Cardenals poetry not only connects with the latter tradition, but takes it several
steps further, placing modern Latin American letfist poetry in the context of Western
literature using Biblical themes, characters, motifs and imagery. The comparison of a
poem from Byrons Hebrew Melodies with a poem from Cardenals Psalms shows how
two poetic texts, both based on Psalm 137, use intertextuality in diverging ways,
highlighting the difference between romantic and modern poetry. It is also interesting
54
/ , , / XVII / 59
: , ,
to note that Cardenals poetic orientation centered on the concept of exteriorismo

was strongly influenced by Ezra Pounds poetics. However, Cardenal connects the
poetics of exteriorismo with the theology of liberation, a specific Latin American
view of the role of Christianity in the struggle for universal values such as human
integrity, freedom and social justice. The final section of the article considers the
theology of liberation in view of the divergence of utopia and reality. It also comments
on Cardenals views expressed in his book In Cuba, especially those dealing with the
problematic relationship between revolution and religion.
Keywords: Ernesto Cardenal, Latin American poetry, theology of liberation, poetry
and ideology, poetry and religion, externalism in modern poetry, Christianity and
revolution, Cuba
a 2016.
2016.
55

37.01:929 .
792.072.3:929 .
. 1

-
:
KAO
, (1921-1997), (19312009), , 1960.

,
(conscientizao) .
: (1968)
(1973). , conscienciser,
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57
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2 Maybe the theatre in itself is not revolutionary, but these theatrical forms are without a doubt a
rehearsal of revolution. The truth of the matter is that the spectator-actor practises a real act even
though he does it in a fictional manner. While he rehearses throwing a bomb on stage, he is concretely rehearsing the way a bomb is thrown; acting out his attempt to organise a strike, he is concretely organising a strike. Within its fictitious limits, the experience is a concrete one. Here the cathartical effect is entirely avoided. We are used to plays in which the characters make the revolution
on stage and the spectators in their seats feel themselves to be triumphant revolutionaries. Why
make a revolution in reality if we have already made it in the theatre? But that does not happen
here: the rehearsal stimulates the practice of the act in reality. Forum theatre, as well as these other
forms of a peoples theatre, instead of taking something away from the spectator, evoke in him a
desire to practise in reality the act he has rehearsed in the theatre. The practice of these theatrical
forms creates a sort of uneasy sense of incompleteness that seeks fulfilment through real action
( 2008:119-120).
. rehearsal
, , .
3 ,
, , ( 1981: 57). ,
,
(147-149).
58
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( 1981: 96)4.
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2002: 15), , ,
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4 I am unable to see how persuation to accept propaganda can be squared with education: for true
education incarnates the permanent search of people together with others for their becoming more
fully human in the world in which they exist.
5
, 2002. .
59
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( 2002: 26,
34).
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(34). , , ,
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60
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conscientizao: , , ,
( 1996: 112, 115).
, ( 1981: vii). ( )
.
( 2002: 39),
, , :
(1996) .
Educao e conscientizao ( ,
1968)
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: , , , , ,
, ( 1981:
18-20). ,
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6 (45).
,
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, The Pedagogy of Indignation ( )
(. 2004: 24-75). ,
7
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6 .
7 , 2010.
, , Indignez-vous!
( !)
61
(36). ,
, (3839). ,
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,
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8.
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, , (18).
,
, 2000. Chomsky
n MisEducation ( ),
, .
8 2013. ,
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: (
), 55, 2014. , . 159-173,
. ,
(1926-2002),
. , ,
, , .
,
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. 1962.
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1964.
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( 1980: 28). ,
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62
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: ao
, 9 ( 2004: 12-13).
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( 2004: 19)10.
( , ,
) 11.
, ,
( 2004: 59)12.

.
(60), ,
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(63-64)13.
, ,
, , (61)14.
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,
9 : New World of Indigenous Resistance Noam Chomsky and Voices from North, South, and Central America Radical Voices for Democratic Schooling Exposing Neoliberal Inequalities ( : Resisting Neoliberalism with
Hope: A Dialogue with Noam Chomsky).
10 One of the foremost tasks for a radical and liberating critical pedagogy is to clarify the legitimacy
of the ethical political dream of overcoming unjust reality.
11 , 2013. ,
.
12 Hence, this article argues that the promise of cultural studies, especially as a fundamental aspect
of higher education, resides in a larger transformative and democratic politics in which matters of
pedagogy and agency play a central role. : http://www.public.iastate.edu/~drrussel/
www548/giroux-respofintells.pdf, : 23.08.2015.
13 Pedagogy is a referent for understanding the conditions of critical learning and the often hidden
dynamics of social and cultural reproduction. As a critical practice, pedagogys role lies not only in
changing how people think about themselves and their relationship to others and the world, but
also in energizing students and others to engage in those struggles that further possibilities for
living in a more just society.
14 Pedagogy is not simply about the social construction of knowledge, values, and experiences; it is
also a performative practice embodied in the lived interactions among educators, audiences, texts,
and institutional formations. Pedagogy, at its best, implies that learning takes place across a spectrum of social practices and settings.
63

(
, , ).
, , , ,
,

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, ,
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, ,
, 15.
, ,
; , ,
, .

,
.16
. , , ,
. ,

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.
15

,
, . ( ,1991;
Ser como ellos, 1992).
, ,

. , , 1872.
, ,
.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svetozar_Markovi%C4%87, 13.07.2014.
16 : https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=pSyaZAWIr1I, : 30.12.2013.
64
/ , , / XVII / 59
: ao
. ,
, . : ,
,/ (Thy own Humanity
learn to adore ), ,
( 1980: 168).
/ . , ,
, .
( )

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,
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, ,
( 2007)18.
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: (
) ,
( 1994: 343).
:
17 , . . . . , , , .
18 : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pSyaZAWIr1I, : 30.12.2013.
: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pSyaZAWIr1I, : 30.12.2013.
65
, , , ,
.

, : , , !

.

, . (
) , .

, ,
.
,
, .
: ,
, .
.

;
( 1996: 14)19.
() , , ,
, ,
20.
***
, 1965. ,
( . spectators), ( . actors)
( 1981: 13).
, , 19 Freire incarnates a rediscovery of the humanizing intellectual, and demonstrates the power of
thought to negate accepted limits and open the way to a new future.
20 , , , , 1960.
.
66
/ , , / XVII / 59
: ao
(actors),
(spectators) . , ,
: , , ( 2004: 33).
.
21:
, ,
, , , ; , .
, .
, .
, ,

, 22.
; !
: ,
23 ( 2009).
,
, ,
.
, , ( )
, .
, , ,
, .
,
, . ,
21 What is familiar to us becomes unseen: doing theatre throws light on the stage of daily life. (...)
Theatre is the Hidden Truth.
22 theatron
( ), .
23 When we look beyond appearances, we see oppressors and oppressed people, in all societies,
ethnic groups, genders, social classes and casts; we see an unfair and cruel world. We have to create
another world because we know it is possible. But it is up to us to build this other world with our
hands and by acting on the stage and in our own life. Participate in the spectacle which is about
to begin and once you are back home, with your friends act your own plays and look at what you
were never able to see: that which is obvious. Theatre is not just an event; it is a way of life! We
are allactors: being acitizenis not living in society, it is changing it. : http://wtd09.
wordpress.com/2009/02/26/the-2009-world-theatre-day-inernational-message/, 13.07.2014.
67

( 2009).
,
(spectactor)
(spectator),

, . ,
,
, ,
( 1984: 1). Revelation, ,
revolution ().

, 1973. , 24
(Integral Literacy Operation Operacin Alfabetizacin Integral).
,
, ,
, : , , ...

, , .
,
,
, ,
. , ,
, . :
, ,
.
. , -
. , .
- . ,
. :
, . ,
. .

24 : ,
, , , .
Hamlet and the bakers son: my life in theatre and politics (
: ),
. , ,
, ,
.
( 2013: 310-311).
68
/ , , / XVII / 59
: ao
. ( ),
, ,
, ( )
, .
, .
( 2008: 97)25.
, ,
, , , ,
(2)26. , -
, (3).

(, , , ) (21).
,
(87).
, ,
25 I, Augusto Boal, want the Spectator to take on the role of Actor and invade the Character and the
stage. I want him to occupy his own Space and offer solutions. By taking possession of the stage, the
Spect-Actor is consciously performing a responsible act. The stage is a representation of the reality,
a fiction. But the Spect-Actor is not fictional. He exists in the scene and outside of it, in a dual reality. By taking possession of the stage in the fiction of the theatre he acts: not just in the fiction, but
also in his social reality. By transforming fiction, he is transformed into himself. This invasion is a
symbolic trespass. It symbolises all the acts of trespass we have to commit in order to free ourselves
from what oppresses us. If we do not trespass (not necessarily violently), if we do not go beyond
our cultural norms, our state of oppression, the limits imposed upon us, even the law itself (which
should be transformed) if we do not trespass in this we can never be free. To free ourselves is to
trespass, and to transform. It is through a creation of the new that that which has not yet existed
begins to exist. To free yourself is to trespass. To trespass is to exist. To free ourselves is to exist. To
free yourself is to exist.
26 Should art educate, inform, organise, influence, incite to action, or should it simply be an object of
pleasure? The comic poet Aristophanes thought that the dramatist should not only offer pleasure
but should, besides that, be a teacher of morality and a political adviser. Eratosthenes contradicted
him, asserting that the function of the poet is to charm the spirits of his listeners, never to instruct
them. Strabo argued: Poetry is the first lesson that the State must teach the child; poetry is superior to philosophy because the latter is addressed to a minority while the former is addressed to the
masses. Plato, on the contrary, thought that the poets should be expelled from a perfect republic
because poetry only makes sense when it exalts the figures and deeds that should serve as examples; theatre imitates the things of the world, but the world is no more than a mere imitation of
ideas thus theatrecomes to be an imitation of an imitation. As we see, each one has his opinion.
Is this possible? Is the relation of art to the spectator something that can be diversely interpreted,
or, on the contrary, does it rigorously obey certain laws that make art either a purely contemplative
phenomenon or a deeply political one? Is one justified in accepting the poets declared intentions
as an accurate description of the course followed in his works?
69
,
(40).
,

, A .
, ,
. .
,
. . ,
( )
,
, .
, .
, (, ),
,
( 2004: 52). ,
. ,
,

, . : , ,
, ( ) ,
.
,

,
, , .
,
. ,
:
, (87).

, ,
.
:
70
/ , , / XVII / 59
: ao
(El Teatro Campesino), , 2010. ,

.27
***
, ,
, . ,
, . . ,

.
, ,
, . ,
,
, ( 2004: 47)28. ,
,
, .
, , .
,
, .
1980: V. Blejk, Vjeno evanelje,(M. Gri, .), Zagreb: Grafiki zavod Hrvatske
1984: A. Boal, Pozorite potlaenog, Ni: Prosveta
2008: A. Boal, Theatre of the oppressed, London: Pluto Press
2009: A. Boal, The 2009 World Theatre Day International Message, <http://
wtd09.wordpress.com/2009/02/26/the-2009-world-theatre-day-inernationalmessage/>.13.07.2014.
27 , , 2004. , psrt
.
28 If education alone cannot transform society, without it society cannot change either.
71
2009: A. Boal, The interview with Amy Goodman, <https://www.youtube.

com/watch?v=3rkVD_Oln7g>.13.07.2014.
2013: A. Boal, Hamlet and the bakers son: my life in theatre and politics, New
York: Routledge
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:
1981: D. Goulet, Introduction, : P. Freire, Education for Critical Consciousness,
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1, Routledge, <http://www.public.iastate.edu/~drrussel/www548/girouxrespofintells.pdf>.23.08.2015.
1981: P. Freire, Education for Critical Consciousness, New York: The
continuum Publishing Corporation
1996: P. Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, London: Penguin books
2002: P. Freire, Pedagogija obespravljenih, Zagreb : Odraz
2004: P. Freire, Pedagogy of Indignation, London: Paradigm Publishers
2007: P. Freire, Interview with Paulo Freire: Paulo Freire - Karl Marx,
<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pSyaZAWIr1I>.30.12.2013.
1980: I. Ili, Dole kole, Beograd: BIGZ
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New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
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London: Routledge
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Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
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Gardner, and Bruno della Chiesa Askwith Forum, <http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=-SOw55BU7yg>.14.12.2013.
1996: R. Shaull, Foreword, : P. Freire, Pedagogy of the Opressed, London:
Penguin books
Ivana Banevi Pejovi / PAULO FREIRE AND AUGUSTO BOAL: PEDAGOGY AND
THEATRE AS CORNER STONES OF REVOLUTION
Summary / The Brazilian educator Paulo Freire (1921-1997), and the Brazilian
theatre director Augusto Boal (1931-2009), met in 1960 in the poorest part of Brazil
and immediately recognized each other as comrades engaged in the same task of
conscientization (conscientizao) of the oppressed. Hence, the titles of their famous
books are Freires The Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1968) and Boals The Theatre of the
Oppressed (1973). It should be noted that this term, or rather its French equivalent,
conscienciser, was first used by Frantz Fanon in his book Black Skin, White Masks (1952)
and that for these three authors conscientization represents the key method for both
the physical and the mental liberation of the oppressed. Another author, Ngg wa
Thiongo, calls it the key strategy for decolonizing the mind. This essay explores the
interaction between pedagogy and theatre in education, used for the conscientization
of the oppressed by enabling them to critically interpret reality. Freire and Boal share
the conviction that pedagogy and theatre can play the most important role in bringing
about a revolution that would, before all, establish social justice in the world. After
the military coup in 1964, when dictatorship was established in Brazil once again,
72
/ , , / XVII / 59
: ao
both Freire and Boal spent many years of their lives in exile. This fact testifies to the
power of their ideas, recognized at once as a major threat to the dictatorship. They
continued their work on conscientization in neighboring counties of Latin America,
Freire in Chile, and Boal in Peru. Combined with Liberation Theology, as part of various experiments in liberation undertaken throughout South America, their work has
proved to be very effictive and inspiring.
Keywords: critical consciousness, revolution, social justice, pedagogy of liberation,
pedagogy and theatre of the oppressed, spectactor
a 2016.
2016.
73

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821.134.3-2.09 .
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Benjamin,W. The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, 1936.
https://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/ge/benjamin.htm.
27 Where Is That Nail File? Where Are My Glasses? Have You Seen My Car Keys?
, ,
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96
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Boal, A. The 2009 World Theatre Day International Message, 2009,

http://wtd09.wordpress.com/2009/02/26/the-2009-worldtheatre-day-inernationalmessage/
Baldwin, J. Has the American Dream been chieved at the xpense of American Negro?
The debate between James Baldwin and William F. Buckley Jr. at Cambridge
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published in the American Theatre in 2008.
Avery, J.S. Count Leo Tolstoy, We Need Your Voice Today!, 2013. Countercurrents.
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2005: C. Elkins, Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of Britains Gulag in Kenya,
Henry Holt/Jonathan Cape, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J8NA1CAynJI
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1961: Orwell, George, 1984, New York : The New American Library.
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Tesich, S., Niggerization: Everything, not just Charity Begins at Home, 1997.
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97

Bate, Peter, Congo: White King, Red Rubber, Black Death, 2004, http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=aUZLtkLA0VE
Billington, Michael, an interview with Peter Shaffer, Return of the sun god, 2006,
http://www.theguardian.com/stage/2006/apr/05/theatre2
Read, Donna, and Starhawk, Signs out of Time, the story of archeologist Marija
Gimbutas, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=whfGbPFAy4w
Wilson, Martin, The Lost Pyramids of Caral, 2002, https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=ZdFTRYKRWjs
Lena Tica / HUMANISM, CIVILIZATION AND COLONIALISM IN PETER SHAFFERS THE ROYAL HUNT OF THE SUN AND CHRISTOPHER HAMPTON SAVAGES
Summary / Relying onthecritique of Western civilizationoffered by artistssuch
asAime Csaire, Athol Fugard, George Orwell and Harold Pinter, the following
paper examinesthe twoplayswritten byPeterShaffer(TheRoyal Huntofthe Sun)
and Christopher Hampton (Savages) respectively, and outlines the way Shaffer and
Hamptonquestion thetraditionally fabricated notions of colonization, civilization
and savagery. Set in Latin America in different historical periods, 16th and 20th
centuries, these two plays draw parallels between the processes of colonization and
neo-colonizationand condemn the continuous processofexploitation and degradationof humanity, in which both European science and European church have been
participating for several centuries.Through the prism of the dominationand the
partnership models of societyoffered byRianeEisler, the paper juxtaposesthe
principle of forcebrought byWestern Civilizations and the principle of peace and
communitywhich characterized numerous primordial societies throughout the world,
including the Incas, before they were destroyed by Europe. After theirencounter with
non-European anthropological models, the European protagonistsoftheseplays
begin to question thefoundationson which their former worldviewrests, a viewanchoredinofficial ideologies of European colonialism. The plays raise the question
of finding a space for love, in the sense in which Tolstoy uses it in his bookThe
Kingdom of God is within you as the unityof human souls and source of faith in
man. Furthermore,they openthe issue of the return to human dignity and humanity
that characterizedlost civilizations, forgotten in the continuous historical cycles of
killing broughtby patriarchy.
Keywords: (neo)colonialism, civilization, savages, (pseudo) humanism, history,
love, religion
ja 2016.
2016.
98
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821.111-2.09 Hampton Ch.
821.134.2(899)-4.09 Galeano E.
Marija I. Stojii1
University of Ni
Faculty of Philosophy
CHRISTOPHER HAPTON AND EDUARDO

GALEANO: EUROPEAN (NEO)COLONIALISM IN
LATIN AMERICA AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
The intention of this paper is to examine the works of the British playwright Christopher Hampton
(his plays White Chameleon and Savages, and his film Imagining Argentina) and the Uruguayan
author Eduardo Galeano (Open Veins of Latin America, Ser Como Ellos, Memories of Fire, Mirrors)
in order to point out the importance of the concerns that bind them. Both authors critique past
and present colonial practices, one focusing on the inhumanity of the European colonizers and
the other on the suffering of the colonized peoples of South America. Their analyses expose
gruesome realities behind the alleged noble civilizing intentions of the European colonial powers, and help their readers understand how and why new forms of control and domination arise
today, out of disguised but unchanged old colonial practices and ambitions.
Keywords: Hampton, Galeano, colonialism, imperialism, activism, art, truth
1. WHITE CHAMELEON (1991): CHRISTOPHER HAMPTONS

CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES OF COLONIALISM
The evolution of Christopher Hamptons interest in issues related to
imperialism began in the seventies, with his play Savages (1974), written
when he was 28 years old. The play records his shock at discovering the
past and present crimes committed by European (British) colonial powers
in Latin America. The publication of this play coincided with the appearance of Eduardo Galeanos peoples history of Latin America, Open Veins
of Latin America: Five Hundred Years of the Pillage of a Continent, issued in
Spanish in 1971. and translated into English in 1973. The coincidence that
a young European playwright, and a six years older Latin American author,
focused on the same topic, at the same time, is the reason why their works
are the subject of this analysis. In Hamptons plays colonial crimes are
exposed from the perspective of the European perpetrators (and their collaborators), and in Galeanos works from the perspective of the victims of
colonialism, whose moral values, cultural traditions and endless resistance
to occupation and dispossession remain largely unknown to the rest of the
1 marijastojicic@live.com
99
Marija I. Stojii
world. Galeano wrote the history of the anti-colonial struggle of his own
continent, expecting other authors to do the same for theirs, and chronicle
the unacknowledged colonial crimes committed in Africa, Asia, Australia,
and Europe as well, where many white Christians suffered from the same
discrimination and exploitation inflicted by Europe on the darker nations in other parts of the world 2.
Christopher Hampton, like Conrad before him, is a writer whose
plays offer what his audience wants to hear, but also the truths for which
it continues to forget to ask. That may be the reason why in an article
about him, posted in the Guardian (2006), Michael Coveney says that without being an obviously political writer, Hampton can be so described
more justly than many others. What contributed to the evolution of the
critical insights that define him as a political artist are his experiences of
growing up in Egypt when it was still a colonized country, and the fact that
he was of the generation of English writers in the revolutionary 1960s and
1970s who began to question and reject the colonial practices that had
made Britain great. Although his colonial experiences began in Egypt,
his critical awakening to the full meaning of what colonial practices are
really like was a result of the news about the atrocities still being committed in Latin America in the second part of the twentieth century. The
development of his political views on colonialism and Latin America can
therefore be traced through the span of thirty years during which, among
other works, he wrote his plays Savages (1974) and White Chameleon (1991)
and directed his first film, Imagining Argentina (2003)3.
Hampton wrote White Chameleon seventeen years after Savages because the news about the South American neo-colonial practices which
inspired that play made him begin to understand better the reasons for the
discontent he himself felt with his culture when he was still only a child.
Unlike Savages, inspired by somebody elses news report White Chameleon
draws on his own personal experiences, revisited so that they could be better understood in light of what he subsequently learned about colonialism.
The reasons for his growing sense of alienation and exile from his culture
become clear in the course of this autobiographical play. The play centers
on Hamptons experience in Egypt at the time when it was still a territory
under British colonial rule, beginning to fight for decolonization and independence. The play is largely set in Alexandria between 1952 and 1956,
with a few scenes set in Britain. In the play, the narrator is called Chris2 Spartacus was a white slave, and the life of the working classes which formally replaced the slaves
has been amply documented in the British government reports, the so called blue books, and in the
The Condition of the Working Class in England written by Friedrich Engels in 1845. Many recent studies (White Cargo: The Forgotten History of Britains White Slaves in America (2008), The Irish Slaves:
Slavery, indenture and Contract labor Among Irish Immigrants (2010)) supplement these reports with
the evidence that Catholic Irishmen were sold as slaves by their English protestant masters since
the seventeenth century.
3 When the American actor John Malkovich decided to become a film director he, too, chose to dbut
with a film about South America, about The Shining Path, a guerilla movement in Peru.
100
/ , , / XVII / 59
Christopher Hampton and Eduardo Galeano...
topher (evidently, Hampton himself), who looks back on the events of his
childhood. Christophers younger self is called Chris.
Young Chris is often troubled with a sense of not belonging. In the
play Christopher says:
[] the man with roots takes them for granted, while the man with no roots
whatsoever is vividly aware of them, like some phantom ache in an amputated
limb (Hampton 1991: 3-4).
He chooses, as he says, to drop an anchor in Alexandria, Egypt,

where he spent several years during his childhood, because his father, who
worked for the Cable & Wireless Company, became administrator and manager of its branches in the Middle East. His time there coincides with the
turning point in Egypts history, and was, as he says, presided over by the
genius of the place, their redoubtable family servant, Ibrahim. He recollects the incidents that led to the turmoil in Egypt. In 1952. British army
massacred around fifty policemen in Ismailia which led to a state of emergency in Cairo and Alexandria, and many riots and anti-British demonstrations. The situation grew increasingly dangerous and the tension was
very evident in Chris school, where he was punished for being English, an
enemy. Children molested him, spat at him and called him different names.
Chris did not know why he was disliked and called filthy English until his
father explained to him that it was because of politics, as usual. As the violence escalated the Foreign Office advised British subjects with no pressing business in Egypt to leave the country. Chris and his mother were temporarily sent to England, which Chris saw as a bizarre, wet country []
steeped out in unfathomable ritual (17-18). He is sent to a primary school
where, again, he has to cope with the animosity of his fellow students, this
time for coming from a hostile country, Egypt. He is harassed because of
his dark skin and hairy arms, and is unable to explain that it is due to the
time spent in the sun. His peers are convinced that Its probably cause in
Africa or whatever it is, you spend such a lot of time up trees. You sure
youre English? the boys ask him. They make fun of the fact that he does
not drink milk because everybody English can drink milk. They conclude
that he is not English, that he is not even white! (Ibid.). Chris is relieved
when after three months they return to Egypt, and he is enrolled in another school. He is happy to leave Britain and return home to Alexandria
and their genius servant, Ibrahim.
In Egypt Chris family led a true colonial life: We lived rather grandly when I was a boy, enjoying a kind of colonial life with servants and smart
houses and flats, provided by the company (Karensky 1969: 90). For Chris
it was normal to grow up in the house where all the house chores were done
by Ibrahim, although he did not know what the word colonialism meant.
He tried to obtain the answer from Ibrahim, but the servant remarked that
he was the wrong person to ask. When Chris asks his father he answers in
a very cautious manner, in order to avoid telling the truth: Some counLipar / Journal for Literature, Language, Art and Culture / Year XVII / Volume 59
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Marija I. Stojii
tries, like Britain, for various historical reasons, control other countries
and colonialism is anot particularly polite word to describe that position.
Its not fair, because we and he does not finish his sentence (Hampton
1991: 24). This makes for a long time the meaning of the word colonialism
very uncertain. Chris, however, eventually realizes its devastating impact
on both the colonized and the colonizers. Ibrahim is a victim of the colonial world; he is an Egyptian and a Muslim, who uses western products:
Coca Cola and alcohol. He describes himself as a neutral, pro-British person. He has respect for Mr. Churchill, and a critical attitude towards Mr.
Edens controlling of the Suez Crisis. It is clear that these opinions are
something that he has heard from his employers or on the radio, and not
something he himself believes in. Although somewhat involuntarily, even
well intentioned British people were contributing to their countrys misdeeds, which, in some way, they experienced as well. Christophers father
admits that Britain and France do not own the Suez: Weve done very well
out this country. Now we have to give it back to them (41).
Chris carefree childhood in Alexandria is interrupted by the attack
of Britain, France and Israel, as retaliation for Egypts fight for independence. The Suez crisis, which occurred in 1956, forced his family leave
Egypt and return to England. He was enrolled in a boarding school, and
suffered the fate he had hoped to avoid. I felt myself a foreigner in England, Hampton claimed. He experienced one more time discrimination
and molestation for being, as children called him, a wog-lover4. He was
very much like his pet white chameleon, trying unsuccessfully to find his
place in the world and fit in. Being an exile in his own country, although
hard at first, eventually helped Hampton develop a growing distrust of imaginary concepts such as race, class and patriotism and contributed to his
political education:
Christopher: [] I had now been as thoroughly attacked for being antiBritish as I once was for being British; and these symmetrical assaults made
a valuable contribution to my political education. Ive been wary of every
known brand of confident certainty ever since (47).
When his fathers office in Egypt was bombed by the RAF his father,
as Hampton puts it mildly, could not accept the event with good grace5.
All British and French assets were sequestered and his father was put under house arrest and then subsequently made to leave Egypt, for good.
Although he was only ten at that time, Chris knew the Suez adventure
was horrendously misguided. His unsatisfactorily unpatriotic remarks on
these issues were not tolerated in Chris school in Britain, while, as the
headmaster of the school explained, their nation was facing a challenge
4 Wog (British English, taboo, slang) a very offensive word for a person who does not have white
skin, Oxforddictionaries.com, 2015, http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/learner/wog,
(12. Aug. 2015)
5 The Royal Air Force (RAF) is the aerial warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces.
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unparalleled since the days of the dark war. In the spirit of great colonial
powers, Chris is reminded that their forces are out there, risking their
lives for [their] country (49). Chris, still unaware of the danger his comment could bring, confesses that his father is furious because RAF bombed
his office and tried to kill him:
Chris: [] And he [ Chris father] says hes never heard of a police action
where the police come to the house being burgled, tie up the owner, hit him
over the head and hand a burglar a sack marked swag (50).
Although Chris comes to see the truth about his countrys unjust
foreign and domestic policies, the headmaster tries to reinforce the official
beliefs and says that being in the thick of things can distort ones perspective somewhat, and reminds him that his critical remarks are unwanted
in the school (Ibid.). This is followed by a very emotionally difficult experience for Chris, the moment when, for being a provocative item, the
headmaster sets fire to the fez he brought to England, in fond memory of
his beloved Ibrahim and his lost Alexandria. Then, Britains military adventure petered out abruptly and ignominiously; and, all of a sudden, the
British Empire was over (52).
While certain points in the play were modified, the main part of the
play consists of valuable autobiographical material. The play shows what
kind of experiences influenced Hampton as a writer and, as he himself
notes, what contributed to his political education. His feelings of being in
emotional and intellectual exile eventually contributed to the creation of
his play Tales from Hollywood 6 (1982) about Brecht and the brothers Mann
exiled from Nazi Germany to a place he described as Eden paid for out of
other mens dreams. His experience as a white boy, a colonizer, in colonized Egypt, prepared him for the writing of the play Savages, considered
by many to be his most overtly political play.
2. THE INDIAN PROBLEM: CHRISTOPHER HAMPTONS
SAVAGES (1974)
In Savages Hampton provides very disturbing insights into continued colonial practices in Brazil, but economic exploitation of Brazil covers
neo-colonial practices present in other parts of the world as well. Hampton
centers the play on the plight of the Brazilian Indians systematically exterminated by the multinational corporations and the Brazilian government.
He found the initial source for the play in a 1969 article published in the
Sunday Times. In the Introduction to the play he explains:
6 In the play, Tales from Hollywood, written between Savages and White Chameleon, Hampton explores
the lives of artists, political exiles from Nazi Germany. In a manner similar to Aim Csaire, Hampton uses this play to highlight the existence of less visible forms of cultural discrimination, very
much in evidence in the so-called democratic societies.
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Marija I. Stojii
On 23rd February 1969, the Sunday Times Colour Magazine published an

article by Norman Lewis called Genocide, which dealt with the destruction
of the Brazilian Indians. Among the many appalling examples of systematic
extermination discussed by Mr. Lewis, and ranging from the sixteenth century
to the present day, was one which involved the slaughter of large number
of the Cintas Largas tribe, supervised by one Francisco de Britto, general
overseer of the rubber extraction firm [] on the river Juruena in the early
sixties. It was seen as essential, Mr. Lewis writes, to produce the maximum
number of casualties in one single devastating attack, at a time when as many
Indians as possible would be present in the village, and an expert was found
to advise that this could best be done at the annual feast of the Quarup.
[...]A Cessna light plane used for ordinary commercial services was hired for
the attack, and its normal pilot replaced by an adventurer of mixed ItalianJapanese birth. [...] On the first run packets of sugar were dropped []. They
had opened the packets and were tasting the sugar ten minutes later when
[the plane] returned to carry out the attack. No-one has ever been able to
find out how many Indians were killed, because the bodies were buried in
bank of the river and the village deserted (Hampton 1974: 9-10).
In the play, the genocide of the Indians is described by those who organized it, the head of the National Indian Foundation (Fundao Nacional do ndio, FUNAI) and the Minister of foreign affairs, as the removal of
ethnic cysts from the face of Brazil (Hampton 1974: 39). The Indian problem was being solved in the most brutal way. One of the main characters
in the play, British Embassy official Alan West, recalls an advertisement in
The Times magazine offering land for sale in Brazil. When he looks into the
case, on behalf of an old English woman who purchased a large portion of
the territory, he discovers that the land being sold to foreign investors really has only one feature of interest-it was the land which in more enlightened times had been ceded in perpetuity to various Indian tribes(33). The
companies selling the land were well aware of that fact and, as West points
out: Happily, before long someone came up with an extremely simple and
efficient method of protecting the Indians from land-grabbers: extermination. [] They were bombing them, machine gunning them, poisoning
them, infecting them with diseases, no expanse spared (34). The sale of
Indian land could be resumed, after the ethnic cleansing solved the Indian problem. Then the government came up with an even better solution,
not to exterminate, but to integrate. As the anthropologist, Crawshaw,
notes in the play Its the same thing, only slower:
Integrate them, give them the benefit of civilization, the government says.
What they dont say is that the first two benefits of civilization the Indians
are going to be given are disease and alcohol. All they mean when they say
the Indians have got to be integrated is that the Indians have got to give up
their land and a totally self-sufficient and harmonious way of life to become
the slaves of slaves (38).
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In the conversation between the General, and the Attorney General,

Hampton explains how pro-American governments installed in Latin
America work, and how they handle their responsibilities in such matters.
The Attorney General shares with the General his views on the work of
the Indian Protection Service (Servio de Proteo ao ndio). He states
that it is a sink of iniquity. [] Apart from the cases of murder, rape and
enslavement, we estimate that over the last ten years more than 62 million
dollars worth of property has been stolen from the Indians. We have 42
charges against the head of the service alone, the Major. Including the
embezzlement of 300,000 dollars (36). After sharing this information,
and complaining about the fact that they have gathered so much evidence
against I.P.S. that they are becoming desperate for the lack of space to
store it, Attorney General is informed by the General, very cheerfully,
that the decision has been made to abolish the Indian Protection Service
and replace it with a newbody National Indian Foundation (Fundao
Nacional do ndio, FUNAI). The General goes on to state that [t]his will
be an entirely reconstructed and efficient organization, under the direct
jurisdiction of the army (37). The problem of organizing it will be solved
by the transfer of a large number of old employees from the Indian
Protection Service, who have determined to turn over a new leaf, to the
new Foundation. When the appalled Attorney General asks about all the
evidence that has been collected against them, the General answers that
by some quirk of fate the evidence was completely destroyed in a fire.
This incident in Hamptons play about the crimes against the Indians of
South America is reminiscent of the destruction of evidence in the case
of the Mau Mau people of colonial Kenya, whose plight in the fifties and
the sixties was researched by Caroline Elkins and reported in her study
Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of Britains Gulag in Kenya (2005)7.
In numerous episodes in the play Hampton in fact portrays what
Orwell in 1984 calls doublethink, the strategy whereby people are encouraged to hold two contradictory beliefs in their mind simultaneously. The
schizophrenic situation disables them from reasoning properly and enables
them to think, conveniently, that war is peace and that the slavery they
are inflicting on the colonized and exploited people is the spread of democracy. In the spirit of such paradoxes, Indian Protection Service, later
renamed National Indian Foundation, is defined as the Brazilian governmental protection agency for Indian interests and their culture. This Service for protecting Indians rights is, in reality, a service you go to if you
want them done away with (Hampton 1974: 47). As Major Brigg points
out, this doublethink is seen as something normal and not new: Theyve
7 Ten years of work of this professor of history at Harvard University overturned completely the
initial premise of her research and exposed, in Kenya, not a story of reconciliation, but a story of
torture, murder, and massive conspiracy of silence and cover up. What was billed as an admirable
rehabilitation program during the Mau Mau uprising in the 1950s was in reality widespread torture
and murder of the Kenyan Kikuyu people. Elkinss evidence suggests that over 100,000 Kikuyu
were either killed by the British, or died of disease and starvation in the detention camps.
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Marija I. Stojii
been killing them off ever since I can remember and before, in fact, []
they were killing off the poor beggars in Shakespeares day (Ibid.).
Shakespeare was aware that this is the destructive path Western patriarchal empires have followed for far too long, and wrote plays to warn
us not to continue to take it. Nevertheless, because critical views of history
are not tolerated, violence, discrimination, exploitation and war continue
to exist, even under the masks of Christianity, enlightenment and democracy. The true nature of imperial history is not acknowledged and, as Noam
Chomsky has observed, among many others, sometimes consciously, sometimes unconsciously, we filter out what we dont want to see or hear. This is
the point Hamptons Crawshaw makes in Savages when he says: everyone
knows the blue whale and the white rhino are in trouble. But whos ever heard
of the Beios-de-Pau or the Pacaas Novas or the Trumai [tribe]? (78-79)
Criticizing this strategy American playwright Naomi Wallace notes in her
essay On Writing as Transgression (2007) that less important or even marginal information is nurtured precisely to obscure more pressing issues.
Throughout history genocidal civilizing missions have been carried
out not only for the good of the firms8, corporations and companies, but
in the name of God as well. Christian churches and their missionaries
played one of the biggest roles in the dispossession and bloodshed both
in Europe and many non-European locations. One of the shocking scenes
in Savages is Scene 11, where Hampton offers a disturbing account of the
role the church and religion played in the process of civilizing the brutes.
When asked by West about the barbed wire put around the Indian village
he is stationed in, Reverend Elmer Penn says its for their own protection. He proceeds to boast what hard work it is to civilize a Stone Age
savage. He gives West the following description of the process of integration he is supervising:
[]you have to learn their language, teach them the Gospel in terms they
can understand, show them that your medicine is better [] than the shamans, win them away from their own primitive beliefs, and, well, I suppose
one has to be honest about this, make them dependant on you (56).
Then, when all this is achieved, the moment comes when you have
to move from the defensive to the offensive. And when that moment comes
you have to say to the Indian, look, either you must go forward with us, or
must leave the flock (Ibid.). In other words you create a situation where,
in order to survive, the indigenous peoples have to give up their beliefs,
their culture and religion and succumb to the will of the stronger. And
when the process is over, when people renounce the beliefs and myths they
have lived by, it is easier to conquer them. The reverend adds:
[] alongside of preaching the Gospel, which is of course our primary task,
there are other ways in which we have to change the lives of these savages.
8 See Adrian Mitchells poem Time and motion study.
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For instance, we have to instill in them a work ethic tied to a reward system,
which is something quite new to them. Now, if you do that, naturally they
are going to have to look at a whole lot of things in a new way, things like
property and personal possessions, and theyre going to want to preserve
and protect them (57).
When warned that it might not be fair to change the natives lifestyles so radically, the Reverend answers that the natives have no choice:
these men have to be integrated into society, we have to bring them into
our world [] Otherwise, they can never survive. The Reverend ends the
glorification of his mission in Brazil by saying: this government may have
some terrible problems as of now, but its working very closely with the
United States government, and I think together were going to be able to
lick most of them (57-58).
In the same scene we see what the Indians who have undergone the
process of integration are like: these [Indians] seem cowed and dejected,
miserable in shabby, holed T-shirts and tatty shorts. Their manner is painfully timid and ingratiating (60). At the end of the scene the Indians sing
a Christian hymn, and West, as well as Hamptons audience, is appalled by
the sight. Historian David Stannard calls the colonization of the American
continents American holocaust9. In Hamptons play we see why this term
applies not only to the history of the Americas, but also to the history of all
the other continents plagued by colonialism10. This insight about the true
nature of this globalized scenario was elaborated by Mario Vargas Llosa in
his 2010 novel The Dream of the Celt (El sueo del Celta), in which a comparative analysis is made of British colonial practices in South America,
Africa and Europe, through the protagonist, a historical figure, who in the
twentieth century had first hand colonial experiences in Brazil, the Congo
and colonized Ireland.
3. FROM SAVAGES TO IMAGINING ARGENTINA (2003)
As Hampton notes, while writing Savages he could not talk about
the plight of the South American Indians without dealing with the whole
complex social and political situation in Brazil, of which their plight was
9 In the study American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World (1992) US scholar David E. Stannard
documents the European and white American destruction of the native peoples of the Americas.
10 The term African holocaust is used in the show Like It Is by three great historians of African history: Dr. Yosef Ben-Jochannan, Prof. Ivan Van Sertima and Dr. John Henrik Clarke. (Noble 1982)
They discuss the effects of colonialism and Christianity on the African continent and talk about the
devastating consequences of the colonization of the mind. The Europeans strove to convince the
Africans that they need to be mastered. The most important vehicle of European propaganda, the
historians argue, was the Bible. Although the Europeans lead others to believe that they lived by
the rules of Christianity and democracy, these were the only two things Europeans did not dare to
live by. The three historians conclude that Christianity was the most powerful and perfidious instrument of colonialism.
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a part. His initial attempt to deal only with the perpetrators, the individuals who actually committed the genocide reported in 1969 by the Sunday
Times, changed the moment he went to Brazil to investigate: The more I
researched the more I thought it was all really caused by the system, of
which the Indians are just the symptom. The Indian problem is a result of
the economic policies of capitalism, a simple statement but true. The more
I went into it the more I realized it would be absolutely necessary to put in
something about the political situation in Brazil (Holland 1979: 142-149).
In Savages he managed very brilliantly to link the text with the context, his
primary concern with the story of the genocidal destruction of the Brazilian Indians, with the political system that enabled it, rationalized it and
ultimately tried to cover it up.
Brazil was the first Latin American country to experience the so
called democratic reeducation. The same political scenario was then repeated throughout Latin America. Brazil was just the first instance Hampton happened to stumbled upon. He used it in the play to represent the
destiny of people in other parts of Latin America, and different parts of the
globe. In the Introduction to Savages he writes:
As to the political background of the play it is perhaps enough to say that an
American-backed coup took place in Brazil on 1st of April 1964; that a serious
urban guerilla movement under the leadership of Carlos Marighela of the
A.L.N, was established in 1968; that the military dictatorship consolidated
its position in December 1968 with the notorious Fifth Institutional Act, designed to suppress all political and civil opposition; that between September
1969 and December 1970 ambassadors and embassy officials from the U.S.A.,
Japan, West Germany and Switzerland were kidnapped and exchanged for
varying numbers of political prisoners; and that urban guerrilla movement
begun slowly to fall apart after Marighela had been killed by the police in
November 1969. The West Carlos section of the book is set in early 1971-in
other words at a time when intense police pressure and the widespread use
of torture was undermining and destroying the revolutionary movement. []
By 1972 the urban guerilla movement was said to be crushed and finished
[] (Amnesty Internationals report of September 1972 listed the names of
1,081 victims of torture)11.
In the play, true to such facts, Alan West, British government official in Brazil, is kidnapped by M.R.B (the Movimiento Revolucionario
Brasileiro) in order to be exchanged for political prisoners. While Wests
11 Oliver Stone in his documentary Untold History of the United States (2012-) shows that President
Lyndon Johnson and his government, backed the over-throw of the left-wing, democratically
elected President Juan Bosch, of the Dominican Republic and Joo Goulart of Brazil. Joo Goulart implemented land reform, sought control over foreign investment, and gave support to Cuba,
which was not to be tolerated. Johnson reduced the U.S. aid to Brazil, the CIA financed large anti
government rallies and U.S. administration prodded the right wing officers to overthrow the Government. Within a month the new regime instituted torture. Stones earlier documentary, South
of the Border (2009) is entirely dedicated to the situation in South America, in support of its new
progressive leaders.
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mind is occupied with the extinction of the native Indians, we see that
his guard, Carlos holds a broader view and calls the problem of the Indians a marginal problem, compared with most of the difficulties [others] have to face (Hampton 1974: 52). Carlos focuses on the torment of
ninety million of his unemployed and landless countrymen, living under
the American-backed government in Brazil. He tries to make his hostage
understand the ideas behind the revolutionary movement he belongs to,
and reads their manifesto to him. He explains that they are fighting against
the authoritarian regime that, as in the rest of Latin America, brought the
dictatorship, torture and misery to Brazil and its people. He insists that
the corrupt government has to be punished for selling the country to the
interests of US capitalism, for allowing it to exploit Brazilian resources and
steal Brazilian land while Brazilian people starve and suffer the miseries
of poverty and unemployment. He adds: Meanwhile, anyone who utters
the merest whisper of protest risks joining 12, 000 political prisoners, including university professors, doctors, writers, students, priests and nuns,
at present suffering detention and brutal torture in the regimes jails and
concentration camps. In order to see this one just has to visit [] the corridors [that] stink of burnt flesh, or confront the thugs of the Death Squad,
whose hands are wet with innocent blood.(29-30). Through Carlos words
Hampton offers important insights into the real practices of the American
Government, hidden behind interventions allegedly undertaken to help
the spread of democracy:
[] the Americans were behind the coup in 1964, and they were behind it
because their profits were being threatened, and now they bribe the ruling
classes to make sure their profits arent threatened again. The American
public knows their government gives aid to underdeveloped countries, unless
theyre communist of course, in which case they prefer to ship over a few
tons of napalm, but what they dont know is nearly all the aid has strings
attached, and what they also dont know is that twice as much money comes
out in profit as goes in aid(64).
The practice of overthrowing democratically elected governments

and destroying the economy of targeted countries, presented as the political background of Hamptons 1973 play, was dealt with by John Pilger
several decades later, in 2007, in his documentary film War on Democracy.
The film tries to uncover the true nature of the so-called war on terror by
showing the overthrow of a series of legitimately elected governments in
Latin America by various U.S. interventions carried out in that region after
the end of WWII. Just as the British Empire of good intentions claimed
it wanted to take whole cultures crippled by maladies and stand them on
their own two feet(Shama 2000-1002), the American government, its true
successor, pretended not to wish to impose its own style of government on
the unwilling countries it kept invading. Brazil was not the only country
placed on its own two feet by the empire of good intentions. After 1945,
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Marija I. Stojii
US attempted the overthrow of fifty governments, Guatemala, Panama,

Nicaragua, Honduras, Cuba, Chile and El Salvador being some of them. As
Pilger states in his film, thirty attacks involved the loss of countless lives. In
targeted countries governments were replaced by dictators and pro-American leaders. In the film Pilger interviews several former CIA agents who
participated in secret operations against democratic countries in the region
and records them discussing and defending the monstrous crimes committed during the interventions by the Death Squads and the so called Truth
Commissions, organized with the support of the American government.
The disappeared by the brutal regimes and their Death Squads
throughout Latin America, and particularly in Argentina, were the inspiration for the film Imagining Argentina, Christopher Hampton wrote and
directed in 2003. The political background and the suffering of the people
remain the same as in his play Savages and only the country in which the
suffering takes place has changed. Argentina was another country slated
for democratic re-education on the list composed by Big Brother. As in
the case of Brazil and Chile, and all around Central and South America,
US-backed dictatorship was installed in Argentina in 1976. The green Ford
Falcons of Buenos Aires, the notorious Death Squads, were emulating their
highly successful colleagues working for general Pinochet, and doing their
standard foul work for president Videla and his junta. Those who dared
to disagree with the government simply disappeared. Children protesting
against expensive school bus fares could be taken and never seen again.
The military junta was brought down in 1983, but its representatives have
still not received deserved sentences.
The protagonist in Hamptons film Imagining Argentina, theater director Carlos, uses his imagination to discover what happened to his missing wife (and later to his already lifeless daughter). He imagines what has
happened to the disappeared. When the General, whom Carlos visits in
his efforts to find his wife, tells him he does not like his new act, his clairvoyance, Carlos gives him a very powerful and inspiring answer: If you
dislike my new act, it is because it is a sign of something you cannot kill.
Something you do not possess. Something that will eventually destroy you:
Imagination. This is Hamptons message of hope to his viewers and readers: When you live in a nightmare you have to re-imagine it. Carlos wife
Cecilia is abducted and savagely tortured by the Death Squad because, as
a journalist, she wrote an article about the students who had disappeared,
only to become, like them, a victim herself12 13. During Argentinas military
dictatorship (19761983), as many as 30 000 men, women and children
12 The children she wrote about were secondary school students kidnapped and tortured because they
protested the price of bus fees and opposed other injustices. This story of what happened to them in
1976 is called the Night of the Pencils. It is presented in a poignant Argentinean film with the same
title, directed by Hector Olivera. They were abducted and tortured and only one of them was imprisoned and left alive. Six of his friends, as well as 232 other Argentinean students, still remain missing.
13 An example of history repeating itself is the case of the 43 Mexican students, missing since 2014.
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disappeared without a trace14. The film shows that, after Savages, Christopher Hampton never stopped thinking about South America. Several decades after his first play, as an accomplished playwright and screen play
writer celebrated by Hollywood, he still feels the need to voice his criticism
and tell stories about acts of terrorism that colonial powers continue to
perpetrate, perhaps because too many people still remain unwilling to hear
and confront the truths these stories have to tell.
4. EDUARDO GALEANO: COLONIAL TRADITION AND
MEMORIES OF ALTERNATIVE HISTORIES
If Christopher Hampton is a European writer criticizing Europes
colonial and post colonial crimes, Eduardo Hughes Galeano, a native of
South America, covers the same historical events from the perspective of
those who were on the receiving end of European and then American civilizing missions and humanitarian interventions. He was born in 1940, in
Montevideo, Uruguay, and died in his native city seventy five years later,
on April 13, 2015. At the age of fourteen he sold his first political cartoon to the socialist weekly magazine El Sol. He left school at the age of
sixteen and took up various jobs. At that time, Galeanos pseudonym was
Gius, the Spanish equivalent for his Welsh patronymic, Hughes, but he
later abandoned it and used only his mothers family name. In 1960 he
started his career as a journalist and soon became the editor-in-chief of
an influential weekly journal Marcha. As editor of other important Latin
American publications, Epoca (1964-66) and Crisis (1973-76), and as the
director of the University of Montevideo University Press, Galeano soon
began to consider journalism as one of possible literary forms. As author,
he challenged easy categorization. His works exceed conventional genres
and combine fiction, documentary, political and economic analysis, journalism, and history. Although he had no proper academic schooling, he was
always interested in history, but not in the way it was usually studied in the
classrooms. He said: I was a terrible history student. They taught me history as if it were a visit to a wax museum or to the land of the dead. I was
over twenty before I discovered that the past was neither quiet nor mute.
He discovered it by reading Carpentiers novels and Nerudas poems. But
he did not consider himself a historian: Im a writer obsessed with remembering, with remembering the past of America above all and above all that
of Latin America, intimate land condemned to amnesia (Galeano 1992).
He realized that writers, especially writers in Latin America, should use
14 Similar to the destiny of Cecilia in Imagining Argentina is the story of Paulina Salas, character in
Ariel Dorfmans play Death and the Maiden (1990). Paulina is a former political prisoner in an unnamed Latin American country who was kidnapped, raped and tortured by her captors, led by a sadistic doctor who initially opposed torture but eventually compromised his humanity and willingly
participated in violence.
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every possible medium to make apparent the isolation and exclusion of

Latin America from the official histories of the world, brought about by the
political and economic systems installed in order to cause neocolonial dependency and underdevelopment of the continent. He believed that journalism, popular songs, television or film scripts, radio and other types of
media can all be used as creative means of rebellion and liberation, capable
of creating fissures in the system of dominance through which freedom
can become, again, visible and credible.
As many other Latin American countries, Galeanos Uruguay, too,
went through great political upheavals. A coup dtat took place in 1973,
and power was seized by a military junta. The military dictatorship lasted
from 1973 to 1985, leaving thousands killed, disappeared and tortured.
The terror spread by the notorious Death Squads, and the poverty brought
about by the economic policies of the military regime, drove one sixth of
the population of Uruguay into exile. One of the imprisoned, who then
became an exile, was Galeano himself. After his release from prison he
fled to Argentina, only to face another coup there, as well. In 1976, a
dirty war against intellectuals, leftists, journalists, and artists began (the
topic of Hamptons film Imagining Argentina), and Galeano was forced into
another exile, this time in Spain. Finally, in 1985, after the military dictatorship in Uruguay was over, Galeano was able to return to his country.
In the foreword for his book Open Veins of Latin America, Five Centuries of
the Pillage of a Continent, Isabel Allende says: His exile had lasted eleven
years, but he had not learned to be invisible or silent; as soon as he set foot
in Montevideo he was again working to fortify the fragile democracy that
replaced the military junta, and he continued to defy the authorities and
risk his life to denounce the crimes of the dictatorship.15
Galeano took his activities in the public sphere very seriously because
he saw it as the arena where he could use his writings and his political activism as weapons against injustice and historical and cultural amnesia.
Writing with this goal in mind, he defied literary conventions and expectations and produced deeply politicized works, concerned with the historical
context out of which present troubles of Latin America arise. Throughout
his life he never compromised, never sought fame by sacrificing content
at the altar of vacuous entertainment(Fischlin and Nandorfy 2001). His
works include poetry, essays, stories, chronicles, testimonies and a novel,
many of them written during the years of his exile.
5. OPEN VEINS OF LATIN AMERICA (1971)
Galeanos obsession with history became evident after the publication of his now famous book, Open Veins of Latin America, written in 1971,
15 Isabel Allende was also driven to exile, and as she says brought with her only two books, Nerudas
poems and Galeanos Open Veins of Latin America.
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before the coups in Chile and Uruguay actually took place. After the coups,
the book was publicly burnt and banned, not only in Uruguay, but also in
Chile and Argentina. In 2009, at the Summit of the Americas, the late president of Venezuela, Hugo Chvez, gave a copy of this book to the American
President Barack Obama, hoping that it might enlighten him and inspire
him to change the US treatment of the South American continent. Galeano
starts this book with a quotation: We have maintained a silence closely resembling stupidity taken from the Revolutionary proclamation of the junta Tuitiva, issued in La Paz on 16 July, 1809. He chose this quote because
he believed that it was his role, as well as the role of other writers, to also
break the existing silence. The book presents the history of Latin America
from the period of the first European contact with the New World to the
present. It is, in fact, a detailed analysis of the European, and later North
American, economic exploitation, political domination and cultural dispossession of Latin America. In the Introduction to the book Galeano states:
Our part of the world, known today as Latin America, was precocious: it
has specialized in losing ever since those remote times when Renaissance
Europeans ventured across the ocean and buried their teeth in the throats
of the Indian civilizations. Centuries passed, and Latin America perfected its
role. We are no longer in the era of marvels when fact surpassed fable and
imagination was shamed by the trophies of conquest the lodes of gold, the
mountains of silver. But our region still works as a menial. It continues to
exist at the service of others needs, as a source and reserve of oil and iron, of
copper and meat, of fruit and coffee, the raw materials and foods destined for
rich countries which profit more from consuming them than Latin America
does from producing them (Galeano 1997: 1).
He calls Latin America the region of open veins because everything, from the discovery until our times, has always been transmuted into
European or later United States capital, and as such has accumulated in
distant centers of power (Galeano 1997: 2). The region once rich in gold,
silver and other precious metals, full of luscious forests and fertile land,
is now one of the most underdeveloped regions in the world. As Galeano
notes, their wealth has generated their poverty, by nourishing the prosperity of others: Potosi, Zacatecas, and Ouro Preto became desolate warrens
of deep, empty tunnels from which the precious metals had been taken;
ruin was the fate of Chiles nitrate pampas and of Amazonias rubber forests. Northeast Brazils sugar and Argentinas quebracho belts, and communities around oil-rich Lake Maracaibo, have become painfully aware of
the mortality of wealth which nature bestows and imperialism appropriates (2-3). Galeano calls poverty a secret murderer and points out that
every year, without making a sound, three Hiroshima bombs explode over
communities that have become accustomed to suffering with clenched
teeth (5). The governments backed by United States are interested in
birth control programs as the only means of fighting poverty: Fight poverty, kill a beggar!
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Marija I. Stojii
In the manner of Aime Csaire, David Stannard, Sven Lindqvist, and

the inspiring American historian Howard Zinn, Galeano gives a detailed
description of the colonization of the Americas. Galeano mentions Columbuss experience of meeting the Natives and his bewilderment at the
richness of the land, as well as the Requerimiento that was read to the
Indians before each military action16. He explains the methods that were
used to conquer the numerous Indian tribes. Catholic faith turned out to
be a mask for the struggle against Indians. Although in greater numbers,
Indians were decimated with Europeans use of weaponry and terror unknown to the indigenous peoples. The unequal technological development
of the two worlds explains the relative ease with which native civilizations
succumbed to the armies of Cortez, Pizarro and other conquistadors. But
other weapons were used too, such as horses and bacteria, for example.
As Galeano says: The Indians died like flies; their organisms had no defense against the new diseases. Those who survived were feeble and useless (18). The colonizers came for gold, silver and other precious metals:
The sword and the cross marched together in the conquest and plunder of
Latin America, and captains and ascetics, knights and evangelists, soldiers
and monks came together in Potosi to help themselves to its silver []
The metals taken from the new colonial dominions not only stimulated
Europes economic development; one may say that they made it possible
(20-23). Indians that were not killed by various diseases, brought by the
Europeans, were eradicated by laboring in the mines. This was the birth of
capitalism. The newly discovered colonies were conquered, and colonized
within the process of the expansion of commercial capital. What Europe
needed was gold and silver, since money was necessary for the movement
of capitalism. The rape of accumulated treasure was followed by the systematic exploitation of the forced labor of Indians and abducted Africans
in the mines (29), says Galeano. Potosi, [t]he city which has given most
to the world and has the least, is the perfect example of what happened to
some of the richest regions in Latin America, which, after being exploited
to the maximum, were abandoned. Slavery was revived and to the plight
of the Indians of the exterminated Latin American civilizations was added
the ghastly fate of the blacks seized from African villages to toil in Brazil
and the Antilles(38). Exploitation decimated what was left of the Indians.
Similarly to David Stannard, Galeano points out that the Indians of the
Americas totaled no less than 70 million when the European conquerors
appeared on the horizon; a century and a half later they had been reduced
to 3.5 million. The one word that describes this is the genocide, or as Stannard calls it, American Holocaust. They wanted to destroy all the evidence
of Indian culture and achievements. Great Incas, Aztecs, Mayas and other
developed civilizations were destroyed by the European conquest. However, these societies have left many testimonies to their greatness despite the
long period of devastation: religious monuments built with more skill than
16 Also mentioned in Stannards book American Holocaust (1992)
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/ , , / XVII / 59
the Egyptian pyramids, technically efficient constructions for the battle

against nature, works of art showing indisputable talent.
The land, the great Mother Earth, which was considered sacred and
alive by the Natives, was raped and ravaged by the Europeans. Although
gold and silver were the first motives for coming to America, the Europeans also wanted the land. Sugar, coffee, cocoa, rubber and fruit plantations brought ruin to these, once rich and fertile, regions. The destructive
and all-dominating latifundio left barren rock, washed-out soil and eroded
land. The more a product is desired by the world market, the greater the
misery it brings to the Latin American peoples whose sacrifice creates it,
notes Galeano (61).
Exiled in their own land, condemned to an eternal exodus, Latin Americas
native peoples were pushed into the poorest areas arid mountains, the middle
of deserts as the dominant civilization extended its frontiers. The Indians
have suffered, and continue to suffer, the curse of their own wealth, that is
the drama of all Latin AmericaThe massacres of Indians that began with
Columbus never stopped. In Uruguay and Argentine Patagonia they were
exterminated during the last century by troops that hunted them down and
penned them in forests or in the desert so that they might not disturb the
organized advance of cattle latifundia (47-48).
Today, the same as in the past when it was dominated by European

empires, Latin America continues to be a dependant continent. The neocolonial powers of today continue to exploit Latin American countries through
multinational companies and overt and covert US military interventions:
For U.S. imperialism to be able to integrate and rule Latin America today,
it was necessary for the British empire to help divide and rule us yesterday.
[...] Latin America was born as a single territory in the imaginations and hopes
of Simn Bolvar, Jos Artigas, and Jos de San Martn, but was broken in
advance by the basic deformations of the colonial system (259).
There is no change in the system through which circulation of capital

and merchandise between poor countries and rich countries takes place.
As Galeano says: Latin America continues exporting its unemployment
and poverty: the raw materials that the world market needs and on whose
sale the regional economy depends. Unequal exchange functions as before:
hunger wages in Latin America help finance high salaries in the United
States and Europe(207). This is how Galeano writes about the new form
of colonialism:
Slave ships no longer ply the ocean. Today the slavers operate from the ministries of labor. African wages, European prices. What are the Latin American
coups dtat but successive episodes in a war of pillage? The dictators hardly
grasp their scepters before they invite foreign concerns to exploit the local,
cheap, and abundant work force, the unlimited credit, the tax exemptions,
and the natural resources that await them on a silver tray (277).
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Marija I. Stojii
As Galeano understood very well, the U.S. needs to dominate and

control his part of the world in order to finance its economy and gather
much needed resources. In the 20th century US found excuses to do so
under the false pretense of fighting communism and defending the free
world. In one of his lectures Howard Zin demolished this argument by
asking his audience to remember what American foreign policy was like
before communism existed, i.e. before it could be used as a convenient
excuse for interventionism. Of course, US history shows that rapacious imperial practices were carried out throughout American history, before they
could be excused as interventions to save the freedoms of the slave owning
free world. The new excuse for old practices made possible numerous coup
dtats organized with the help of the Pentagon and the CIA. In order to
stifle the rebellious explosion of the great condemned majorities, in the
Latin American countries the terror industry is expensive and profitable,
like any other foreign know-how. U.S. repression technology, tested at
the four corners of the earth, is bought and applied. (280-281) Galeano
recalls how it was done in his native Uruguay, where terror and repression
were carried out arbitrarily, in order to spread panic of fear. In Chile the
state terror left the balance of 30,000 dead, while in Argentina they do not
shoot: they kidnap. The victims disappear. The invisible armies of the
night carry out the task. There are no corpses and no one is responsible. In
this way the bloodbath has the more impunity for not being official and
thus collective anxiety is more potently spread around.(Ibid.) Galeano
notes, In many Latin American countries, citizens who arent exiled beyond the frontiers live as exiles on their own soil(283).
Galeanos memories of his native Uruguay and his personal experience of being imprisoned and exiled in other countries of Latin America,
are presented in his book Days and Night of Love and War (2000) published
in 1983. This book is a poignant testimony of the lives and struggles of the
Latin American people under two decades of inconceivable violence and
repression. He records the power of fear to silence people. He recollects
his friendship with Salvador Allende and many others like him who were
condemned to being imprisoned, tortured, disappeared, and murdered. He
portrays a truly Orwellian world where both torturers and the tortured suffer since He who doesnt torture will be tortured (135). Galeano wonders,
like Caryl Churchill in her plays17, Why isnt the murder of souls through
poisoning written up on the crime page? (87) He sees how [c]ensorship
triumphs when each citizen is transformed into an impeccable censor of
his own acts and words (77-78). For this reason, with great care, he records the acts of courage of those who refused to be silenced. Understanding better, with every new experience, what the role of art in Latin America
could be, he asks:
17 Schrebers Nervous Illness, radio drama (1972), The Hospital at the Time of the Revolution (1972).
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/ , , / XVII / 59
[T]o awaken consciousness, to reveal identity can literature claim a better

function in these times? [] In Latin America a literature is taking shape and
acquiring strength, a literature that does not lull its readers to sleep but rather
awakens them; that does not propose to bury our dead, but to immortalize
them; that refuses to stir the ashes but rather attempts to light the fire []
perhaps it may help to preserve for the generations to come [] the true
name of all things (Galeano 2000: 178).
6. SER COMO ELLOS (1992): TO BE, OR NOT TO BE,

LIKE THEM?
In Ser como ellos (To be like them, Culture of Peace and Neocolonialism),
published in 1992, two decades after Open Veins of Latin America, Galeano
revisits the main ideas presented in his famous peoples history18. He starts
his book with the stories about a bemused angel and a bemused writer. The
angel has discovered that the official map and history of Latin America
do not match its reality. Latin America is diminished on the maps as well
as in history. The puzzled writer, too, finds a distorted image of reality:
dignity and beauty of Latin American countries are rarely acknowledged
as such. Galeano states: The official history is a showcase in which the
system keeps its old masks [] The parade of the disguised heroes reduces
our beautiful reality to an insignificant story in which the winners are the
rich, the white, the men and the soldiers19 (Galeano 1996: 8). He refuses
to accept that version of history and wants to write a record of what really
happened, an untarnished history of the continent. He is a writer provoked
by mystery and lies, who wants to save history from the winners, who
have imposed their own memory on all of us. That is what he thinks a
writer should do. A writer should be a hunter for lost words, the one who
imagines the future and does not merely accept somebody elses version
of it. In order to be able to do so Galeano warns us that it is necessary
to remember the people who have throughout history raised their voices
against oppression. Uprisings have been constant, from 1493 on, from the
first rebellions of indigenous peoples and black slaves, to todays protests
against globalization and neocolonialism.
In the first part of the book which is about the past (Yesterday), one
whole chapter, Five centuries of banning the rainbow in the American sky,
is dedicated to the period which is in the official history books called the
discovery of America. In an earlier article Galeano challenges this claim:
18 Eduardo Galeano, Biti kao Oni, Kultura mira i neokolonijalizam, translation: Ivana Gobelji, BeogradValjevo: Gutenbergova Galaksija, 1996.
Some parts of this Serbian translation, cited in this paper, are translated into English by the author
of this paper, Marija Stojii; for other citations see: Eduardo Galeano, To be like them, znet: a
community of people committed to social change,1991a.
19 Translated by Marija Stojii.
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Marija I. Stojii
[] it seems strikingly clear to me that America wasnt discovered in 1492,

just as Spain was not discovered when the Roman legions invaded it in 218
B.C. And it also seems clear as can be that its high time America discovered
itself. And when I say America, Im talking first and foremost about the
America thats been despoiled of everything, even its name, in the fivecenturies-long process that put it at the service of foreign progress: our Latin
America (Galeano 1991b).
Galeano states that the only thing discovered in 1492 was capitalism. Capitalism means that after centuries of Christian trade, one third of
American forests are destroyed, once fertile land is left barren and more
than one half of the population live in poverty. The Indians, victims of the
greatest robbery of all times, continue to suffer because the last remnants
of their land are being taken from them (Galeano 1996: 21). The Indian
problem actually implies that the first Americans, the ones who really
discovered America, [] are the problem. In order for the problem to cease
being a problem, it is necessary that the Indians cease being Indians [] To
annihilate them or assimilate them []20 are two equally destructive options and solutions that have been used, as historical evidence in Open Veins
of Latin America and Hamptons Savages demonstrates (23). Like Hampton,
Galeano, too, brings up the example of Brazilian Indian Protection Service
(FUNAI) and what it did to deal with the Indian problem, i.e. save the Indians from savagery. He quotes the words of the South African Archbishop
Desmond Tutu, a fighter against apartheid, who described the method the
church used to fulfill its civilizing mission: When the missionaries came
to Africa they had the Bible and we had the land. They said Let us pray.
We closed our eyes. When we opened them we had the Bible and they had
the land (27). The same method was used to dispossess Latin America.
In Open Veins of Latin America, Galeano mentions what Aime Csaire
called thingification (Csaire 1972: 6), the subhuman treatment of the
indigenous population and the misuse of science to legitimize their degradation and justify their civilization. Galeano provides a list of famous
European philosophers and writers such as Voltaire, Hegel, Bacon, Hume,
De Maistre, Montesquieu and Bodin who used their reputation to support
and encourage European prejudices against Indians (Galeano 1997:41).
Ideological justifications and entire system of rationalizations were created so that the bleeding of the New World could be presented as an
act of charity and an argument for the faith (Ibid.). Diminishing of the
Indians by means of science enabled the theft of their land with impunity. Cruelest racism is found in the words of the most noted intellectuals
writing at the end of the 19th century. In To be Like Them Galeano adds to
the list of scholars who thought the Indians were sub human creatures
the names of Palma, Sarmiento, Down, Lombroso, Ingenieros (Galeano
1996: 28-36). These men have not been condemned because of their ideas,
20 Translated by Marija Stojii
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/ , , / XVII / 59
but continue to this day to be admired and celebrated. Indian communities, based on true democracy and equality but which they deemed savage,
were destroyed with their implicit blessing.
Galeano concludes that the history of the natives ended when the
conquerors reached the New World. Since the conquest, history as we know
it, is written by the victors: the rich, the white, the male and the soldiers.
The natives of America are not allowed to create their history or remember
their history before the conquest. Since then we have been allowed only
to accept history says Galeano21 (Galeano 1996: 108). He finds that the
best ways to fight this kind of passive acceptance of reality are stories and
myths which preserve memory. Myths, collective metaphors, as Galeano
calls them, are responsible for survival, understanding and endurance of
memory (11). That is the reason why he has developed a unique way of rewriting stories and myths from the perspective of those who are neglected
or presented negatively in the official versions of history.
7. MIRRORS (2009)
Galeanos book Mirrors, Stories of almost everyone (2009), as its subtitle suggests, is full of stories of people who usually do not have a chance to
be heard, and well-known stories retold from an unexpected and surprising point of view. Describing this book in one interview, Galeano says that
discrimination has condemned so many people to invisibility that the goal
of his book is to recover their memories and to recover their presence.
Through the short stories in this book Galeano offers an eye opening
overview of world history. Commenting on Greece, known as the cradle
of democracy, he reminds us that In the Greek Olympics, women, slaves
and foreigners never took part. Nor in Greek democracy either (Olympics,
Galeano 2009: 52). We also see the so called discovery of the New World for
what it really was: When the Colonists invaded Indian lands, the moment
of truth arrived. The invaders, calling themselves holy and also chosen,
stopped calling the Indians natives and started calling them savages. In
very few words Galeano manages to summarize the essence of colonialism.
He points out that the massacres committed against the Native Americans
were committed against the aborigines of Australia and New Zealand as
well, in situations where only the maps were different, but the story of
conquest the same:
As in America, the recent arrivals took over the fertile fields and the sources
of water and pushed those who lived there into the desert.
As in America, they subjected the natives to forced labor and outlawed their
memory and their customs.
21 Translated by Marija Stojii

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Marija I. Stojii
As in America, Christian missionaries crushed or burned pagan effigies of

stone or wood []
As in America, few natives survived. Those not killed by hunger or bullets were
annihilated by unknown plagues against which they had no defense (133).
For that reason he avers that all American countries, from north to
south, were born of a lie. The so called independent and democratic countries disowned those who had risked their lives fighting for her, and women, poor people, Indians and blacks were not invited to the party. The constitutions draped that travesty in the prestige of legality, claims Galeano
(200). He tells the story of the missing father, Robert Carter, who freed
the slaves seventy years before Abraham Lincoln abolished slavery, and
whose acts were reworded with collective amnesia(176). Galeano sees
that history is turned upside down because our present is also turned upside down. The whole world knows who Theodor Roosevelt was American
president and hero who stated that war purifies the soul and improves the
race and who won the Nobel Peace Prize for such claims. As opposed to
him, nobody has ever heard of Charles Drew, a scientist who saved millions
of lives when he made transfusion of blood possible. Galeano tells his story
in this book, as well as in To be Like Them (Galeano 1996: 15-16), in order
to save the memory of this wonderful man. In 1942, a military directive
prohibited the transfusions of black blood. At that time, the director of
the plasma bank in the Red Cross was Charles Drew, and he rejected the
order. He refused to obey it, saying that such a thing as black blood does
not exist: Black blood? White blood? This is utter stupidity, said Drew
(Galeano 2009: 299-300). He understood the issue perfectly since he was a
scientist, and a black man. This was the reason he resigned, or as Galeano
says, was resigned.
In his stories Forbidden to be Independent, Resurrection of Lumumba,
Mau Mau and Europes legacy, Galeano reminds us of Africas struggle for
independence He asks us to remember Patrice Lumumba who dared to
speak against the empire of silence and who fought to bring down to an
end the humiliating slavery imposed on [the Congo] by force. His words
sealed his fate (326-327). Galeano records, in the same manner as Caroline
Elkins, the untold history of Kenyas struggle against colonialism. In the
fifties Mau Mau people led an uprising against the yoke of British colonial
rule. They were declared terrorists (in one of his last texts Galeano reminds
us that Nelson Mandela was also on the US terrorists lists until 2008).
When evidence came out it was clear, Galeano says, that during the years
of struggle for independence, fewer than two hundred British citizens []
had been slain. More than ninety thousand natives were hanged, shot, or
killed in concentration camps (328-329).
Concentration camps which were massively used in Hitlers Nazi Germany, and which many people associate with this particular part of human
history, were in fact invented and used much earlier. As Galeano informs us
in his story about the origin of concentration camps, the first time the word
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concentration camp was used was in 1904 by the Chancellor of Goring,

the representative of the German Empire in the southwest corner of Africa.
Galeano states that The camps, inspired by a British forerunner in South
Africa, combined confinement, forced labor, and scientific experimentation (243-244). The monstrosities done by Hitler were, therefore, nothing
new. They were new in the sense that it was the first time they were carried
out in Europe, and inflicted on white people. The measures Hitler applied,
Aime Csaire reminded us in his Discourse on Colonialism, were before him
reserved exclusively for the Arabs of Algeria, the coolies of India, and the
blacks of Africa (Csaire 1972:3). Galeano also records the killing of half
of the Armenian population in Turkey, during the First World War. The
consequences of forgetting the genocide are devastating. Twenty years
later, when Hitler planned the invasion of Poland, he proved this point by
stating: Who remembers the Armenians? Galeano records this to point
out that impunity is the daughter of oblivion (Galeano 2009: 300-301).
Galeano is a great master of vignettes and short stories through
which he tells colossal tales. In his stories he covers the most important
moments of world history. He critiques our amnesia related to the crimes
of the worlds greatest dictators in the twentieth century, such as Pol Pot
in Cambodia, Suharto in Indonesia, Pinochet in Chile, Videla in Argentina
(337-340). He celebrates the great men who gave their lives fighting for
freedom, such as Salvador Allende in Chile (339), Oscar Romero, the Archbishop of El Salvador (341) and many others who were murdered, tortured
or disappeared.
He does not forget other crimes of the so called civilization, not
mentioned in the news even though they happen every day, every minute:
Every Year, chemical pesticides kill no fewer than three million farmers.
Every day, workplace accidents kill no fewer than ten thousand workers.
Every minute, poverty kills no fewer than ten children.
These crimes do not show up on the news. They are, like war, normal acts
of cannibalism (344-345).
The book includes comments on several other types of wars we are

involved in. There are Lying Wars, waged for oil and other resources but
disguised and presented as religious and civil wars. But there are also very
dangerous wars that are not acknowledged as such. Galeano calls them
World-killing Wars. These wars are conducted by the human species,
which is slowly but surely killing its own planet. Galeano quotes Shakespeare who foretold our destiny and warned us that Tis the times plague
when madmen lead the blind (354).
Galeanos ecological concerns and fears for the future of mankind
are expressed in To be Like them. In the final chapter of the book, Galeano
states:
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Marija I. Stojii
We can be like them, proclaims the great neon sign standing on the road that
leads to the development of the underdeveloped, the modernization of the
backward [] If the poor countries were to rise to the level of production and
waste of the rich countries, the planet would die. Our poor planet is already
in a coma, severely poisoned by industrial civilization, and squeezed nearly
dry by consumer society [] Nature is humiliated and ordered to serve the
interests of capital accumulation. Soil, water, and air are being poisoned so
that money can produce more money without decreasing its rate of return.
Efficiency consists in making the largest profit in the shortest amount of
time (Galeano 1996: 115-116)22.
Of course, the point of his stories, with which he hopes to restore

sanity, prevent amnesia, recover memory and stop any further inflation of
words, is to make us realize that we should not be like them. The memory
of the worlds they have destroyed and great human beings they have killed
will encourage us to seek better ways of being and pursue better alternatives.
8. CONCLUSION
Until the very end of his life, Galeano was appalled by the fact that
the world is losing 37 million acres of forest per year, out of which 15 million become deserts. He followed with disbelief reports that the deforestation of Amazonian region consumes, by sheer greed of domestic producers
of wood and foreign multinational companies, half the surface of Belgium
every year. He was very concerned that while countryside is becoming depopulated, Latin American cities grow as big as entire countries, in which
clean air and silence are becoming pure luxuries that even the richest
among the rich cannot afford. He accused the greed and egoism of the most
developed countries for the spread of his conception of development.
The precarious balance of the world, reeling at the brink of an abyss, depends
on the perpetuation of injustice. The misery of the many is necessary for
the extravagance of the few. In order for the few to continue consuming too
much, the many must continue consuming too little. And to prevent them
from crossing the line, the system multiplies the production of weapons of
war. Unable to combat poverty, the system combats the poor, while its dominant, militarized culture blesses the violence of power (124)23.
Galeano was deeply aware that the institutionalized violence and

foreign interventions of imperial powers, protecting with impunity their
own economic interests all over the world, create cultures of resignation.
One of the ways resignation spreads is through obliteration of the past, es22 (Translation taken from: Eduardo Galeano, To be Like Them, Znet: a community of people committed to social change, May 5, 1991a, ttp://zcomm.org/znetarticle/to-be-like-them-by-eduardogaleano/, 9. Sept. 2014).
23 Ibid.
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pecially the traditions of past resistance and struggle for independence and
dignity. This is exactly what Galeano refused to accept. Galeano realized
that he as a writer must take every opportunity to liberate the people from
the invisibility and silence created by various strategies of the new world
order. This motivation gave rise to his quite specific style of writing, which
speaks in the name of those who are not heard. As he said: In an incarcerated society, free literature can exist only as denunciation and hope. The
world elites of today want to take away that hope, in the same way they
have taken from the subjected peoples their real history and identity. The
American way of life, Galeano stated, based on the privilege to squander,
can only be practiced by the dominant minorities in the dominated countries. Its implementation worldwide would mean the collective suicide of
humanity (118)24. That is why Galeano, as well as Christopher Hampton
and other writers and activists mentioned in this paper, refuse to be like
them. In his Discourse on Colonialism, Aim Csaire noted that, throughout history, colonial powers presented what they were doing as evangelization [] philanthropic enterprise, [] desire to push back the frontiers
of ignorance, disease, and tyranny, [...] project undertaken for the greater
glory of God( Csaire 1972: 2). By constant denial of the truth, the true
nature of colonialism was persistently hidden under these and other false
pretenses. That is why activist and artists like Hampton and Galeano appear. They provide alternative versions of history that show how people are
seduced and forced to consent to the interpretation of reality produced by
their masters, full of unspeakable inhumane acts they have to participate
in, because those in power have the means by which to legalize them and
make them acceptable and normal. Although constant efforts are being
made to seduce and censor artists as well, Hampton, Galeano and many
others, persist in their struggle and resistance.
Christopher Hampton experienced one more version of a life of a
writer in exile when despite his best efforts25 he found himself in the
U.S. For years, Hollywood tried to seduce him into becoming their medium
for perpetuating the official political untruths. He persistently used his
authority as an artist, and opportunities that art has given him, to do quite
the opposite: to present to his audiences the themes that are seldom dealt
with. For example, in 2003, after decades spent as writer and screenwriter
for other peoples films, he decided to direct a film of his own, Imagining
Argentina (2003), on the same topic as his 1973 play Savages: the terrors
committed in Latin America for the good and safety of the U.S. and its capitalist allies. A chorus of disapproval greeted this film because he dared to
criticize the pro American, right wing Galtieri regime in Argentina. Hamptons projects show that from 1973 on, he has persistently thought of different strategies he could use to criticize colonialism and neo colonialism.
24 Ibid.
25 Reckless: Christopher Hampton and William Nicholson with Rupert Christiansen, Web. http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=pOY8edTHwOY, 29. Sept. 2014
123
Marija I. Stojii
Like Hampton, Galeano was an artist who refused to allow the silencing of history. In opposition to the thick tapestries of lies that continue
to cover the real truth about our lives, he used forbidden and forgotten
words that come from the past, that sound as if they are from the present,
and speak about the times that are still to come (Galeano 1996: 17)26.
Through his books he encourages his readers to re-imagine and critically
re-view the past, both the pre colonial and the colonial, in order to enable
them to choose and create a better future, based on the better, and for that
reason silenced and suppressed alternatives. In one of the notes in his Book
of Embraces (1991c) he writes:
There is just one place where yesterday and today meet, recognize each
other, and embrace, and that place is tomorrow.
Certain voices from the American past, long past, sound very futuristic. For
example, the ancient voice that still tells us we are children of the earth and
that our mother is not for sale or hire. While dead birds rain on Mexico City
and rivers are turned into sewers, oceans into dumps and forests into deserts,
this voice, stubbornly refusing to die, heralds another world different from
this one that poisons the water, soil, air and soul.
The ancient voice that speaks to us of community heralds another world as
well. Community-the communal mode of production and life-is the oldest of
American traditions, the most American of all. It belongs to the earliest days
and the first people, but it also belongs to the times ahead and anticipates a
New World. For there is nothing less alien to these lands of ours than socialism. Capitalism, on the other hand is foreign: like small pox, like the flu, it
came from abroad (135).
In conclusion we can say that this paper offers hope. The first reason
for hope are numerous new historical studies deeply critical of the colonial
practices which the official histories still continue to overlook, deny, or
minimize. The second reason is the fact that in spite of the enormous pressure of the establishments to preserve the status quo and continue imperial
practices under another name27 (such as democratic imperialism), both
Hampton and Galeano managed to preserve their artistic integrity and continue their critical explorations of issues (justice, freedom and true democracy) they believe are of critical importance for the survival of mankind.
Hope also resides in the fact that in this struggle, as this paper has shown,
Hampton and Galeano are not alone. In the world full of lies, for both of
them the significance of art lies in the fact that it is an activity that can
still successfully reveal the true name of all things (Galeano 2000: 178).
26 Words used by Harold Pinter in his 2005 Nobel Lecture. Galeano quote translated by Marija Stojii.
27 Slavery by Another Name (2008) is a book by Douglas A. Blackmon which won the Pulitzer Prize
in 2009. It reveals how the effects of slavery (the exploitation of black people) continued and was
legalized after slavery was abolished.
124
/ , , / XVII / 59
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DE WOLFE: I financed eighty-eight voyages. I transported
BRISTOL: Enslaved
DE WOLFE: more than ten thousand Africans. Back and for-BRISTOL: (Interrupts) Back and forth. From Bristol to West Africa to Cuba. I expect your poor head
is still spinning.
DE WOLFE: Ive made all thats formed you, including edifying museums.
BRISTOL: And you still own three of the finest plantations in Cuba.
DE WOLFE: Its over. Slaving is illegal now.
BRISTOL: But not slavery.
DE WOLFE: I was the very sap and sinew of mercantile trade. I transfused lifeblood into the veins
of this nation. Employment. Capital. I crafted legislation. []
DE WOLFE : I was responsible for her death, yes. Your Aunts death. And I was indicted for murder
by the Newport Rhode Island grand jury in 1791.
BRISTOL: And yet, since then youve financed more than twenty-five slaving journeys.
(Calmly) Butcher. Indicted for murder. True. But you werent punished for the crime.
DE WOLFE: In the school rooms of this burgeoning state, I am an example to the Children of Rhode
Island!
146
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Taylor, R. Steve McQueen: Caribs Leap/Western Deep2002, Tate, April 2012

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Milica M. Vojinovi Tmui / INTO THE WATER: NAOMI WALLACE PLAY THE
LIQUID PLAIN ABOUT THE IMPORTANCE OF THE TRANSATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE
FOR THE BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THE CONTEMPORARY HISTORY OF
EUROPE, AFRICA AND AMERICAS
Summary / The aim of this paper is to offer an analysis of Naomi Wallaces play The
Liquid Plain, showing it to be one with the tradition created by modern intellectuals,
writers, artists, historians, anthropologists and filmmakers who provide new powerful arguments against slavery and racism in the European and American past and
present. The paper also analyses historical characters in The Liquid Plain who played
key roles in the history of the Caribbean Islands during the slave trade but are not
well known to the general public. Furthermore, the paper shows the play to be truthrevealing and myth-disrupting because it demonstrates to what extent the economy
of the American North was dependent on slavery and slave trade as much as that
of the American South. The Liquid Plain also uncovers one more forgotten phenomenon, and that is white slavery. Finally, the paper considered The Liquid Plain to be
significant criticism of racism in Europe and America because it shows racism to be
deliberately encouraged and exploited in order to prevent solidarity between black
slaves and equally abused white workers. The story of the past that Naomi Wallace
tells is valuable because it is full of clarifying instights into our troubled present.
Keywords: slavery, slave trade, American North, racism, the Caribbean, slave revolts
2016.
2016.
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821.111-2.09 Pinter H.
821.134.2(82)-2.09 Dorfman A.
Ivana S. Tai1
University of Ni
Faculty of Philosophy
ART AND ACTIVISM IN THE WORKS OF HAROLD

PINTER AND ARIEL DORFMAN
The intention of this paper is to analyse the works of Harold Pinter, Ariel Dorfman and the
artists they collaborated with, in order to see what kind of light they shed on the political and
cultural events in Europe and Latin America from the 1970s onwards. The aim is to answer the
question what made them decide to use their talent and their art not to entertain their audience but to engage it in their fight for truth, justice, and the right of all people to live and speak
freely. The paper examines how they become artists and humanists American playwright Naomi
Wallace celebrates as dangerous citizens by providing a more in-depth study of the ways they
responded to the political events of their time, interacted with each other and conducted their
explorations of reality through art. The focus is on the specific aspects of the political events
that inspired them to become not only truth-loving artists, but also political activists.
Keywords: Harold Pinter, Ariel Dorfman, Truth, Politics, exploration of reality through art
1. UNMASKING THE LIE: HOW THE PERSONAL BECAME

POLITICAL IN THE LIVES OF HAROLD PINTER AND
ARIEL DORFMAN
In his Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech, Art, Truth and Politics, given
in 2005, Harold Pinter sent a very powerful message to the world when he
insisted on our right to know the real truth of our lives and our societies.
On that occasion he discussed the disastrous impact of the American and
British foreign policy on the state of affairs in Latin America, Iraq and Afghanistan. He voiced his outrage that under the veil of noble deeds and just
causes the Government of the United States continued to commit brutal
crimes in South America and other parts of the world, with complete disregard of the sanctity of human life, or respect for international law.
Hundreds of thousands of deaths took place throughout these countries. Did
they take place? And are they in all cases attributable to US foreign policy?
The answer is yes, they did take place and they are attributable to American
foreign policy. But you wouldnt know it. It never happened. Nothing ever
happened. Even while it was happening it wasnt happening. It didnt matter.
It was of no interest (Pinter 2005).
1 ivanatashic@gmail.com
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Ivana S. Tai
Pinter devoted himself to the analyses and criticism of the power

relations that made this kind of behaviour possible. He came to believe
that to restore human dignity, something almost completely lost from the
world today, incessant quest for the truth was necessary, as well as the
persistence and dedication to that task. In order to emphasise the role the
artists can play in that struggle, he invited them to use their art to break
the mirrors where only superficial, familiar and seemingly acceptable images of the world can be seen, because, he insisted, it is on the other side
of that mirror that the truth stares at us (Ibid.).
In the last period of his life, with political directness not easily recognizable in his early works, Pinter wrote plays that uncover the social and
psychological mechanisms which maintain and justify the rapacious traditions and practices of the West. To fight against the numerous strategies of
denial of (neo-colonial) crimes that are still being committed, and to reveal
the truth hidden behind the thick tapestry of political lies he talked about
in his Nobel lecture, Pinter supplemented the efforts he made to expose the
truth through art, with activism. He joined other playwrights, such as Arthur Miller, and activists such as Noam Chomsky and John Pilger, in numerous protest actions, and participated in organizations such as the Bertrand
Russel Tribunal, PEN International, and others, where he spoke on behalf
of Cuba, Nicaragua, Chile, the Kurds, and of course, in 1999, in defence of
Yugoslavia. Testimony of his activism is recorded in the texts, speeches and
poems, published in Various Voices: Prose, Poetry, Politics (2005).
Ariel Dorfman, who is twelve years younger than Pinter, wrote his
plays, poems and novels inspired by the tragedies he personally witnessed
and experienced during his life in Argentina, Chile and the US, in the period
when turbulent regime changes, supported by the American government,
were carried out in order to suppress the popular and democratic movements for justice and social change emerging throughout Latin America.
My words were harsh, blunt, explained Dorfman, calling things by their
names, lamenting the blood and the pain and accusing the military of murder. This was the way I had written, outside Chile, for the last 10 yearsit
was, after all, to be free in expressing myself with unequivocal clarity that I
had left my country. I told myself that now, when the dictator had allowed
me to rejoin my homeland, I should not let any changes creep into my
style or my vocabulary. I had to prove, more to myself than to others, that
I could not be silenced (Dorfman 2003).
That a relationship worth exploring between Harold Pinter and Ariel
Dorfman exists, is signalled by the fact that Dorfmans best known play,
Death and the Maiden, is dedicated to Pinter. Dorfman acknowledged the
important role Pinters art played in his life both before and after Pinters
death. In 1968 he wrote his doctoral dissertation on Pinter, The Absurd
Within Four walls: the heater of Harold Pinter, and three years later he
published his own reasons for criticising the US in the book of cultural
criticism How to Read Donald Duck: Imperialist Ideology in the Disney Comic
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Art and Activism in the Works of Harold Pinter and Ariel Dorfman
(1971). In 2013 he wrote an important text, Martin Luther Kings Words

in a Surveillance World, in which he compared the assassination of Martin Luther king with the assassination of Salvador Allende, emphasising
that both were killed because their dream (of a world based on racial and
social justice for all) was completely unacceptable to the allegedly freest
and most democratic country in the world, America. The similarities in
Pinters and Dorfmans views are many, although differences, especially in
Dorfmans views after Pinters death, also appear. Acting as the conscience
of the New World Order, Pinter and Dorfman wrote and talked about the
crimes modern history tries to cover up and forget. They used every opportunity to challenge the official lies with which distorted impressions of
imperialism are created. Both remind us through their art that power and
submission are still the most important imperial concerns of Empire. They
criticise the US for its assumption that it has the divine right to do what it
likes, using as an excuse the claims that it is bringing freedom and democracy to the rest of the world.
The real truth behind these claims is superbly exposed by Pinters
colleague, Australian journalist John Pilger, in such documentaries as War
on Democracy (2007) and his earlier, award winning documentary, Breaking the Silence: Truth and Lies in the War on Terror (2003). The title of the
second film is a deliberate reminder of Martin Luther Kings 1967 speech
against the War in Vietnam, because of which King was assassinated in
1968. In the New Statesman2 survey of the 50 heroes of our time, Pilger
came fourth. Harold Pinter wrote: John Pilger unearths, with steely attention to facts, the filthy truth. I salute him.
In line with Pinters dedication to truth, on 14 August 2008, Pilger
wrote an article for the New Statement titled Dont forget what happened
to Yugoslavia3. He repeated Pinters criticism of the US/NATO aggression
against a sovereign European nation, documented by Pinter in the 1999
television program Counterblast4, and added: The secrets of the crushing
2 The New Statesman is a British political and cultural magazine published weekly in London. It was
created in 1913 with the aim of permeating the educated and influential classes with socialist ideas.
Today it is also characterised by a leftist political orientation.
3 John Pilger: Dont Forget What Happened in Yugoslavia, New Statesman, 14 August 2008.
4 Counterblast was aired at BBC2 on 4th May 1999, while the NATO bombs were still destroying Yugoslavia.
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Ivana S. Tai
of Yugoslavia are emerging, telling us more about how the modern world
is policed5 6.
In the book Dreams and Deconstructions: Alternative Theatre in Britain
(1980), edited by Sandy Craig, several essays are relevant for the better
understanding of Harold Pinter and Ariel Dorfmans works. The first one
is the chapter Unmasking the Lie, on political theatre, written by the editor
Sandy Craig. It begins with the quotation from Kafka: The lie is transformed into a world order, the claim that Harold Pinter understood very
well and dramatised in many of his plays. The first paragraph reads:
All theatre is political, in the sense that theatre is not autonomous and is
forced continually to decide in whose service it acts. While most theatre
workers in the commercial and bourgeois subsidized theatres do not recognise this choice, workers in political theatre consciously place themselves
on the side of the working class. Political theatre is by necessity a theatre of
socialist political change (Craig: 1980).
The second chapter relevant for the better understanding of Pinter

and Dorfman is chapter three, Personal is Political, by Michelene Wandor.
Although Wandor writes about feminism in the theatre, in the case of Pinter and Dorfman personal became political as well: for Pinter, the personal
experiences of growing up during the Second World War, for Dorfman,
the personal experiences of the coup against the socialist government of
Salvador Allende, which he wholeheartedly believed in and supported.
Just as Dorfman wrote an essay comparing Martin Luther King and Salvador Allende as dreamers of the same dream, this paper explores the ways
5 Whereas it was not possible to find any comments on bombing of Yugoslavia by Pinters great admirer Ariel Dorfman, his fellow Latin American artist from Uruguay, Eduardo Galeano, wrote the
text Confession of the Bombs, published in La Jornada, on 10 April 1999. He drew a parallel between
the bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999, when NATO celebrated its 50th anniversary, the most expensive
birthday party in history where each night of bombing cost $330 million, and the ethnic cleansing
in Guatemala in the 1980s, when the indigenous people of Guatemala were the victims of the massacre conducted by America. In this text Eduardo Galeano commented on the words of President
Clinton, who stated that the ethnic cleansing of Kosovo Albanians, the alleged reason for the 1999
bombing of Yugoslavia, was the unacceptable humanitarian catastrophe. Galeano reminded the
readers that the most unacceptable humanitarian catastrophe actually happened in Guatemala in
the 1980s, emphasising the hypocrisy of the US and President Clinton who, having apologised for
the crimes in Guatemala in the 1980s on behalf of his country, actually continued to pursue the
devastating politics of the US and commit the most brutal acts of terrorism in the sovereign country
of Yugoslavia in 1999.
6 John Pilger and Noam Chomsky appeared in a debate moderated by Harold Pinter in May 1994 at
the Almeida Theatre in London. The discussion was entitled The New Cold War. Reflecting upon the
Old-New Cold War, John Pilger said: The original Cold War never ended. The Old Cold War was a
war of attrition between the great nuclear powers, but it was a rhetorical stand-off, too. So often
we were invited and manipulated to see it simply as a conflict between East and West, yet the Cold
War always was, and still is, a war against the majority of humanity. It was a war fought with the
blood of expendabl people over strategic position, resources and it was a war of control - it was an
imperialist war. The Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States fought in the Third
World was relatively insignificant compared with the war fought by the US against people trying to
improve their position in the world. The Soviets never matched the Americans as imperialists; they
were lousy imperialists outside their own borders.
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in which Pinter and Dorfman put themselves in the service of the same
dream of a just and peaceful world.
On September 11, 1973 a military-led junta, supported by the US
Government, and conducted by General Augusto Pinochet, took control of
power in Chile. Allendes government elected in 1970 was the fruit of the
revolution led by Allende himself, [the revolution] that was peaceful and
democratic and did not believe that you must kill your adversaries in order
to create the world of justice and freedom for all. (Dorfman 2011: 112)
From 1970 to 1973, Ariel Dorfman was the cultural advisor and devoted
supporter of president Allende, witnessing both how people of Chile felt
free, confident and optimistic about their future after the election, and
how the dream of socialist, democratic and prosperous country was ultimately devastated. Describing this period, Ariel Dorfman said:
I had a moment in time. I lived for revolution, absolute hope, and maximum
joy. Everybody was changing the world and changing themselves. There was
nothing like it, to watch illiterate peasants feel that they can be the owners of
the land, to watch workers feel that they can be the owners of the factories,
to watch intellectuals like myself feel that they can be the owners of imagination and of mass media. And then, the dream was crashed7.
In the aftermath of the coup tens of thousands of Chileans were arrested or disappeared8 and in many cases murdered. For Ariel Dorfman it
did not only mean losing the country or losing the revolution. He lost his
friends, bonded close with him by the common experience of life in Allendes Chile. What he also lost on that 9/11 1973 was the privilege of being
active in the revolution when everything was called into question: the way
the state operates and the cities are built and children are educated, and
bodies make love and art is expressed (Dorfman 2011: 152). There was
nothing quite like this feeling, and, all of a sudden, it was gone. This bitter
experience changed Dorfman forever, making him aware of his duty to reveal the truth about the coup that took place in Chile and its consequences9.
7 An interview with Ariel Dorfman on his memoirs Feeding on Dreams: Confessions of an Unrepentant
exile. See: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5b9a2vqYy1s
8 The first of the disappeared in Chile during the rule of General Pinochet was, as Ariel Dorfman
wrote in his memoirs, Allende himself, whose body was secretly dumped in a grave by the sea. The
denial of his tombstone, as well as of the tombstones of the many, was, in Dorfmans words, the
denial of memory. See: Feeding on Dreams: Confessions of an Unrepentant Exile, 2011, p. 228.
9 It is of crucial importance to say that Ariel Dorfman had to leave his country for the first time when
he and his family moved from Argentina to New York in 1943, after the Argentinian coup led by
the pro-Axes forces resulted in a government change in 1943. In 1954 Dorfman left the USA and
moved to Chile due to the McCarthyte persecution of his communist father of Jewish origin Adolfo
Dorfman, whose family, in order to avoid the persecution in Ukraine, had moved to Argentina at
the beginning of the 20th century. Eventually, Ariel Dorfmans third experience of losing the country
happened in December 1973 when Chile was crushed due to the 1973 coup.
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Ivana S. Tai
In one of his articles, Martin Luther: a Latin American Perspective10,

Dorfman compares the assassination of Martin Luther King, who dreamed
a dream of racial justice and equality for all, with the assassination of Allende, who dreamed of class justice and equality for all. His comparison reads:
Allendes vision of social change, elaborated over decades of struggle and
thought, was similar to Kings, even though they came from very different political and cultural origins. Allende, for instance, who was not at all
religious, would have not agreed with King that physical force must be met
with soul force, but rather with the force of social organizing. At a time
when many in Latin America were dazzled by the armed struggle proposed
by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara, it was Allendes singular accomplishment
to imagine as inextricably connected the two quests of our era, the quest for
more democracy and more civil freedoms, and the parallel quest for social
justice and the economic empowerment of the dispossessed of this earth.
And it was to be Allendes fate to echo the fate of Martin Luther King; it was
his choice to die three years later. Yes, on September 11, 1973, almost ten
years to the day after Kings I have a dream speech in Washington, Allende
chose to die defending his own dream, promising us, in his last speech11, that
sooner rather than later ms temprano que tarde a day would come when
the free men and women of Chile would walk through las amplias alamedas,
the great avenues full of trees, towards a better society (Dorfman 2003).
Dorfman claimed that he became aware of Martin Luther Kings

dream in 1968, after King had been killed, and it was then that he realised
what was lost with Kings departure from this world. After seeing the furious and violent uprisings in the slums of Black America where Kings followers were avenging the death of their leader, Ariel Dorfman was forced
to ask himself:
What was the best method to achieve a radical change? Could we picture
a rebellion in the way that Martin Luther King had envisioned it, without
drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred, without treating our adversaries as they had treated us? Or did the road into the palace of justice and
the bright day of brotherhood inevitably lead through fields of violence? Was
violence truly the unavoidable midwife of revolution? (Dorfman 2004: 102).
10 This article was first published in the Irish Times (Dublin), August 20, 2003. Afterwards it was
published in Dorfmans collection of essays Other Septembers, Many Americas: Selected Provocations,
1980-2004.
11 Allendes last speech was broadcast at 9:10 am on September 11, 1973 and these are the words Ariel
Dorfman referred to: Workers of my country, I have faith in Chile and its destiny. Other men will
overcome this dark and bitter moment when treason seeks to prevail. Go forward knowing that,
sooner rather than later, the great avenues will open again where free men will walk to build a better society. Long live Chile! Long live the people! Long live the workers! These are my last words,
and I am certain that my sacrifice will not be in vain, I am certain that, at the very least, it will be a
moral lesson that will punish felony, cowardice, and treason.
See: https://www.marxists.org/archive/allende/1973/september/11.htm
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As Stephen Gregory reminds us, in the essay Ariel Dorfman and Harold Pinter: Politics of the Periphery and Theatre of the Metropolis (1996), after
the coup in Chile, Pinter became more openly engaged in political matters,
especially of Latin America. He quotes Pinters reaction to the coup:
I just froze with horror, it absolutely knocked me sideways and my disgust
was so profound at what I immediately understood to have happened, which
was of course a military coup supported by the United State. [] I began
following the course of other upheavals in the world, and the more I did,
the more I felt the responsibility to do something about them (Gregory
1996: 325-345).
In order to demonstrate farther the similarities in beliefs and attitudes that Harold Pinter and Ariel Dorfnman share, it is necessary to state
several more facts about the link that exists between them. Dorfmans acknowledgement of his debt to Harold Pinter appeared in the obituaries he
wrote for The Washington Post (The World That Harold Pinter Unlocked, December 27, 2008) and the New Statesman (You want to free the world from
oppression? January 8, 2009). In the article The World that Harold Pinter Unlocked Ariel Dorfman tells the story of how Harold Pinter had been his inspiration and a guide since his college years and how Pinters plays helped
him realize that lies were the essence of the US doctrine, used eventually,
in 1973, to crush his own country, Chile:
As I plunged into every one of his works in the years that followed, Pinter
became irreplaceably, uniquely inspiring. He showed me how dramatic art
can be lyrical without versifying, can be poetic merely by delving into the
buried rhythms of everyday speech. But all of these lessons in dramatic
craftsmanship pale next to what he taught me about human existence and
about dare I say the word? politics (Dorfman 2008).
Dorfman was fascinated, even haunted, he said, by Pinters knowledge, and by his capacity to create and understand his characters and tell
his stories. Pinters aesthetics and Pinters political sense, universal in their
power, helped Dorfman develop his own critical insights into the ways repressive systems operate and uphold the world order, and understand how
the power of literature can actually contributed to the understanding of
such systems:
From his very first play, I felt that Harold Pinter was unfolding a world that
was deeply political. Not in the overt sense (as would happen later, beginning
in the early 80s, in several of his dramas) that his creatures were affected by
who governed them, whether this or that man controlled the army or gave
orders to the police And yet, by trapping us inside the lives of those men
and women, Pinter was revealing the many gradations and degradations of
power with a starkness I had not noticed before in other authors who were
supposedly dedicated to examining or denouncing contingent politics (Ibid.).
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Ivana S. Tai
In this text Dorfman reveals the details about his first encounter
with Harold Pinters name and art through Pinters play The Dumb Waiter
(1957). He saw it in Chile in the early 1960s, and it was then and there
that something in his work changed forever. The play he saw was about
two paid killers who wait for the order to kill a designated human being,
without thinking and without any objections. Innocent people get killed or
disappeared because the killers submissively obey the orders of their superiors. Faced with the countless number of tortured and killed people in
Argentina, his native country from which as a child he experienced his first
exile, Dorfman saw the significance of Pinters attempt to understand how
obedient servants and servile supporters of inhumane systems are created,
and how human beings morally capitulate and become ready to do evil.
Although The Dumb Waiter was written by a British writer, the situation the play explored was becoming global. In his article The World That
Harold Pinter Unlocked, Ariel Dorfman wrote: What was extraordinary
about that hour or so I sat through The Dumb Waiter in Spanish was how
immediately recognizable that play by Pinter was, almost Latin American in
its familiarity. Inspired and encouraged by Harold Pinters art, Ariel Dorfman wrote Death and the Maiden. The initial literary connection between
these two artists eventually turned into an unbreakable personal bond
and long lasting friendship. It is important to mention that Ariel Dofman
stared to write Death and the Maiden as late as the 1980s, when he was an
exile from Chile and General Augusto Pinochet was still the dictator. It was
not until Pinochets dictatorship was over, and Chile returned to democracy in 1990, that Dorfman finally understood how the story had to be
told, and returned to his play. The finished version was published in 1992.
Besides art, political activism is the common field of interest where
Ariel Dorfman and Harold Pinter actually met. It was in London, in late
November of 1990, at the campaign against censorship organised by The
Institute of Contemporary Arts. 22 years earlier Dorfman had completed
his doctoral dissertation on Pinters work, The Absurd within Four walls:
The Theatre of Harold Pinter, published in Spanish as El absurdo entre cuatro paredes: el teatro de Harold Pinter in Santiago in 1968. Their meeting in
London was the occasion when he could present this work to Pinter. He
had found a copy of it in his library in Chile, when he returned after 17
years of political exile. In the dedication for Harold Pinter and his wife,
Dorfman wrote:
This has waited 22 years and thousands of miles and lots of love and admiration from so near and so far, so I could bring this to you Harold and of course
for you Antonia, from Chile that is now democratic and still threatened.
Dorfman recalled this event in the article How Harold Pinters Kindness Saved My Play (2011), published in The Telegraph, where he explained
how this exceptional person and artist affected not only his art, but also
his career. Many things in his life changed when his own play Scars on the
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Moon, which eventually became Death and the Maiden, was chosen to be
the main event of the 1990 campaign Censored Theatre, programme of
readings of suppressed plays launched by Vaclav Havel. It is important
to emphasise that at that time Harold Pinter and Vaclav Havel shared the
same set of beliefs and seemed to fight for the same causes. In his 2011
text Dorfman does not mention the fact that in 1999 Havel and Pinter
found themselves on the opposite sides, concerning the NATO aggression
against Yugoslavia12.
Quite naturally, Dorfman discovered Pinters characters on the
streets of his Chile, a country where those who suffered and those who inflicted the suffering had to live side by side (Dorfman 2011:152). He could
feel both the torturers and the tortured around him and that is what inspired him to write Death and the Maiden. In an article How Harold Pinters
Kindness Saved My Play, published in the Telegraph on 12 October 2011,
Dorfman explained not only how Harold Pinter influenced him as a writer,
but also how his support, concerning the premier of Death and the Maiden,
was of crucial importance for his subsequent artistic career:
It is not only a matter of Pinters influence on me as a writer, how the resonance of his own work echoes in the silences that surround and undermine
the woman who has been raped and seeks revenge, the doctor whom she
captures and accuses of being her torturer, the husband who must defend
that doctor in order to save the wife he loves and his own ambitious career.
Not only that Pinters plays inspired me as a young and fledgling author in
Chile back in the Sixties, taught me so much about stagecraft and character,
cruelty and subtlety and tenderness, to the point that my first book, in 1968,
was an analysis of Harolds work. Similar things could be said of many writers around the world. In the case of Death and the Maiden, however, Pinter
provided the play with much more than literary inspiration and remote
guidance (Dorfman 2011).
What Dorfman is referring to is the fact that it was not until Pinter offered the world premier of The New World Order that Death and the
Maiden got the consent to be staged in London for the first time. The play
Death and the Maiden remained the unbreakable bond between Pinter and
Dorfman and as an acknowledgment of that fact it was chosen to be the
first play to be staged in the London Comedy Theatre, when it was renamed
Harold Pinter Theatre, on September 7, 2011. This is the reason why Dorfman considers the story of this play, and the story of its coming into being,
a testimony to loyalty and friendship and generosity and love (Ibid.).
12 Harold Pinter criticised the NATO politics and spoke against the bombing of Yugoslavia, while
Havel supported it and allowed American military bases to be set on the soil of The Czech Republic,
despite the fact that the Czech people protested and demanded a referendum. Havel claimed that
such serious issue could not be decided by the people, but only by experts. In her essay The 21st
Century: Age of Consent or Concern? The Rise of Democratic Imperialism and Fall of William Shakespeare) Ljiljana Bogoeva Sedlar gives a comment on Vaclav Havels transformation his support for
all new American wars and interventions which Harold Pinter courageously opposed and criticised.
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Ivana S. Tai
The circumstances in Chile, on and after September 11 1973, were

depicted by John Pilger in the documentary War on Democracy13, and by
Ken Loach in the short film about 9/11 1973, made to remind the world
that 9/11 2001, was not the only September worth remembering. In Ken
Loachs film, one Chilean victim of the Pinochet coup of 9/11 1973 addresses the families of those who died in New York on 9/11 2001. He explains to them that they have in common not only the suffering of their
loved ones, but the date of the disaster as well. In his letter he reminds his
American co-sufferers that after Chiles democratic elections in September
1970, besides having milk for the children, land for the peasants and industry owned by the people, the Chileans for the first time also had dignity. However, their democratic decisions were not perceived as relevant by
the United States Government. As in many previous cases the US decided
to resort to violence in order to protect their markets and their profits,
which were their only interest. Ken Loachs Chilean who in the film gives
his testimony about the horrible tortures Chilean people had to endure
during and after the coup, has the same story to tell as Dorfman. Dorfman
saw the coup in Chile as an act of terrorism and the crime against humanity. Right after the coup Dorfman he had to leave Chile to save himself
from being executed because he was the close collaborator and advisor of
the president Salvador Allende, who was killed. Pablo Neruda, Chiles Nobel Prize winner and Allendes Minister of Culture who, unlike Dorfman,
did not leave Chile, died several weeks after the coup (or, as some continue
to claim, was killed). Pinter honoured Neruda in his Nobel lecture when he
quoted his poem Im Explaining a few Things as the best illustration of what
the world is like because of the crimes committed by America in Nerudas
Chile, but also in many other parts of the world.
Ariel Dorfman, Harold Pinter, John Pilger, Ken Loach and many
others consider the events of 9/11 2011 as the payback for the American
foreign policy. At the University of Turin, on the occasion of being awarded
an honorary doctoral degree, Harold Pinter stated: The atrocity in New
York was predictable and inevitable. It was an act of retaliation against
constant and systematic manifestations of state terrorism on the part of
the United States over many years, in all parts of the world.
In the text The Last September 11, published in Los Angeles Times ten
days after the attack on the World Trade Centre and The Pentagon, Ariel
Dorfman wrote about two possible paths this incident could lead to: A
crisis of this magnitude can lead to renewal or destruction, it can be used
for good or for evil, for peace or for war, for aggression or for reconciliation, for vengeance or for justice, for militarization of the society or for its
humanization (Dorfman 2004: 39-42). However, the United States chose
to pursue the course which ultimately led to the invasion and occupation
of Afghanistan and Iraq, and the escalation of violence throughout the
13 John Pilger, dir. The War on Democracy, Youngheart Entertainment, Granada Productions. 15 June
2007 (UK)
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world. About the bloodthirsty wild animal, as Harold Pinter called the US
administration in his Nobel lecture he had to say the following:
As every single person here knows, the justification for the invasion of Iraq
was that Saddam Hussein possessed a highly dangerous body of weapons of
mass destruction, some of which could be fired in 45 minutes, bringing about
appalling devastation. We were assured that was true. It was not true. We were
told that Iraq had a relationship with Al Qaeda and shared responsibility for
the atrocity in New York of September 11th 2001. We were assured that this
was true. It was not true. We were told that Iraq threatened the security of the
world. We were assured it was true. It was not true. The truth is something
entirely different. The truth is to do with how the United States understands
its role in the world and how it chooses to embody it (Pinter 2005).
In his Nobel lecture Harold Pinter mentions only a small fraction of

the political lies used in the second part of the 20 century and the first decade of the new millennium, which have caused devastation and suffering
all over the world. Both he and Dorfman could have directed the attention
of their art to many other topics, but they felt compelled to make the truth
their priority. They understood not only the importance of the aesthetic
and formal aspects of art, but also understood and emphasised the crucial
role art can play in raising moral questions and diagnosing the moral state
of the world. Their plays, although stylistically very different, serve the
same purpose that of uncovering and naming correctly the ethical failures which are bringing mankind to the brink of annihilation. Pinter was
very direct in his Nobel speech when he sarcastically pointed out that the
moral authority of the US resides in its fist14 and its bombs, and not in the
American sense of justice or respect for international law. He asked:
What is moral authority? Where does it come from? How do you achieve
it? Who bestows it upon you? How do you persuade others that you posses
it? You dont. You dont have to bother. What you have is power, bombs and
power. And thats your moral authority What has happened to our moral
sensibility? Did we ever have any? What do these words mean? Do they refer
to a term very rarely employed these days conscience? A conscience to do
not only with our own acts but to do with our shared responsibility in the
acts of others? Is all this dead? (Pinter 2005).
While the oppressors who claim to possess moral authority to intervene continue to create the new world order appropriate for themselves,
the role of the artist as Pinter and Galeano understood is to unmask the
lies on which the New World Order rests, which explains why the title of
14 In his Nobel lecture, Harold Pinter suggested a speech for President George Bush, where he also
explained the essence of moral authority claimed by the allegedly omnipotent US: I am the democratically elected leader of a freedom-loving democracy. We are a compassionate society. We give
compassionate electrocution and compassionate lethal injection. We are a great nation. I am not a
dictator. He is. I am not a barbarian. He is. And he is. They all are. I possess moral authority. You
see this fist? This is my moral authority. And dont you forget it (Pinter 2005).
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Ivana S. Tai
this chapter is appropriate and relevant. By unmasking the lies hidden by

appearances created by means of propaganda, hypocritical acts and the
mendacious15 language of the politicians, the artists struggle to prove that
another world the world of justice and love is possible. The Brazilian theatre maker, Augusto Boal, talked about this other world which is possible in
his 2009 World Theatre Day message, where he said:
When we look beyond appearances, we see oppressors and oppressed people,
in all societies, ethnic groups, genders, social classes and casts; we see an
unfair and cruel world. We have to create another world because we know
it is possible. But it is up to us to build this other world with our hands and
by acting on the stage and in our own life (Boal 2009).16
Pinter, Dorfman and other Latin American artists such as Boal and
Galeano help the readers see the vision of the better world more clearly,
by helping them perceive and understand more clearly the injustices hidden behind the world of surfaces. A good diagnostic example was given
by Galeano in the text the Confession of the Bombs written to protest, like
Pinter, the 1999 destruction of Yugoslavia. To unmask the hypocritical
claims to moral superiority of the US, EU and NATO, Galeano informed
his readers of the fact that very few people know:
A scandal recently surfaced in Great Britain. The most famous universities,
the most pious relief organizations and the most important hospitals invest
the pension funds of their employees in the weapons industry. Those responsible for education, charity and health care declared that they invest their
money in the firms that make the highest profits, the businesses of the arms
industry. A spokesperson of the University of Glasgow said very clearly:We
dont make any moral decisions. Whether the investments are profitable
interests us, not whether they are ethical (Galeano: 1999).
The nature of the moral environment which Galeanos disclosure

makes clear is the reason why Pinter and Dorfman used their art to uncover the truth, to question the alleged holders of moral authority, and to
try to answer why conscience is the word that has almost disappeared from
the world today.
15 Before Dorfman and Pinter, Tennessee Williams also dedicated himself to uncovering and rejecting
lies, especially in Big Daddys famous speech in Cat on the Hot Tin Roof: I could write a book on
[mendacity] and still not cover the subject? Think of all the lies I got to put up with!Pretenses!
Aint that mendacity?
16 http://artthreat.net/2009/05/augusto-boal-1931-2009/
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2. THE HOLOCAUST THEY WILL NOT SEE: HAROLD

PINTER AND ARIEL DORFMANS CRITICISM OF THE
IMPERIALIST IDEOLOGY
In his 2010 article The Holocaust We Will Not See, George Monbiot reminded the readers of the greatest acts of genocide committed throughout
the world from 1492 onwards. Having realised that the fate of the Native
Americans is the story no one wants to hear, he emphasised that Europe
was massively enriched by the genocides in the Americas, and that the
American nations were actually founded on them. In this text Monbiot
mentioned David Stannards 1992 book American Holocaust, which documents the massacres on the soil of the Americas that began with Columbus, and never actually ended. Like Harold Pinter, Monbiot understood
that the Second World War German Holocaust was not the only genocide
that had to be remembered, and that the greatest other genocides in history, such as the ones continually being committed by the US, the UK and
the NATO, scarcely ruffle our collective conscience (Monbiot 2010):
Perhaps this is what would have happened had the Nazis won the Second
World War: the Holocaust would have been denied, excused or minimised
in the same way, even as it continued. The people of the nations responsible Spain, Britain, the US and others will tolerate no comparisons, but
the final solutions pursued in the Americas were far more successful. Those
who commissioned or endorsed them remain national or religious heroes.
Those who seek to prompt our memories are ignored or condemned. (Ibid.)
Pinter had strong interests and involvement in the political destinies

of the countries of Latin America. The stages of his transformation from a
writer-humanist into a writer-humanist-political activist are marked by his
membership in numerous organizations, most importantly the Bertrand
Russell Peace Foundation, but also Amnesty International, PEN-International in Britain, June 20 Group17, and many other associations which
promote literature and defend freedom of expression all over the world.
He supported the Nuclear Disarmament Campaign and the movements for
liberation of Latin America; he supported the Sandinistas in Nicaragua,
and led the campaign against the blockade of Cuba. In addition, he was
the member of the Bertrand Russell Tribunal whose second session, after
Vietnam, was set up to investigate the situation in Latin America and the
violations of the Human Rights in Brazil, Chile and Argentina.
17 In 1986 Harold Pinter organised the June 20 Group with his wife. It was a group of writers and leading intellectuals who participated in regular meetings in order to question the appalling situation
[they] found themselves in England, under Mrs. Thatchers regime. Pinters conviction that this
regime was destroying the institutions in England, that the manipulation of power was the essence
of England and its politics, encouraged him to speak even more against the unjust and cynical acts
that were committed. They were drawing attention to the extraordinary blatant and corrupt use of
power in the electricity companies in England, for example. However, having worked in a rather
hostile surrounding, the activity of the group was restricted as a result of the harsh censorship
(Pinter 2005: 230).
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Ivana S. Tai
What fascinated Pinter most about Latin America were the revolutionary movements and social reforms on its soil. In Michael Billingtons
words, his politics was shaped by a mixture of his questioning conscience,
his network of friends and the immediate pressure of public events (Billington 1997:496). Pinter believed that the revolutions and the democratic
choices of Latin American people sharpened their political and cultural intelligence, and that the political socialist changes, as in Nicaragua in 1979
and Chile in 1971, brought spread of literacy and cultural development. He
closely collaborated with Latin American artists before and after the Pinochet
coup in Chile, the event that he understood and felt as the personal trauma:
I was appalled on the personal level by the fate of an Argentinean director
who had done one or two of my plays. He came to see me in London around
1970 and said that he was going to Chile. I never heard from him again and
I knew he ended up in the stadium for the disappeared in Santiago. So I
suppose, my political conscience, which had always been around, was refined
and distilled by experience (Ibid.).
After the overthrow of Allende government, Pinter unambiguously

informed the public about the CIA involvement in forcible political changes that brought down the legally elected democracies of Guatemala in 1951
and of Chile in 1973. In his 1987 article, The US Elephant Must Be Stopped,
published in The Guardian, he wrote:
The tortured of Latin America have been tortured for freedom, Christian
principles, the fight against Communism. The initial CIA may have become
an exhausted clich, good for a laugh, but the dead are not laughing (Pinter
2005: 185-89).
Dorfmans criticism of the imperialism and neo-colonialism was first

expressed in his influential book How to Read Donald Duck: Imperialist Ideology in the Disney Comic. The work was co-authored with Armand Matterat, and published in 1971 in the middle of the Chilean revolutionary
process, during the presidency of Salvador Allende. As Dorfman explained
in the 1975 preface to the first English edition of this work, How to Read
Donald Duck was censored and burned at the time of Pinochets dictatorship in Chile, together with many other works that criticised the imposition of US imperialism:
They broke records, murdered singers18, destroyed radios and printing
presses, imprisoned and executed journalists, so that nothing would be left
to remind anybody of anything about the struggle for national liberation
(Dorfman 1991:21).
18 Victor Jara is a Chilean poet, singer and a threatre director who was arrested, tortured and ultimately killed after the 1973 Chilean coup due to his communist political beliefs and open support
for Allendes revolution in 1971. Adrian Mitchel, a British poet, playwright and novelist wrote a
poem about him which was turned into a song by Arlo Guthrie.
http://trevsongs.typepad.com/blog/2007/05/victor-jara-written-by-adrian-mitchell-arlo-guthrie.html
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In the book Dorfman focused on the positive political and economic

revolutionary changes in Chile and the intentions of the US after the 1971
revolution. He wrote:
[] the whole Chilean people were recovering the industries that during the
twentieth century had been the means of enrichment for Mr. Rockefeller,
Grace, Guggenheim and Morgan. Because this process was intolerable to the
United States government and its multinational corporations, it had to be
stopped. They organized a plan which at the time was suspected, and since
has been confirmed by Mr. Kissinger, Ford and Colby to have been directed
and financed by the United States intelligence services. Their objective, to
overthrow the constitutional government of Chile (Ibid.).
As usual, economic blockade and embargo were imposed and other

measures taken to conquer the minds of the Chileans. Finally in 1973 the
military coup took place, enforced by propaganda and the media:
Each day with expert US advice, in each newspaper, each weekly, each
monthly magazine, each news dispatch, each movie and each comic book,
their arsenal of psychological warfare was fortified. In the words of General
Pinochet, the point was to conquer the minds while in the words of Donald
Duckthe point was to restore the king (Ibid.).
In the preface to the 1975 English edition, in order to document the

difference between the socialist conception of Alendes Chile and that of
the Pinochet regime, Dorfman writes about the revolutionary project carried out by of the State Publishing House Quimantu, (the name means The
Sunshine of Knowledge in the native language of Chilean Indians). It managed to publish five million books in two and a half years, and it was a sign
of, a people on the march to cultural liberation- the process which also
meant criticizing the mass cultural merchandise exported so profitably by
the US to the Third World19. That is how and why How to Read Donald
Duck was created. As Dorfmans biographer and critic Sophia A. McClennen points out, this work dismantles the seemingly innocuous characters
of Donald Duck and his pals, and demonstrates how they serve to colonize
Latin America through a repeated litany of tales favoring capitalism, U.S.
imperialism, and the infantilization of the reader (McClennen 2010:175).
Wishing to remind us of the influence of this work in Latin America, in the
paper entitled Beyond Death and the Maiden - Ariel Dorfmans Media Criticism and Journalism, McClennen wrote:
Dorfman and Mattelarts groundbreaking analysis of the ways that Donald
Duck comics circulated in Chile influenced a wide range of intellectuals globally and in Latin AmericaWhat sets the work of Dorfman apart from that
of most of the critics originally associated with the cultural turn, and those
19 Sophia A. McClennen: Beyond Death and the Maiden - Ariel Dorfmans Media Criticism and Journalism, Pennsylvania State University, University Park
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Ivana S. Tai
that have continued in their wake, is his commitment to combining critique

with creative work, his persistent faith in the emancipatory possibilities of
engaged art, and his efforts to redefine the discursive boundaries that shape
social communication.
In 1971, when Dorfman published How to Read Donald Duck: Imperialist Ideology in the Disney Comic, another important Latin American book appeared, Eduardo Galeanos Open Veins of Latin America: Five
Centuries of the Pillage of the Continent20. Galeanos book provides the
readers with the detailed overview of the crimes, manipulations and exploitation the people of South America suffered throughout the centuries
of white mans rule. In the same way as Dorfman, Eduardo Galeano understood that the fate of Latin American writers is linked to the need for profound social transformations. To awaken consciousness, to reveal identity
can literature claim a better function in these times in these lands?
(Galeano 1007:13).
The issues that both Dorfman and Galeano explored were also the
subject of Aime Cesaires 1955 Discourse on Colonialism. Cesaires analyses of the dominant imperial ideologies spread throughout Africa were relevant for the region of Latin America as well, and continue to be relevant
today, as they shed light on the reasons why the world is controlled by force
and fear. Cesaire courageously spoke the truth about the colonial practices
in Africa, claiming that colonization is neither evangelization, nor a philanthropic enterprise, nor a desire to push back the frontiers of ignorance,
disease, and tyranny, nor a project undertaken for the greater glory of God,
nor an attempt to extend the rule of law (Cesaire 1995:11). The critique of
popular cultural forms, How to Read Donald Duck: Imperialist Ideology in
the Disney Comic (1971), written by Ariel Dorfman and Armand Mattelart,
is Dorfmans contribution to the same effort: to call things by their right
name and encourage in his compatriots the critical awareness of the US
imperial lies, carefully masked as progress and democracy. The methods
by which the colonisation of the imagination of the subjected peoples was
achieved was masterfully deconstructed by another great Latin American,
the Brazilian Paulo Freire, in his book The Pedagogy of the Oppressed,
published in 1968. Latin America was on the move, resisting occupation
and recovering its stolen identity.
20 At the Summit of the Americas in Trinidad and Tobago on April 17 2009, where he vowed to repair relations with Latin America, President Obama briefly met with Venezuelan President Hugo
Chavez, who gave him a copy of this book of Eduardo Galeano as a reminder of all the atrocities that
the US committed in Latin America. After this event, Obama had to respond to harsh criticism he
was exposed to for shaking hands with President Chavez.
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3. HAROLD PINTERS COUNTERBLAST AND ARIEL

DORFMANS COMPROMISE
Harold Pinters exploration of political reality, especially the construction and maintenance of various types of repression, preoccupied him
throughout his life. In his openly political plays, Party Time (1991) and
Celebration (2000), which appeared in the last decade of the twentieth century, he found an efficient way to provide his audience with the answer to
the question he continually and courageously asked in his art, the question of how power actually operates. These two plays explore the theme
of celebrations, and make the audience aware of the power games played
behind the closed doors of salons, restaurants or luxury mansions. Pinters characters in these plays are members of various elite clubs, claiming
to be inspired by the unshakeable, rigorous, fundamental and constant
sets of moral values. In fact, they are responsible for the horrors and the
crimes that occur outside their sheltered retreats and, in Michael Billingtons words, the audience is faced with their cocooned indifference to
global cruelty21. As Pinter explained in his 1996 interview with Mireia
Aragay, There was a world which didnt actually bother to discuss the acts
of military and police repression for which they were responsible (Pinter
2005:220). The ones who dare to oppose them and expose them are forced
out of the games they could not, or would not, consent to play.
Pinters earlier work that had explored the theme of celebration, and
that may be compared to Party Time and Celebration, is The Birthday Party,
the play that also brings into light the power game of the oppressor and the
oppressed that underpins our reality. Stanley Webber is terrorized by the
two mysterious visitors, Goldberg and McCann, who subject him to the interrogation process and force him into the birthday celebration that ends
with the complete destruction of his character and spirit. In the text Symbolism of Celebration in Pinters Birthday Party, Party Time, Counterblast and
Celebration, published in Nasledje, Journal of Language, Literature, Art and
Culture, Radmila Nastic, Professor at the Faculty of Philology and Arts at
the University of Kragujevac, wrote about the political activism of Harold
Pinter and of the significance of celebrations in his works. She compared
Pinters play The Birthday Party with his television program Counterblast,
aired at BBC2 on 4th May 1999, while the NATO bombs were still destroying Yugoslavia. It is important to remember that in 1999, NATO celebrated
its 50th anniversary by staging the attack on Yugoslavia, the longest and the
most expensive birthday party in history. The bombing of Yugoslavia lasted
78 days, from 24 March to June 1, 1999. Nastic explains:
Situations from Pinters The Birthday Party seem to have come true. The
plays protagonist Stanley has the double meaning of a scapegoatHarold
Pinters Counterblast showed rudiments of a similar ritual to be performed
21 Michael Billington: On Directing Harold Pinters Works
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Ivana S. Tai
on the country Yugoslavia, subsequently Serbia, one of many such cases

in recent wars. Dumb executioners and eloquent spokesmen conduct stickand-carrot procedure analogous to Goldbergs and McCanns, in which the
hero-victim is both wooed and threatened. In the language of The Birthday
Party, and in the name of principles and values, the people is offered a new
pair of glasses in order to see straight, after being cockeyed for years. It is
promised/threatened with a long convalescence somewhere over the rainbow,
where angels fear to thread, to be reoriented, adjusted, integrated and to
become executioners pride and joy, a success in the world. Having no more
real tongue of its own, it mumbles and mutters its consents or dissents like
Stanley in the last act (Nastic 2009).
On June 5, 1999 Harold Pinter organised an anti-war demonstrations

in front of the Imperial War Museum in London, where he openly criticised
the politics of the British Labour Government which wholeheartedly supported the US aggression on Yugoslavia, still in progress while the demonstrations were being held. In his address to the protesters Pinter said:
Little did we think two years ago that we had elected a government which
would take a leading role in what is essentially a criminal act, showing total
contempt for the United Nations and international law Let us face the
truth. The truth is that neither Clinton nor Blair gives a damn about the
Kosovar Albanians. This action has been yet another blatant and brutal assertion of US power using NATO as its missile. It set out to consolidate one
thing - American domination of Europe. This must be fully recognised and
it must be resisted22
Along with the statement that because of the brutal attack on Yugoslavia he is ashamed to be British, Pinters criticism of the attack on
Yugoslavia and the civilisation against barbarism policy of Blair, NATO
and the United States, appeared in Socialist Review in June of 1999. In the
text he insisted that the true danger to the world peace was not former
Yugoslavia, but the US, the UK, and NATO:
When the bomb went off in Old Compton Street, Mr Blair described it as
a barbaric act. When cluster bombs go off in Serbian marketplaces, cutting
children into pieces, we are told that such an act is being taken on behalf of
civilisation against barbarism NATO is destroying the infrastructure of a
sovereign state, murdering hundreds of civilians, creating widespread misery and desolation, and doing immeasurable damage to the environment.23
Two years later, on the occasion of being awarded an honorary doctorate at the University of Florence, Harold Pinter spoke about the NATO
bombing of Yugoslavia and the civilian victims of the attack on the city
of Ni. He wanted to emphasise that this act of terrorism was not a mis22 http://www.haroldpinter.org/politics/politics_serbia.shtml
23 http://www.haroldpinter.org/politics/politics_serbia.shtml
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take, as NATO had claimed. He quoted to the public what General Wesley
Clark said, as the NATO bombing began: We are going to systematically
and progressively attack, disrupt, degrade, devastate and ultimately unless President Milosevic complies with the demands of the international
community destroy these forces and their facilities and support (Pinter
2005:238-40). Such interventions, masked by the term humanitarian, as
well as the misuse of language on such occasions, were criticised and condemned by Pinter. The bombing of Ni, far from being a mistake, was
in fact an act of murder But the actions taken, we are told, were taken
in pursuance of a policy of humanitarian intervention and the civilian
deaths were described as collateral damage (Ibid.). Once again, as he had
done in his Nobel Lecutre, Pinter dared to unmask the true nature of the
US interventions, because he understood how important the condemnation of political lies was. He was not afraid to speak out, to speak up, to
speak for the ones who were unjustly demonised and destroyed, because of
their unwillingness to submit to the civilizing interventions of the alleged
world democracies.
Through his art and through his career as an activist, Ariel Dorfman
also insisted on the importance of using every opportunity to speak out
for justice and truth, convinced that, as a writer, he was not allowed to
remain neutral. However, whereas in his struggle for justice and truth Harold Pinter remained fateful to his ideals, Dorfmans voice of protest seems
to be gradually growing silent and attuned to the interests of the compassioned America that embraced him after the 1973 Chilean coup. It is
important to state that in 2004 Dorfman became a US citizen, and that
since 1985 he has been employed as a professor of literature and Latin
American StudiesbyDuke University, inDurham, North Carolina.
In 2000, Dorfman was asked by Kerry Kennedy Cuomo to read her
book of interviews with over fifty human rights defenders, and to turn
their voices into a play. He did so, and in the same year their collaboration resulted in the release of the play Speak Truth to Power: Voices from
Beyond the Dark. As Dorfman explained, this play was about the people
who either suffered violence personally, or witnessed another human being, a group or a nation being violated. Having experienced similar things
himself, he felt that he was, personally, part of the common struggle of all
those people who managed to find the courage, and the way, to speak out
and reveal the truth about disappearances, abductions, confinements, sexual harassment, censorship24 that took place all over the world. He wrote:
24 Ariel Dorfmans play that deals with the issue of censorship is Reader, a play about a censor who
realizes that the novel he wishes to ban is actually the story of his own life. Commenting on this
play, Dorfman explained: I discovered that Reader had depths and dilemmas where an agent of
the State has to confront the terrible truth that, if you destroy another human being, you will end
up destroying yourself as well How is reality itself constructed for us and by us and without us,
how can we tell what is true and what is false if we do not simultaneously question power, if we have
lost our capacity to separate good from evil? See: Ariel Dorfman: The Resistance Trilogy, Death and
the Maiden Nick Hern Books, London, 2012. pp 212-214
177
Ivana S. Tai
They were becoming more courageous the more they spoke out, the more
they destroyed the silence, the more they fought back against the darkness (Dorfman 2003). Because he had been spared from death during the
coup in 1973, Dorfman felt that his special task was to speak for the ones
who were silenced by death. He believed that: It meant that the wisdom
[he] had accumulated, talent that [he] might have, was in the service of
those voices, that [he] was one of those voices (Ibid.). The words that open
Speak Truth to Power: Voices from Beyond the Dark are the following:
Courage begins with one voice. Its that simple. I did what I had to do. That
is what we know. You walk into the corridor of death and you know. You
know this moment might be your last (Ibid.).
Through these words, Ariel Dorfman enables his audience to perceive what the defenders of human rights and the defenders of truth have
in common. What they all share are powerful moral convictions which enable them to overcome the natural human fear of death, and give them
courage to make the truth their driving force and their main source of
strength. The first person who was given the voice to speak out in Speak
Truth to Power: Voices from Beyond the Dark is Guillaume Ndefa Atondoko,
from the Congo, who was sentenced to death because he dared to oppose
the racist practices in his country:
I am told that as a child I reached out to others. I befriended pygmies, even
though in my community, in the Congo, they were considered to be animals.
I cut bread with them, I brought them to our house, I gave them my clothes.
It was sick to society that I associated with pygmies, but I saw them as my
friends, just like anyone else (Ibid.)25.
Dorfman was amazed by the confessions of people like Guillaume,

or by the fate of people like Digna Ochoa, a nun and lawyer disappeared
and tortured in Mexico because she wanted to make known the truth about
her disappeared father. He understood that people such as Desmond Tutu,
the Nobel Peace Prize Laureate and the human rights defender who opposed the Apartheid, Hose Zalaquett, a lawyer who organised the defence
of prisoners in Chile after the coup, and many other activists from all over
the world, shared his life experience. If people could not prepare themselves for death, they should not decide to defy the regime (Ibid.). It is
exactly what Martin Luther King understood, when he explained to his
Civil Rights friends and activists that freeing oneself from the fear of death
was the first step towards the successful struggle for justice in the United
States as well as in other parts of the world:
25 Dorfmans play Speak Truth to Power: Voices from Beyond the Dark gives voices to fifty human rights
activists from all over the world.
178
/ , , / XVII / 59
You know when I say dont be afraid you know what I really mean. Dont
even be afraid to die. I submit to you tonight, no man is free if he fears death.
But the minute you conquer the fear of death, at that moment, you are free.
You must say somehow I dont have much money. I dont have much education. I may not be able to read and write, but I have the capacity to die26.
The paradox that Ariel Dorfmans play Speak Truth to Power: Voices
from Beyond the Dark was premiered in Washington, D.C. in 2000, as part of
Speak Truth to Power Project of the Robert F. Kennedy Center for Justice and
Human Rights, casts a shadow on his more recent intentions and motives.
Why would he allow the American political establishment, the perpetrators
of crimes against humanity his play denounces, to appear as patrons of the
arts and supporters of the efforts to reveal the truth about the crimes they
themselves committed? The project was hosted by the American President
Bill Clinton, who less than one year earlier had ordered the criminal NATO
attack on Yugoslavia. It is important to note that Ariel Dorfman considered
Natasa Kandic to be one of the voices made audible in this play. In 2000,
Natasa Kandic, who approved of the intervention against Yugoslavia, was
awarded a medal by the American National Endowment for Democracy.
Ljiljana Bogoeva Sedlar wrote that the award actually put her where she
belongs, together with the likes of Richard Holbrooke, Wesley Clark and
other military and diplomatic heroes who had done so much to bring
democracy to Serbia in 199927.
This case reveals the enormous contrast that came to exist between
Dorfman and Pinter. While Harold Pinter criticized presidents Clinton and
Blare for their joint actions not only against Yugoslavia but also in other parts of the world, Ariel Dorfman remained silent. His silence implied
that he supported the politics responsible for countless deaths of people
throughout the world. How could Dorfman consent to being hosted by
Clinton, the political hypocrite of the type always to be seen in the political
tragedies of South America in the second half of the XX century? Clinton
(like Obama today) praised Martin Luther Kings legacy, while in practice
committing all the political crimes King condemned and died exposing.
This is a part of Bill Clintons speech at the Kennedy Center:
If you believe that every person matters, that every person has a story and
a voice that deserves to be heard, then you must believe that what all human rights defenders do everywhere is worth doing. Let us never develop a
sense of futility, for the people we honor tonight have proved the wisdom
of Martin Luther Kings timeless adage that the arc of history is long but it
bends towards justice28.
26 http://www.earthstation1.com/Martin_Luther_King.html
27 See: Ljiljana Bogoeva Sedlar, The 21st Century: Age of Consent or Concern? The Rise of Democratic
Imperialism and Fall of William Shakespeare, Nasledje, Journal of Language, Literature, Art and
Culture, Year 6, Volume 12, 2009.
28 Bill Clintons speech at the opening ceremony of Speak Truth to Power Project in 2000
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LlmkKhWZazo&list=PLB656F0F6602B3D24
179
Ivana S. Tai
To Pinter, the irony and the cynicism of this speech would have been
apparent and intolerable. It is rather confusing that his great admirer, Ariel Dorfman, found nothing objectionable in it, and appeared as one of the
most important figures in the project supported by the US Government,
whose politics based on deception and terrorism in the name of democracy
and protection of human rights he seemed to deplore. Did he forget how
and why his country was destroyed in 1973, and why he was forced into
exile by that very democracy? Did he eventually incline towards the side of
the oppressor and discover that he actually loved Big Brother? Ultimately,
Ariel Dorfman became one of the artists who turn out to be like Orwells
Winston Smith. Once revolutionaries and rebels of their times, they eventually resort to doublethink and begin to produce paradoxes which they
once tried to expose. For various reasons (career opportunities) they allow
the dominant ideology to engulf them. They try to preach reconciliation29
which is a politically correct word for moral capitulation. The image of a
rebel and a revolutionary they uphold comes to hide the actual accomplice.
Is this kind of transformation really inevitable?
An acclaimed American poet, Adrienne Rich (1929-2012), showed
that there is an alternative to the consent of this kind. In an open letter
entitled Why I Refused the National Medal for the Arts (1997) she explained
why she refused to accept the award from President Clinton, the same
president Dorfman was happy to associate with in 2000. Unlike Dorfman,
who did not mind Clintons presence and his hypocritical preaching about
human rights at the Kennedy Center, this is how Rich explained to Jane
Alexander, the chair of the National Endowment for the Arts, the reasons
for her refusal of the medal they wished to give her:
I just spoke with a young man from your office, who informed me that I
had been chosen to be one of twelve recipients of the National Medal for the
Arts at a ceremony at the White House in the fall. I told him at once that I
could not accept such an award from President Clinton or this White House
because the very meaning of art, as I understand it, is incompatible with the
cynical politics of this administration. I want to clarify to you what I meant
by my refusal (Rich 1997, italics added)30.
Rich believed in arts social presence as breaker of official silences, as voice for those whose voices are disregarded, and as a human
birthright(Ibid.). As the artist who had witnessed the increasingly brutal
impact of racial and economic injustice in her country, she tried in her letter to clarify and celebrate the importance of art, and to criticise her own
29 The case of the historian Caroline Elkins is instructive. She read in the textbooks she was assigned
at Harvard University about the wonderful reconciliation Britain achieved in Kenya. During her
PhD research she discovered that the situation was actually diametrically opposite, and that the
reconciliation was an attempt to hide the colonial crimes committed by the British in that country. Nigerian writer Wole Soyinka used the example of Kenya in his 1986 Nobel lecture.
30 Adrienne Rich: Why I Refused the National Medal for the Arts, Los Angeles Times Book Section , August 3, 1997.
180
/ , , / XVII / 59
country for investing in war and destruction far more than in peace and
support for art and human creativity. Like Adrienne Rich, Harold Pinter
ended his Nobel Lecture with a similar appeal to the world to stand up and
save human dignity from the many forces which are trying to erode and
destroy it. The hypocrisy Rich and Pinter saw, and attacked whenever they
saw it, seems to have stopped bothering Pinters alleged admirer, Dorfman.
4. CONCLUSION
It is obvious that, with time, Pinters critical reactions to the global
political situation became more open and more explicit. For him, the violations of international law and other crimes committed by the US, UK and
NATO were intolerable. He could not stand the lies Clinton, Bush and Blare
were fabricating to mask their aggressive, murderous policies throughout
the world. His 2005 Nobel Lecture, his last plays, speeches, interviews and
other texts, as well as his 1999 television program Counterblast, make this
clear. As a writer and anti-war activist he fought against the thick tapestry
of lies covering the world by inventing different strategies with which to
fight for the peoples right to know the truth.
In spite of his declared admiration for Pinter, Ariel Dorfman has
been going through a process which seems quite the opposite. The uncompromising attitudes that he wholeheartedly stood for after the 1973 Chilean coup seem to have begun to weaken, casting a shadow on his recent,
rare attempts to criticise the crimes perpetrated by the Western powers
in the twenty first century. We have already seen that, in 2000, the first
performance of Dorfmans play Speak Truth to Power: Voices from beyond the
Dark was organised and hosted at the Robert F. Kennedy Center for Justice and Human Rights by the US President Bill Clinton. Dorfman has not
explained how he could find this situation acceptable, in light of the fact
that his friend Harold Pinter, in the same year, at the Aristotle University
in Thessaloniki, called Clintons attack on Yugoslavia a blatant criminal
violation of international law and the UN and EU charters. Dorfmans recent artistic achievements were backed and promoted by the US government institutions and by the American political leaders, in spite the fact
that other options were possible, as the celebration of Harold Pinters art
in the US, only one year after Dorfmans premiere, shows. The celebration
was supported not by the American political establishment but by by the
prominent American artists such as Edward Albee, John Guare and Arthur
Miller, to mention a few, who shared Pinters artistic and political views. In
2001, at the Lincoln Center Festival, nine Pinter plays were staged, as well
as a discussion of Pinters life and work.
The different road Dorfman seems to be taking is visible in his most
recent text, How to Forgive Your Torturer?, written in June 2014. In it, Dorfman referrers to the results of an Amnesty International survey, released
181
Ivana S. Tai
in May of this year, according to which 45% of Americans believe that

torture issometimes necessary and acceptable in order to gain information that may protect the public, whereas (when asked the same question)
twenty-nine percent of Britons strongly or somewhat agreed that torture
was justified(Dorfman 2014). Dorfman did not use the opportunity this
text provided him with, to shed some light on how these depressing statistics are related to what the American leaders and the US government are
doing to make their citizens accept enhanced interrogations as necessary
to keep Americans safe.
In the same text Dorfman also stated that he was chosen by the BBC
to tell the story of the WW II British officer, Eric Lomax, who met his
Japanese torturer, Takashi Nagase, forty years after the war. When Nagase asked Lomax for forgiveness, Lomax offered Nagase the absolution
that he needed in order to live and die in peace (Dorfman 2014). It is important to mention that this was not the first time that Dorfman praised
and promoted reconciliations of this kind. In 2010 he delivered the Eighth
Nelson Mandela Annual Lecture Whose Memory? Whose Justice? A Meditation on How and When and If to Reconcile at the Linder Auditorium in
Johannesburg31, where he also insisted on understanding our enemies
stories in order for true reconciliation to be achieved. While this sounds
commendable, he failed to address the fact that most of the problems that
the world is facing today may be related to the fact that the US, UK and the
member states of NATO, never offer apologies or ask forgiveness for the
crimes they commit all over the world.
On September 10, 2001, commenting on the UN World Conference
Against Racism held in Durban, South Africa, from 31 August to 8 September, the New Statesman journalist, Darcus Howe, reported that the conference collapsed in recriminations against Israel, against calls for an apology from Europeans for the Atlantic slave trade, against calls for reparations
for one of the most horrible, barbaric, evil, vicious, corrupt moment in the
history of humanity32. Unlike Dorfman, Howe was appalled that the world
leading powers refused to apologise for slavery and pay reparations for the
exploitation of others that made them rich.
Covering the same issue, a passage from the text Slavery was theft:
we should pay, published in the same issue of The New Statesman, reads:
Justice demands debt relief for Africa and opportunities for African countries
to sell their goods to the developed world. The word reparation is merely a
recognition that these are obligations, not acts of charity. People who talk
about reparations may seem to be off with the fairies, but they are more
realistic than those who babble about reconciliation. There will be no rec-
31 The First Nelson Mandela annual Lecture was delivered by Bill Clinton on 19 July 2003.
32 Darcus Howe: In Durban, the black woman peer did the white mans dirty work, The New Statesman,
10 September, 2001. See: http://www.newstatesman.com/node/141102
182
/ , , / XVII / 59
onciliation until white governments and white public opinion unreservedly

accept the need for justice.33
Instead of urging Western governments to accept the need for justice and admit the scope and the tragic consequences of their crimes, Ariel
Dorfman seems to have chosen to play it safe. Without holding to account
those who conceived of, and for centuries carried out crimes against whole
continents, who, as the Durban conference showed, refuse to apologise
or ask for forgiveness, he continues to urge individual victims of colonial
and neo-colonial interventions to offer forgiveness, accept what had been
done to them, and move on. Unlike him, Pinter clearly understood that as
an artist he had to unmask the true perpetrators of the crimes committed
throughout Western history, and refuse to consent to them, or celebrate
fake reconciliations. As the recent decades have shown, all such seemingly progressive compromises have only made the repetition of the same
crimes possible. Dorfman seems to have gradually adjusted himself to the
power game he once so eagerly opposed and criticised. Is the fate of Doctor
Miranda slowly becoming his own?
Using the contrast between Pinter and Dorman, one of the goals of
this paper was to highlight the ongoing process in which the keepers of the
New World Order attempt and often manage to create artists whose task
is to divert the attention of the audience away from the most important
issues of the day- the countless wars, and the horrors of ceaseless destruction of human life. To use Jim Morrisons words, the Lords who control the
masses pay well for art through which they can confuse us and blind
us to our enslavement. Art adorns our prison walls, keeps us silent and diverted and indifferent.34 Time will tell if Ariel Dorfman has embarked on
a transition to this other side, where truth and justice are not priorities.
What the future will reveal, however, does not at the moment diminish the
significance of his works.
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Saa Peri / OUTLINES OF A NEW POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC PHILOSOPHY
IN LATIN AMERICA
Summary / During the last two decades Latin America has seen a number of political changes that have drawn the attention of the whole world. he initial impulse
for a significant part of these changes has come from social movements that were
formed during the last several decades in this region. This paper analyzes some of the
tendencies characteristic of many left oriented social movements in Latin America
and points out certain principles they advocate. What is common for many of the
movements is the fact that, besides fighting for the improvement of living conditions
of certain social groups, they also formulate clear demands for a radical transformation of society. The goal they strive for is an egalitarian and humane society based
200
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on the principles of direct democracy, horizontalism and pluralism, where all the
citizens would have a chance to directly participate in the process of organizing and
governing social relations. The demand for overcoming the existing system also includes rejection of capitalism, as well as reassessment of the foundations of modern
economy: the aims of all human production, the ways this production is organized,
and the ways resources are distributed among people.
Keywords: Latin America, social movements, political philosophy, philosophy of
economics, egalitarianism, direct democracy, Buen vivir
j 2016.
2016.
201

821.134(7/8):06.068
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1 bogoeval@yahoo.com
2 (28. , 1853 19. , 1895) , ,
. .
Jose Marti, Inside the Monster: Writings on the United States
and American Imperialism, Translated by Elinor Randall, With additional translations by Luis A.
203
1959.
,
, . ,
,
. ( ,
, ) 1960.
.
1998. 3 ( 4,
), . 1960.
.
j ,
, , , , o , ,

.

. ,
,
- , , : (1996)
, Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace:
How We Got to Be So Hated (2002)5,
2010.
Baralt, Juan de Onis and Roslyn Foner, Edited, with an Introduction and Notes by Philip S. Foner,
Montly Review Press, New York and London. 1975. Our America: writings on Latin America and the struggle for Cuban
independence, 1977. .
3 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SHG60P2ECNk
4 (1925-1996), 1958.
. , 7 9 , .
, a 21. .
, .
5 , Ser como ellos y otros artculos 1992., 1996.
; 2004. , , .
204
/ , , / XVII / 59

, , ,
, 1945-1956. 6. 2011.

, 2012.,
, 2006.
, 7. ,
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.8
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2008. ( , )9,
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,
, :
6 8. 2011, Guatemala victims of US
syphilis study still haunted by the devils experiment. Survivors tell of damaged lives after being
deliberately infected in secret 1940s experiment on 1,500 men, women and children. http://www.
theguardian.com/world/2011/jun/08/guatemala-victims-us-syphilis-study
7 Guernica . https://www.guernicamag.com/interviews/el-boom/
8 https://www.guernicamag.com/interviews/el-boom/
9 : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bush_
shoeing_incident
205
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, ,
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.
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.
.
, , 17.
1830. ,
, .
, ,
, . .11
2.
-- 12, 2006. ,
, ,

10 , (Gerald Horne) ,
2014. The Counter-Revolution of 1776: Slave Resistance and the Origins of the United States of
America, ,
,
1807. .
, , 10 , , ,
. 2009. (Douglas
Blackmone) Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil
War to World War II, ,
.
11 , http://www.
democracynow.org/2007/3/12/hugo_chavez_to_george_w_bush
12 BBC Four, Autumn 2006, Anthropology seasn (Tom Harrison, Carlos Castaneda, Margaret Mead,
Bronislaw Malinowski) http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2006/09_september/12/four_anthropology.shtml
206
/ , , / XVII / 59
, , . , , , , , j

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), ,
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,
, , (1858-1942)

.

13,
17. 1939. ,
, ,
.
160 , ,
66% 20%
.

1939. . ,
, .
13 https://www.academia.edu/333081/Franz_Boas_and_Anti-Racist_Education
207
, ,
.
, .
,
, e
, .

. 1939. , ,
,
. 1941.
, ,
;
; ,
.14
, , , .

Introduction to Race Relations ( Ernest Cashmore, Barr
Troyna), 1990. , ,
,
(Cyril Burt), Aj (Hans Eysenck),
(Richard Herrnstein), , (William Shockley),
14 Schools Rebuked on Racial Errors! Prof Boas Charges Many Use Textbooks that Support Nazi Doctrine! wrote an outraged New York Times on July 17, 1939. In the article, Franz Boas derides American schools for promoting false and potentially dangerous ideas about the concept of human race.
His study of 160 high school textbooks in geography, history, civics and biology found that a majority
(66%) of the books misused the race concept and an astounding 20% explicitly promoted the kind of
white supremacy that mirrored Naziracial doctrines. (...) In 1939...the New York State Chamber of
Commerce published a series of polemical reports that, rst insisted on the physical and intellectual
supremacy ofwhite Anglo-Saxons, and second employed this logic to cut educational funding for
New Yorks working-class, racially stigmatized population.Religion and health, in that order, are
the two most important subjects that can be taught to American youth, the authors contended,
especially in a metropolis like New York City. The business elite demanded an end to state-funded
kindergartens, high schools and universities and won a devastating $10 million dollar budget cut to
public education. The real blow to Boas was the so-called science employed to make these claims,
Conquest by Immigration, written by eugenicist Harry H Laughlin and funded by the Carnegie Institute for publication in 1939. This was the same pseudo-science Boas devoted a lifetime of scholarship
to undermining, and yet here it was, published by a reputable source to ravage public education. The
breadth of Boas response to the Chamber of Commerce attack on public education is staggering. He
held press conferences denouncing the reports and collected endorsements from major scientific
organizations including the AAA for his critical pamphlet Science CondemnsRacism (1939) that challenged Laughlins report point by point. Boas organized teacher rallies, spoke on radio shows, put
together a lecture panel at the 1939 Worlds Fair, and continued to speak on the subject even after
the school budget was restored in 1940. In 1941, Boas recalled furious.
208
/ , , / XVII / 59
1974.
, ,
, .
- ,
.15

(1925-1961), , . (1961)16,
,

. , ,
. , 1954. 1962. ,
, ,

, , (Fanon 2004: 221-225).

1918. Annales Medico Psychologique.
, ,
1939. , ,
. , ,
Sud Medical et Chirurgical,
,
, 15 1956. .

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UaoEWR2ndvA&ebc=ANyPxKoqyjwPxGTATLLk1M_WPeCcA8zSaDvbvPxKF7GzhDoCuB2zelgPNEmlBKQgrTJP-1t4P_P0gcUA6iBgGAL22S4cqC2FdA
, : My research
leads me inescapably to the opinion that the major cause of the American Negros intellectual and
social deficit is hereditary, and racially genetic in origin, and thus not remediableby practical
improvements in environment.
16 Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth,translated from the French by Richard Philcox, with commentary by John Paul Sartre and Homi K. Bhabba, Grove Press, New York, 2004.
181-235.
209
. 1954.
,
(Charothers), The
African Mind in Health and Disease: A Study in Ethnopsychiatry. (Ibid.: 226-227).

21. . , 26. 2002. , , :
- , , ,
2002. ,
1398,
.
28.
. . ,
, ,
, !

, .

. , ,

, 1389.
. [] ,
. ,
,
( 2011: 337-8).

,
, .
2008. ( ) . ,
, .
, ,
(, , , )
,
, 210
/ , , / XVII / 59

. 1851. , , ,
e , ,
,

.
, ,

. , ,
, .17

( submissive knee-benders, , ) ,
, . ,
,
, ,
,
, , .
, . ,
1994 N. H. I. 21. 18,
, .
, (Knowledge on Trial) , N. H. I. (No Humans Involved), ,
1992. , ,
.
,
. N.H.I. .
, , , .
17 Dr. Samuel Cartwright, Diseases and Peculiarities of the Negro Race, De Bows Review Southern
and Western States, Volume XI, New Orleans, 1851.
(PBS), (Judgment Day)
(Africans in America). http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h3106t.html
18 Forum N.H.I. Knowledge for the 21st Century, Vol. 1 No. 1, Fall 1994, Knowledge on Trial.
42-73 , No Humans Involved A Open Letter to my Colleagues.
http://carmenkynard.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/No-Humans-Involved-An-Open-Letter-toMy-Colleagues-by-SYLVIA-WYNTER.pdf
211
: ,
(Ebony and Ivy: Race,
Slavery, and the Troubled History of Americas Universities), 2013. , (Craig Steven
Wilder)19
, , ,
. (James H. Cone)
, (The Cross and the
Lynching Tree). . ,
, , . ,
, .
, 21. ,
,
,
,

. ,
1942. , ,
.20
,
,
: , , ,
, ,
21.
19 Ebony and Ivy: Race, Slavery, and the Troubled History of Americas
Universities : Not only were many of Americas most prestigious colleges founded and supported by slaveholders, but the colleges also provided much of the scholarly and cultural basis of
support for slavery...What began for many universities as an ostensible mission of civilizing savages
Native Americans and Africans later morphed into support for the establishment and development of colonies and territorial expansion...Prestigious universities and scholars helped to frame
and address questions of theology, economics, medicine, history, and other areas of study many
legitimizing slavery and racism even as they benefited from it.
20 http://www.britannica.com/event/Wannsee-Conference
21 http://www.holocaustandhumanity.org/about-us/educational-philosophy/ : I am a survivor of a concentration camp. My eyes saw what no person should witness: gas chambers built by learned engineers. Children poisoned by educated physicians. Infants
212
/ , , / XVII / 59
,
.
(ichael Rossman),
,

: , ,
, , , ,
,
,
, .22 ,

.
2. 1954. , ,
23.
killed by trained nurses. Women and babies shot by high school and college graduates. So, I am
suspicious of education. My request is this: Help your children become human. Your efforts must
never produce learned monsters, skilled psychopaths or educated Eichmanns. Reading, writing, and
arithmetic are important only if they serve to make our children more human.
22 Mark Kitchell. Berkeley in the Sixties, 1990.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DKFzq9xPwiE
: For the very first time the young privileged, affluent children of the culture began to see
themselves as an oppressed class. It was an astounding perception. Here we were, we were the hight
of the priviledged, the best students of the best multiversity, destined to be the managers of the
society, and in the middle of all this we turned around and looked at our education and said, wait a
minute, somehow the best is the worst. It put us out of touch with the society, it severed technology
from values, it severed the intellect from the heart
23 : https://www.pinterest.com/pin/501447739732825092/
213
, (Gloriosa Victoria), 1954, .

1954. , -,
, ,
24.
3.
(
42. ) , , , , , , ,

. , , , . , ,
, . (
)25,
. 24 : https://roadupward.wordpress.com/2014/04/02/the-dulles-brothersglorious-victory/.
http://art-for-a-change.com/blog/2007/10/diegorivera-glorious-victory.html & http://art-for-a-change.com/blog/2016/02/a-new-look-at-riverasgloriosa-victoria.html
25 , , ,

, ,
, ,
( ) . G. M. Trevelyan, A
Shortened History of England (1942), Penguin, 1987.
214
/ , , / XVII / 59
26,
.

. ,
,
, . ,
, !27
,

, , , , ,
, , ,
, , ,
,
.28 , cogito interruptus,
26 . 1848. .
, , 1803. .
,
.
27 (A Critical Pedagogy of Resistance: 34 Pedagogues We
Need to Know, Edited by James D. Kirylo), 2013. ,
, ,
. ,
.
, , . (My voicespeaks of resistance, indignation, the
just anger of those who are deceived and betrayed. It speaks, too, of their right to rebel against the
ethical transgressions of which they are the long suffering victims.)
28 Kathryn T. Gines, Hannah Arendt and the Negro Question, Indiana University Press,
2014.
, , .
Arendts reaction to the desegregation of Little Rock schools,
to laws making mixed marriages illegal, and to the growing civil rights movement in the south.
.
http://holocaustmusic.ort.org/politics-and-propaganda/third-reich/weill-kurt/,
, : during his career in the US Weill produced important works critiquing
US optimism and the American way of life, and tackling such issues as the unequal distribution of wealth, segregation, and the effect of industrialisation on families.
,
, .

. ,
, (Lost in the Stars),
, ,
. 1990. , How Holocausts Happen: The United States in Central America, (Douglas Porpora), ,
. ,
,
215
,
, ,

( ),
, , ( ).
, ,
.
,
e,
: ,
. , 1891. 29, ,
,
, :
.

,
. ,
, .
. ,
, ,
, ,
,

. . ( 1977: 93-94)
(Roberto Fernandez Retamar) (Caliban:

Notes Toward a Discussion of Culture in Our America),
1971. - Casa de Las
Amricas. ,

. , ,
,
. . 2001.
: (Landscapes of the
Soul: The Loss of Moral Meaning in American Life).
29 Jos Mart, Philip S. Foner, Our America: Writings on Latin America and the Struggle for Cuban
Independence, NYU Press, 1977. 84-94.
216
/ , , / XVII / 59
1959.
(Retamar 2003: 452)30.
e ,
,
- - , a. ,
, ,
, , , . 1967. ,

, (Retamar 2003: 452).

o , ,
,
. , ,
.
, 31
,

, ,
( Ibid.: 456-7).

,
, . , 30 http://icaadocs.mfah.org/icaadocs/THEARCHIVE/FullRecord/tabid/88/doc/1056617/language/
en-US/Default.aspx 1989. Caliban and Other Essays
.
The Cuban Reader:History, Culture, Politics, Edited by Aviva Chomsky, Barry Carr and
Pamerla Maria Smorkaloff, Duke University Press, 2003.
31 , ,
, 2008. ,

,
. ,
, , ,
. ,
,
, , , . , . http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/2008/clezio-lecture.html.
217
a
, ,
, .
. , , 32. ,

,
.

mmbi, , , ,
,
. . :
, ,
.
. mmbi, , , ,
mmbi, , , ,
(Retamar 2003: 451).

,
, ,
, (Ibid.: 455).
.
, ,
,
, .
, .
32 , ,
, ,
. , ,
, 1993. ,
, ,
.

.
, .
http://www.counterpunch.org/2010/11/17/the-hypocrisies-of-mario-vargasllosa/. , Mountain Language,
.
218
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, ,

.
:
, , ,

. , ,
, ,
, ,
,

.
. ()
(). ?

( Retamar 2003: 456).
4.
, ,
,
,
(18991974), 1967. ,
(19041973), 1971.,
(19272014) 1982. 33. , :
, 2010. ,

. , , 1871. .34

, .
, 33 , ,
,
:
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1967/asturias-facts.html
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1971/
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1982/
34 Fernando Prez , Jos Mart: el ojo del canario (2010).
219
,
.35
.
,

. , 1880. , 37. .36
j 1899. , . , , ,
,
. .

.
1923. ,
37. ,
, ,
, .
, 1923. 1933. e
, , , ,
, . , , ,
, , .
, (Leyendas de
Guatemala). ,
(
),
,
35 1867. (El Socialista)

36 Robert L Huish and W. George Lowell, Under the Volacanoes: The Influence of Guatemala on
Hose Marti, 2008 University of Pittsburgh.
37
1925. 1932.
.
Reni Prieto, Miguel Angel Asturiass Archeology of Return, Cambridge University Press, 2009.
220
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. 1930.
38.
1928. ,
(La arquitectura de la vida nueva)3939
(El Senor President, 1946.)
, . 1954. , -,
(United Fruit Company),
, .
,
(La triloga bananera), (Vento fuerte, 1950) (El papa verde, 1954)
(Los ojojs de los enterrados, 1960). : (Hombres de maiz, 1949), (Mulata
de tal, 1963), (El espejo de Lida Sal, 1967).
1966.
,
.
(Jason Weiss)

. , : , 1991. (Writing at Risk:Interviews
in Paris with Uncommon Writers, University of Iowa Press,
2014)40, , ,
, .
o
,
, .
(The Lights of Home: A
Century of Latin American Writers in Paris, 2003) ,
, , , , , , .
38 , , , , 1969., 2000.,
, , .
39 .
40 Jason Weiss, Writing at Risk: Interviews in Paris with Uncommon Writers, University of Iowa Press,
1991.
221
, , , 197041
42. 1983. (19141984) ,

, , ,
.
1963. , .

(Weiss 1991: 61). , , , , ,
(Ibid.: 52).
,
, , 43.
41 : http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2014/04/18/politica/010n1pol
42
.
. , , ,
(Adam Feinstein, Pablo Neruda A Passion for Life, 2004),
, 1965.
, .
, , , .

, , .
33. -, , .
43
.
Revolution and Revolutionaries: Guerilla Movements in Latin America, Edited
by Daniel Castro, Scholarly Resources Book, Series: Jaguar Books on Latin America No 17, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1999.
222
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,
44
,
, ,
, . ,
.
:
.(Weiss 1991: 43)
45,
,
. 1981.
, . (19282012)
(1962)
Terra Nostra (1975) ,
, .

, ,
.
,
.
.
,
, :

, , .
, , , , ,
. .
, . Another Face of Empire: Bartolom
de Las Casas, Indigenous Rights, and Ecclesiastical Imperialism, 2007.
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44 46.
, ,
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45
. (Otto Rene Castillo), 2014. Dissidences, Hispa:nic
Journal of Theory and Criticism, Volume 5, Issue 10, .
223
, .
,
.
,
(Weiss 1991: 118-119).
, ,
.
, (La novela
latinoamericana: Testimonio de una poca), , , , .

,
.
,

,
.
, , ,
,
, .

,
,
, .

, .

,
. , ,

. .
,
, ,
.
, .
224
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,
,
,
. , , ,
.
, .
,
.

, .
,
,
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,
.

,
, , ,

46.

, .

:
, , ,
47
, ,
.
,
, .

. ()
46 , eoe,
, Rusticatio Mexicana, 1781. ,
.
47 , , , , , .
: ,
. .
225
, ,
, .
, . []

. []
, .
, . []
.
.
?
.

. ,
, ,
.

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, (
),
.
. , (Hacia la ciudad esplndida)
,
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, /
. ,

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,
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.
48 : http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1967/asturias-lecture.html
49 Augusto Boal, Hamlet and the Bakers Son: My Life in Theatre and Politics, 2001.
, , , , Bread
and Puppet (Peter
Schumann).
, , , , .
226
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, , ,
, , .

:
.

.
,
, , ,
,
,
.
, ,
, ,
,
, .
. [] ,
, ?

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, .50
,
.
, , ,
, .
,
(La soledad de America Latina),
,
( , , , , . . ,
). , ,
, , , ,
a
.
50 : http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1971/neruda-lecture.html
227

.

11 .
51
. , 11.
1973. , , ,
. , (James Roldos,
Omar Torrijos); 5 17 ;
100.000 , ;

, ;
e
; 20
,
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.
, ,
.
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,

.
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, , ,
.

.
. , ,
, , , .
?

. , . , ,
,
.
a
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. :

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, o .
,

.

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.
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,
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52 http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1982/marquez-lecture.html
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638 )
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Meehan 2010: K. han People Get Ready: African and Caribbean Cultural Exchange,
University Press of Mississippi (Chapter 1. Theorizing African American and
Caribbean Contact: Comparative Approach to Cultural Decolonization in the
Americas, pp. 3844, Dubois and Marti: Parallel Paths).
Meyer Alvarado 2010: L. Meyer, B. M. Alvarado, eds. New World of Indigenous
Resistance: Noam Chomsky and Voices from North, South, and Central America, Open
Media Series, City Lights.
Porpora 1990: D. Porpora, How Holocausts Happen: The United States in Central
America, Temple University Press.
Porpora 2001: D. Porpora, Landscapes of the Soul: The Loss of Moral Meaning in
American Life, Oxford University Press.
Prieto 2009: R. Prieto, Miguel Angel Asturiass Archeology of Return, Cambridge
University Press.
Retamar 1989: R. F. Retamar Caliban and Other Essays, Universityof Minnesota
Press.
Sarduy, Stubbs 1993: P. P. Sarduy, J. Stubbs eds. Afrociba: An Anthology of Cuban
Writing on Race, Politics and Culture, An Ocean Press Classic.
Stam, Shohat 2012: R. Stam, Sh. Ella. Race in Translation: Culture Wars Around the
Postcolonial Atlantic, New York University Press.
Stout 2013: N. Stout, One Day in December: Celia Sanchez and the Cuban Revolution,
Monthly Review Press.
Trevelyan 1987: G. M. Trevelyan, A Shortened History of England (1942), Penguin.
Vidal 2002: G. Vidal, Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace: How We Got to Be So Hated,
Nation Books.
233
2004: . , , : .
Walker 2013: A. Walker, The Cushion in the Road: Mediations and Wandering as the
Whole World Awakens to Being in Harms Way, The New Press.
Weiss 1991: J. Weiss, Writing at Risk: Interviews in Paris with Uncommon Writers,
University of Iowa Press.
Weiss 2002: J. Weiss, The Lights of Home: A Century of Latin American Writers in Paris,
Routldedge.
Wilder 2013: C. S. Wilder, Ebony and Ivy: Race, Slavery, and the Troubled History of
Americas Universities, Bloomsbury Press.
Winter 1994: S. Winter, No Humans Involved An Open Letter to my Colleagues,
Forum N.H.I. Knowledge for the 21st Century: Knowledge on Trial, Vol. 1 No. 1,
Fall.
22000: . . , ,
, , , :
.
22011: . , : , 4.
2000. 15. 2003., : .
Ljiljana Bogoeva Sedlar / LATIN AMERICA AND ITS NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS
Summary / This essay is an attempt to demonstrate, in the contexts of the 21st century,
the relevance of the Nobel Prize Lectures delivered by Miguel Angel Asturias (1967),
Pablo Neruda (1971), and Gabriel Garcia Marquez (1982). The art of these authors
is seen in the light of the long tradition of revolutionary struggles in Latin America
against the colonial domination of Europe and the United States, most impressively
summarized in the text Our America by the Cuban revolutionary Jos Mart. Latin
American revolutions are supported by great many US artists and scholars because
they share the view that colonialism, slavery and racism affected both North and
South America and left legacies that have not been eradicated. Writers and artists
of Latin America refuse to be considered culturally inferior and forced to imitate
their colonizers. As the three Nobel Prize winners emphasize in their lectures, Latin
America wants to be free to develop its marvelous indigenous traditions, whose
egalitarianism and ecological wisdom provide powerful alternatives to the destructive ways of the West.
Keywords: 1492, Latin American literature, Jos Mart, Our America, Cuban Revolution, Miguel ngel Asturias, Pablo Neruda, Gabriel Garca Mrquez, Julio Cortzar,
neocolonialism, Nobel Prize Lectures
2016.
2016.
234
/ , , / XVII / 59

821.133.1-2.09 .
821.111(73)-2-09 .
1

-
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1 rnastic@gmail.com
235
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236
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, (Castaneda 1998: 7,9,103,104,105).
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La Turista
() 1967. ,
:
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,
.
Amrican Place Theatre, ,
, . , .
, ,
, ,
(Shepard 1981: 298).
2 You thought Mexico could hide you from yourselfMexico is very harsh on liars (Shepard
2002: 138).
3 Radmila Nasti,
The Tales Sam Shepard Tells About America: Mexico : Nasti, Brati
(eds.) Highlights in Anglo-American Drama: Viewpoints from South-East Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2016., .62-75.
237

la turista .
(1466-1520) 4,

a .

, ,
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,
(Shepard 1981: 257),
, .
.
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macho , .
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(: 265).

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4 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traveler%27s_diarrhea
238
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,
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1692. ,
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(Arthur Miller)66.
1970.

: 13
7.
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.

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5 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salem,_Massachusetts
6 (The Crucible), 1953.
7 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent_State_shootings
239
,
.

. ,
, (Shepard 2006: 275). ,
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(Im dead to the world but I never been born) (: 276).
,
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, escape artists,
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) (Shepard 2002: 119-121).

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240
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8, , .
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(19141998) (Octavio Paz, The Blue Bouquet10),
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8 http://www.behindthename.com/name/henry
9 .
10 Octavio Paz, The Blue Bouquet
241
, , , , . ,
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242
/ , , / XVII / 59
. (Carlos Castaneda
1998: 114).
, (Roudane 77).
, , , , , , : ,
, , .
, ,
, .
().
, ,
, :
. ? ?
? ?
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. .
, ( 69-70).
(
) , , ,
, .
,
, .
1992: A. Arto, Pozorite i njegov dvojnik, Novi Sad: Prometej

1998: S. Bottoms, The Theatre of Sam Shepard: States of Crises, Cambridge
University Press: Cambridge.
1981: J.Gelber, The Playwright as Shaman in Maranca, Bonnie (ed.),
American Dreams, The Imagination of Sam Shepard, Performing Arts Journals
Publications: New York.
1967: H.Easton, In Response to Word of Mouth from April 6, 1967 issue,
New York Review of Books, June 1, 1967.
1949: J. Campbell, The Hero With a Thousand Faces, Abacaus: NewYork.
2010: B. Kingsolver, Lakuna, Beograd: Laguna.
2005: . , , : .
1995: D. H. Lawrence, The Plumed Serpent, Wordsworth Classics:
Hertfordshire.
1986: E. Oumano, Sam Shepard: The Life and Work of an American Dreamer,
W. H. Allen&Co: London.
243
Paz, . The Blue Bouquet, http://lisabloomfield.net/occ/193/weekly_html?

bluebouquet.pdf
2002: M. Roudan, The Cambridge Companion to Sam Shepard, Cambridge
University Press: Cambridge.
2003: U. Hertz, Artaud in Mexico, Fragmentos, numero 25, p.011/017
Florianopolis/jul/dez/2003.
1981: S. Shepard, La Tourista in Plays 2, Faber and Faber: London.
2002: S. Shepard, Three Plays: The Late Henry Moss, Eyes for Consuela, When
the World Was Green, Vintage Books: New York.
2006: S. Shepard, Seduced in Fool for Love and Other Plays, Random House:
New York.
Radmila Nasti / MEXICO DOES NOT BELIEVE IN LIES
Summary / The article looks at artistic representations of Mexico in the works of
several western authors (D. H. Lawrence, Malcolm Lowry, Barbara Kingsolver, Antonin
Artaud and Sam Shepard), who regard Mexico as a kind of testing ground for their
characters and their cultures. The focus of the analyses is on Artaud and Shepard.
Artaud found much of the inspiration for his idea of total theatre during his stay in
Mexico. The first performance of his Theatre of Cruelty was to be titled The Conquest
of Mexico, but he died before he had time to realize it. Sam Shepards interest in the
Mexican indigenous cultures is evident from his early play, La Tourista. The interest
grew and can be traced in his subsequent plays which resemble initiation rites and
have protagonists whose journeys of self discovery often take them to Mexico. That
has been the reason why some critics call Shepards technique the shaman dramaturgy. This essay traces Shepards treatment of Mexico in La Tourista (1967) and
Seduced (1978), and claims that its best expression, both in form and content, can
be found in the play Eyes for Consuela (1998), which Shepard wrote inspired by the
short story of the Mexican Nobel Prize winner, Octavio Paz.
Keywords: Mexico, ritual, intiation, seeing
j 2016.
2016.
244
/ , , / XVII / 59

821.134.2(72)-31.09 .
1

-

.
XX .

.
, ,
. ,
, ,
,
.
.

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,

.
: , , ,
XX ,
, , ( 2007: 68).
XX ,
, , ,
, ( 2001: 207).
, (nueva novela
histrica), (Fernando Ansa),
(Seymour Menton)
(metaficcin historiogrfica), (Linda Hutcheon).
1 ssvetlana91@yahoo.com
245
,
, , , (
), ,
,
, ( 2001: 211). (Carlos Fuentes) (

), (Jorge Luis Borges),
(Augusto Roa Bastos) ( 2002: 58),
, , ,
( 2006: 86).
, . , ( 1987: 90).

,
,
( 2010: 2).
, XX
( 2010: 2).
. , , , , ,
() (
2010: 3). , , , ( 2001: 211).
.
XIX ,
246
/ , , / XVII / 59
,
,
, ,
. ,
, ( 2006:
86). ,
.
, ( 2006: 85).
, , , (l naranjo). (2000: 9)

2.

. , , ( 2011: 22) ,
,
, , , ( 2006: 88). , ,

.
,
(Massimo Rizzante) (2012: 7),
, , ,
.

, .
( 2012: 8).
(2000: 48),
(Jernimo de Aguilar),
, , , , :
,
3.
2 Siempre pudo ocurrir exactamente lo contrario de lo que la crnica consigna. ( 2008: 11)
3 Qu habra pasado si lo que sucedi, no sucede? Qu habra pasado si lo que no sucedi, sucede? ( 2008: 58)
247

. (Las dos orillas)
(Las dos Amricas), ,
.
(1981)
,
.
, , ,
, . (Giambattista Vico), .
, ,
.
, ,

.
, ,
, , , , , , 4 ( 2000: 99).
, ,

, , (
2000: 100), ,
.
.
, ,
, , .
5 ( 2000: 217). , , , , ( 2000: 218)6.
,
:
4 LLOS, los espaoles, son un pueblo rudo, salvaje y brbaro, al que nosotros, los romanos, debemos conducir, les guste o no, hacia la civilizacin. ( 2008: 119)
5 El clavo que sobresale pronto ser martillado. ( 2008: 259)
6 La constante de este trasiego es el movimiento doloroso de los pueblos, la emigracin, la fuga, la
esperanza, ayer y hoy ( 2008: 261).
248
/ , , / XVII / 59
, , ( 2006: 86).

( 1969: 30). ( 1969: 30).

, . (2000: 197) , ,

. , , , ,
.
, ,
,
( 2003: 78).
( 2003: 74).
, ,
, .
, , ( 2000: 13).
, ,
(2000: 35) , .
,
.

, , , ,
( 2006: 90). (Las dos Numancias)
, ,
.
, , , (Hernn Corts), a (Publio
Cornelio Escipin Emiliano). ,
,
,
.
, , , , ,
.
249
(Los hijos del conquistador)

,
,
, ,
, . II, ,
(mestiz), ,
, ,
, ,

( 2000: 57).
II
( 2000: 63),
, ,
, , , ( 2000: 57).
II,
,
, , ( 2000: 55). , (2000:
10)
, .
, ,
,
, ,
. ,
(2000: 115) . (2000: 110)
,
, ,
(, ,
), , .

,
.
,
( 2000: 123). ,
( 2000: 130).

, , 250
/ , , / XVII / 59
( 2000: 63). .
, ,
(2012: 10).
,
.
( 2000: 117),

( 2006: 86). , ,

, ( 2012: 12).
(El teatro de la memoria),

( 1987: 92), (Terra Nostra), (1991:
677)
, , .
, .
, ,
( 2006: 87).

,
: ,
, .

, ( 1987:
90).
,
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, , ,
( 2000: 63),

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251
7 ( 2000: 175), ( 2000: 178).

(Bernal Daz del
Catillo), ( 2010: 8).
, , ,
, .
(Diario de a bordo)
( 2000: 205), ,
,
,
( 2000: 125).

, 8 ( 2000: 130).
(2012: 12)
. . ,
. .

( 2012: 11).
. , , .
,
.
,
9 ( 2000: 113).
, .
,
,
( 2011: 20).
, ,
( ),
,
.
(1969: 96)
,
, ( 2000: 8) .
7 La cronologa de la memoria en la muerte es distinta a la de la vida ( 2008: 210).
8 // los textos jams deben citarse textualmente, sino interpretarse. ( 2008: 157)
9 // ste [sentido de la historia] consiste en ensearnos a soportar con entereza las vicisitudes de
la fortuna, recordando los desastres de los otros. ( 2008: 136)
252
/ , , / XVII / 59
,
.
, : ,
( 2000: 117).

, ,
, .
.
(2005: 101) (En esto creo)
,
,
,
a, .
2006: M. J. Brua Bragado,La ficcionalizacin de la historia en la

obra de Carlos Fuentes, Mxico, UNAM: Literatura mexicana, Vol. XVII, nm. 1,
8393.
2011: A. Lpez Gonzlez, Cmara de ecos: la novelstica de Carlos
Fuentes, Mxico, UNAM: Iztapalapa, nm. 71, 1732.
, 1981: . Mac Adam, Ch. E. Ruas, Carlos Fuentes, The Art of
Fiction no. 68, Paris: The Paris review, no. 82 http://www.theparisreview.org/
interviews/3195/the-art-of-fiction-no-68-carlos-fuentes, 20.11.2015.
1987: B. McHale, Postmodernist fiction, London: Routledge. 2003:
J. M. Oviedo, Historia de la literatura hispanoamericana, 1. De los orgenes a la
Emancipacin, Madrid: Alianza Editorial.
2001: C. Pacheco, La historia en la ficcin hispanoamericana
contempornea: perspectivas y problemas para una agenda crtica, Caracas: Revista
de Investigaciones Literarias y Culturales, nm. 18, 205224.
2010: . Raggio, La historia bajo sospecha: reficcionalizacin y reescritura
de la historia en El Naranjo, de Carlos Fuentes en: M. A. Zandanel, C. Bari (coords.),
Historia y ficcin: reescrituras de la historia latinoamericana en el marco del Bicentenario.
2012: M. Rizzante, Todo es presente, traducido por Carmen Ruiz de
Apodaca, Mxico: Revista de la Universidad de Mxico, nm. 102, 513.
2007: R. Ceballos, Las dos Amricas: re-descubrimiento del nuevo
mundo, Concepcin: Universidad de Concepcin, Chile: Atanea, nm. 496, 6779.
2002: U. Seydel, Ficcin histrica en la segunda mitad del siglo XX:
conceptos y definiciones, Mxico, UNAM: Revista del Centro de Ciencias de Lenguaje,
nm. 25, 4985.
1969: C. Fuentes, La nueva novela hispanoamericana, Mxico: Editorial de
Joaqun Mortiz.
1991: C. Fuentes, Terra Nostra, Madrid: Espasa-Calpe.
2000: . Fuentes, Naranda, preveo Milorad TodoroviKapiten, Beograd:
Beoplolis.
253
2000: C. Fuentes, Hernn Corts, Madrid: Letra internacional, nm. 67,

910.
2005: K. Fuentes, Ono u ta verujem, prevela Sandra Neovi, Beograd:
Narodna knjiga Alfa.
2008: C. Fuentes, El naranjo, Madrid: Alfaguara.
Svetlana Stevanovi / HISTORIA EN LA NOVELA EL NARANJO DE CARLOS
FUENTES
Resumen / El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo dar un breve resumen de las
ideas principales sobre historia que Carlos Fuentes elabora en su novela El naranjo.
Tras presentar a Carlos Fuentes como escritor que en gran medida foment las ideas
de la nueva novela histrica, que apareci en Amrica Latina en los aos setenta del
siglo XX, se tiende a demostrar qu lugar ocupan sus ideas sobre historia entre la
novela histrica tradicional y la nueva novela histrica, llegando a la conclusin que
este escritor mexicano supera ambas ofreciendo un nuevo modelo donde lo decisivo
reside en una aventura de investigar hechos histricos y no en saber lo que realmente
pas. El lugar ms apropiado para manifestar sus opiniones e ideas sobre historia
Fuentes encontr en la novela porque novela puede decir todo lo que la historia, la
filosofa, el ensayo, el periodismo y la poesa no pueden, dado que en la novela todo
tiene cabida. Por medio de la novela nos da a conocer que no existe la Historia sino
solo las historias, teniendo en cuenta que cada uno tiene su propia versin de algn
acontecimiento. Esta versin, que es propia de cada ser humano, se diferencia tanto
de la versin oficial que nos ofrece la Historia, como de las versiones que pueden tener
otros participantes de un determinado acontecimiento. Dichas versiones de diferentes acontecimientos histricos en las obras de Fuentes a menudo llegan a nosotros a
travs de los personajes marginados por la Historia, lo que nos revela la importancia
crucial que tiene la perspectiva a la hora de contar la historia. Se muestra que este
vocero mexicano tiene una visin cclica de la historia en la que las etapas progresivas
van seguidas por otras regresivas formando de esta manera un ritmo cclico en el que
las civilizaciones se suceden, nunca idnticas entre s, pero siempre llevando rastros
unas de otras. Partiendo de la opinin de que es necesario recordar el pasado en el
presente para iluminar de esa manera el futuro, se llega a la conclusin que Carlos
Fuentes reescribe y ficcionaliza la historia para indagar en ls races de los problemas
contemporneos a modo que futuro pueda ser ms claro.
Palabras clave: Carlos Fuentes, historia, nueva novela histrica, El naranjo
a 2016.
2016.
254
/ , , / XVII / 59

821.134.2(82)-31.09 .
j . 1

j j
:
34.
,
34. .
,
Lo prohibido ,
.
. 34.
- -,
.
Lo prohibido,
. 34.
,
.
: (1914-1984), (1963), (18431920), , , , , .

(Rayuela, 1963) (Julio Cortzar)
.

( 1967: 67),
- ( 1993: 11), ,
, 34. .
(Horacio Oliveira) Lo
prohibido (, 1884-1885) (Benito Prez Galds) (La Maga).
, .
,
1 ksenija.vulovic@gmail.com
255
j .
34 2.
34. , .
,
34. 3. , ,
: .
, , clever typographical gimmick4 ( 2001: 424)
, ,
la cumbre de sinsentido5 ( 1973: 233),
( 1988: 397; 2014: 57)6.
, ,
.
.

una novela, mal escrita, para colmo una edicin infecta []. Pensar que
se ha pasado horas enteras devorando esta sopa fra y de sabrida, []. Me
imagino que despus de tragarse cinco o seis pginas uno acaba por engranar y ya no puede dejar de leer, un poco como no se puede dejar de dormir
o de mear, servidumbres o ltigos o babas.[] Una lengua hecha de frases
preacuadas para transmitir ideas archipodridas, las monedas de mano en
mano, de generacin degeneracin [] ( 1991: 161)7.
( 1981: 249), ( 1976: 123; 1998: 26),

2 34. ,
1973: 240-241.
3 . 34. , , . ,
, ( 2001: 424).
4 ( .)
5
6
,
34. .
2014; 1973; 1988.
7 neki bljutavi roman koji je povrh toga jo u bednom izdanju. [] Kad pomislim da je satima gutala
ovu hladnu i otunu poparu []. Pretpostavljam da posle pet-est stranica ovek najzad zagrize i
vie ne moe da prekine itanje, onako kao to ne moe da se prestane da spava ili da mokri, poput
navike, bieva ili slina. [] Jezik sazdan od davno iskovanih i ve izlizanih reenica da bi prenosile
bajate ideje, novii to se premeu od ruke do ruke, od generacije do generacije [] (
, 1984: 207).
256
/ , , / XVII / 59
: 34.
( 1973: 84; 1976: 123; 1998: 26) ( 1982), ( 1975: 214, 218), ( 1975: 239)
( 1976: 123),
( 1981: 249).
the worn out ideas and outmoded
language of the Spanish classic8 ( 1975: 112), XIX (
1976: 63), ( 1973: 234). ( 2000: 99-100;
1994: 344-346) a deconstruction
of the Galdosian artifact9 ( 1986: 148).
,
34. . (Randolph Pope):
El captulo 34 se ha malentendido rigurosamente debido a que se han tomado en serio las dos voces, la de Horacio Oliveira y la de Jos Mara Bueno
de Guzmn, olvidando que estamos en presencia de dos escritores irnicos
y armados de innumerables trampas. Ha contribuido tambin el hecho de
que el lado de ac y el de all de la hispanstica no suelen dialogar y debe ser
escaso el nmero de los galdosistas que han ledo la obra de Cortzar y an
ms el de los estudiosos de Cortzar que han ledo Lo prohibido de Galds,
cuyo primer captulo se reproduce casi textualmente en el captulo 34 de
Rayuela ( 1986: 141)10.
(Andrs
Amors)
, 11, . ,

Ctedra,
,
, ( 2014: 57). 8
9
10 34 ,
, .

Lo prohibido, 34. .
11 , . .
1965, 1969, 1971 1977.
257
j .
, intelectual esnob preocupado por el arte de vanguardia12

. , 34.

Cgoarltdaozsar: el Galds intercalado en Cortzar en Rayuela13 (
1986). (1975: 214-218)
un desenfoque
serio de interpretacin histrica14. (1975: 214218)
, (1986: 146)
,
,
15.

(. 1986; - 1987; 1988).
(1986: 142-145) (1988: 403) Lo prohibido . ,
,
(Jos Mara Bueno de Guzmn),
( ). ,
, ,
. , , , ,
.
,
. : (Rocamadour)
(Alejandrito).

.
,
. ,
.
12 ,
13 :
14
15 , , , roman-comique ( 1991: 325).
258
/ , , / XVII / 59
: 34.
Lo prohibido
,

. ,
(. 1986: 141; 1986: 151-155; - 1987: 131-135; 1988:
401-403). , .
,
reduplication of narrators and subsequent dismantling of both real world
and fictional self16 ( 1986: 153). ,
. ,
( 1986: 153; 1988: 403).
Lo prohibido ,
. 34. ,
.
,
17 :
A su manera este libro es muchos libros, pero sobre todo es dos libros. El
lector queda invitado a elegir una de las dos posibilidades siguientes:
El primero libro se deja leer en la forma corriente, y termina en el captulo
56, al pie del cual hay tres vistosas estrellitas que equivalen a la palabra Fin.
Por consiguiente, el lector prescindir sin remordimientos de lo que sigue.
El segundo libro se deja leer empezando por el captulo 73 y siguiendo luego
en el orden que se indica al pie de cada captulo. En caso de confusin u
olvido, bastar consultar la lista siguiente:
73 - 1 - 2 - 116 - [] - 131 - 58 - 131 ( 1991: 3)18.
16
.
17 , (Ana Mara Barrenechea),
,
( 1981: 213).
18 Ova knjiga sastoji se u neku ruku od vie knjiga, a naroito od dve. italac moe da se smatra pozvanim i da odabere jednu od sledee dve mogunosti:
Prva knjiga se ita kao to se knjige obino i itaju, a zavrava se poglavljem 56, ispod kojeg tri ljupke zvezdice stoje umesto rei Kraj. Prema tome, italac moe mirne due da preskoi poglavlja posle
tog broja.
itanje druge knjige moe pak poeti 73. poglavljem, da bi se potom pratio redosled naznaen na
kraju svakog poglavlja. U sluaju zbrke ili zaborava dovoljno je da italac posegne za ovim spiskom:
73 - 1 - 2 - 116 - [] - 131 - 58 - 131 ( , 1984: 5).
259
j .

, .
, 56.
,
, - (lector-hembra)
- (lector-alondra). - ( 1990: 147),
. , . ,
,
19. , ,
- (lector-cmplice).
,
:
Mejor, [el autor ] le da como una fachada, con puertas y ventanas detrs de
las cuales se est operando un misterio que el lector cmplice deber buscar
(de ah la complicidad) y quiz no encontrar (de ah el copadecimiento).
Lo que el autor de esa novela haya logrado para s mismo, se repetir (agigantndose, quiz, y eso sera maravilloso) en el lector cmplice. En cuanto
al lector-hembra, se quedar con la fachada y ya se sabe que las hay muy
bonitas, muy trompe loeil, y que delante de ellas se pueden seguir representando satisfactoriamente las comedias y las tragedias del honnte homme
( 1991: 327)20.
, ,
, (Morelli), . , . -
, . - ,
19
, (Ken Holsten) 1973. .

, ,

( 1973: 685-686).
20 , [] , - ( )
( ). , ( , ) -. -, ,
, trompe loeil,
honnte homme.
260
/ , , / XVII / 59
: 34.
,
( 1991: 386-387, 391) problemas sino soluciones, o
falsos problemas ajenos que le permiten sufrir cmodamente sentado en
su silln, sin comprometerse en el drama que tambin debera ser el suyo
( 1991: 361)21.
, ,
, -
-.
,
, . ,
, ,
.
-, -.

.
, , . ,
.
:
Horacio is the post-modern, analytical male paralyzed by his compulsion
to think; in short, a descendant of Hamlet. [] But the excessively educated Horacio is not self-conscious in the way Hamlet is self-conscious; he is
self-conscious in the way only a reader of Hamlet and the Hamlet tradition
of literature could be, hyper-self-conscious. La Maga is the pre-modern, intuitive female who can help the troubled male transcend his inner conflicts
[]. So close to her life that she cant see it coming, La Maga is identical
to her progression through the events of her life: she immerses her whole
person in each of them ( 2001: 426-427)22.
,
, 34.
.
21 probleme nego reenja ili lane tue probleme koji mu omoguuju da pati dok udobno sedi u fotelji
ne bivajui upleten u dramu koja bi morala da bude i njegova drama (
, 1984: 453).
22 , ; , . []
;
, -. -, [].
,
: .
261
j .
23.
,
.
,
.

: , . :
Hay ros metafsicos, ella los nada como esa golondrina est nadando en el
aire, girando alucinada en torno al campanario, dejndose caer para levantarse
mejor con el impulso. Yo describo y defino y deseo esos ros, ella los nada. Yo
los busco, los encuentro, los miro desde el puente, ella los nada(
1991: 87)24.
, , . ,
,

. , Lo
prohibido .
34. , , , .
-
. , -

. 34.
-,
-.
34. /
23 , , , (Octavio Paz) (Jos Lezama Lima),
.
(Ceferino Piriz)
(La Luz de la Paz del Mundo), a . (Traveler),
, .
, .
24 Ima metafizikih reka, ona ih preplivava kao to ova lastavica pliva vazduhom, kao to krui opinjena oko tornja i strmoglavljuje se da bi uhvatila vei zalet. Ja opisujem, definiem, prieljkujem
te reke, ona ih preplivava. Ja ih traim, nalazim, gledam ih sa mosta, a ona ih preplivava (
, 1984: 108).
262
/ , , / XVII / 59
: 34.
, -.
-,
25. ,
.
,
. ,
, .
, . ,

, .
.
,
( 2001: 434). ,
, -,
. ,
, ,
.
, .
.

.
,
. , :
Equipado para entender, si dan ganas de rerse, Maga. O, esto slo para
vos, para que no se lo cuentes a nadie. Maga, el molde era yo, vos temblabas,
pura y libre como una llama, como un ro de mercurio, como el primer canto
de un pjaro cuando rompe el alba, y es dulce decrtelo con las palabras que
te fascinaban porque no creas que existieran fuera de los poemas, y que
tuviramos derecho a emplearlas ( 1991: 164)26.
25 - 1979, 1986,
1990, 1991, 2001, 2010.
26 Pripravan za razumevanje, nije li i ovo smeno, Maga. Sluaj, ovo je samo za tebe, nikome nemoj
da ispria, Maga, taj uplji kalup to sam bio ja, ti si drhtala, ista i nesputana kao plamen, kao reka
ive, kao prvi poj ptice u osvit, a slatko mi je da ti to kaem onim reima koje su te opinjavale jer si
mislila da ih van pesama nema i da nemamo pravo da ih upotrebljavamo (
, 1984: 211).
263
j .
,
, .
( 2014: 57)
on a pathetic note27 ( 1973: 85). 34.

, .
,
:
Dnde estars, dnde estaremos desde hoy, dos puntos en un universo
inexplicable, cerca o lejos, dos puntos crean una lnea, dos puntos que se
alejan y se acercan arbitrariamente [], pero no te explicar eso que llaman
movimientos brownoideos, por supuesto no te los explicar y sin embargo los
dos, Maga, estamos componiendo una figura, vos un punto en alguna parte,
yo otro en alguna parte, desplazndonos, vos ahora a lo mejor en la rue de
la Huchette, yo ahora descubriendo en tu pieza vaca esta novela, maana
vos en la Gare de Lyon (si te vas a Lucca, amor mo) y yo en la rue du Chemin
Vert, [], y poquito a poco, Maga, vamos componiendo una figura absurda,
dibujamos con nuestros movimientos una figura idntica a la que dibujan las
moscas cuando vuelan en una pieza, [] una figura, algo inexistente como
vos y como yo, como los dos puntos perdidos en Pars que van de aqu para
all, de all para aqu, haciendo su dibujo, danzando para nadie, ni siquiera
para ellos mismos, una interminable figura sin sentido( ,
1991: 164-165)28.
34. .
34.
. ,
: Encontrara a la Maga?29 (
1991: 11), ,
30. 27
28 , , j , ,
j j j, j j [],
j , j,
, , j j , j , j
, , , , ( , )
, [] , j , j
j j j [], j , j
j, j -, -, j ,
, , j j .
29 ?
30 : 1967,
1968, 1973, 1976, 1977, 1979, 1986,
1989, 1990, 2004, 2014.
264
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: 34.
,
, ,
. ,
, .
, ,
( 1986: 146).
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Hacia Cortzar: aproximaciones a su obra, Barcelona: Anthropos, 341-351.
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en: P. Lastra (ed.), Julio Cortzar, Madrid: Taurus, 207-224.
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Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Romance Languages, Duke
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265
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Edicin crtica, Nanterre, Francia: ALLCA XXe, 615-628.
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el perfil de la feminidad y masculinidad: Gabriel Garca Mrquez, Julio Cortzar y
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1986: D. Castillo, Reading over Her Shoulder: Galds/Cortzar, Anales
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con Rayuela de Julio Cortzar, INTI, 22/23, Cortzar en Mannheim, Otoo
1985-primavera 1986. JSTOR. 16.10.2014.
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Madrid: Turner.
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Novel in Spain, 1962-1974, Lewisburg [Pa.] : Bucknell University Press ; London ;
Cranbury, NJ : Associated University Presses, 2000.
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1998: J. Jones, A Common Place: the Representation of Paris in Spanish

American Fiction, Lewisburg [Pa.] : Bucknell University Press ; London ; Cranbury,
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69, Autumn 2001. JSTOR. 20.04.2014.
Ksenija M. Vulovi / LEER ENTRE LNEAS: CAPTULO 34 DE RAYUELA DE JULIO
CORTZAR
Resumen / Rayuela de Julio Cortzar es una novela conocida por experimentos narrativos, que culminan en su captulo 34. Cabe sealar que este captulo, donde las
lneas del texto de Cortzar alternan con las lneas del primer captulo de la novela Lo
prohibido de Benito Prez Galds, refleja la estructura no lineal de la novela entera. El
eje de este trabajo se encuentra en las consecuencias de la seleccin de la novela de
Galds para la teora de lectura y de lector de Cortzar. En el captulo 34 de Rayuela
Julio Cortzar desestabiliza la oposicin binaria entre el lector-cmplice y el lector-hembra, que establece en sus textos explcitamente autopoticos. Solo cuando
permite que le afecte la lectura de la Maga de la novela Lo prohibido, Oliveira llega a
ser capaz de descubrir la importancia crucial del amor en su vida. Entre las lneas del
captulo 34, as se lee el gran pensamiento de Cortzar sobre el destino de amor en los
tiempos contemporneos, que podra llevar a la revalorizacin de la interpretacin
de la novela de Cortzar en su totalidad.
Palabras clave: Julio Cortzar (1914-1984), Rayuela (1963), Benito Prez Galds
(1843-1920), intertextualidad, metaficcin, narracin, experimento, amor.
ja 2016.
2016.
267

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Duan ivkovi / TOPOS OF THE LABYRINTH IN BORGES POETRY
Summary / This paper analyzes the forms, the nature, functions and transformations of the topos of the labyrinth in Borges poetry, in the domains of the following
aspects: in relations between the divine and the demonic labyrinths; 2. In the topos
of library as encyclopedic paradigm; 3. In the spatio-temporal transformations of
city-labyrinths; 4. in the combinatorics of chess labyrinth.Through the use of the
analytical and synthetic method, we note that in the relations between divine and
demonic labyrinths Borges applied and justified the hermetic principle that ambiguities, paradoxes and contrasts can operate simultaneously. In this context, through the
establishment of various intertextual connections, the topos of the library represents
an allegory of the universe of meaning. In addition to the metaphysical dimension of
the library as labyrinth, in his use of cities-as-labyrinths Borges creates an interference
282
/ , , / XVII / 59
of elements of everyday life and reflections about time, eternity and death, through
of specific aspects of Argentine tradition with his cosmopolitan mission,while in his
use of chess as labyrinth Borges explores, by employing combinatorical metaposition,
the relations between man, his existential drama and God as the supreme architect.
Borges combines and shapes distinct mythopoetic elements of the heritage of our
civilization into a palimpsest, creating an original world, a poetic testimony to the
pluralism of the 20th century that in the interference of diffuse causes and effects
turns into a dialogue with the reader about the nature of the mystical currents of
civilization. Borges, thus, built labyrinths of signs which transformed his unique
creative principles into universal values of world literature that embody but also
surpass the postmodern context.
Keywords: the topos of the labyrinth, the creation of postmodernism, intertextuality,
Hermetism, the library, the city, the divine and the demonic
ja 2016.
2016.
283

821.134(7/8).09:004.738.5

.

.
,
, ,

.
,
, .
, , , , .

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1 bojanakp.ff.uns@gmail.com
2 , ; (, . . . 2008. . 4. . :
). ,
, , : .
285

,
( 2004: 7), . , (idem).
: (...)
Cambien como cambien espacios y tiempos, habr insatisfaccin, habr
diversidad y habr palabra. Se escribirn novelas y ninguna novedad
tcnica o divertida cambiar esta necesidad o este goce vitales, anteriores
a todo marco ideolgico o tecnocrtico3 (Fuentes 2011: 438),

,
,
80 . 3000 , 100
22 , 75 , 250
60
14 4.

, j , (Jorge Luis
Borges), , :
.
.
.
,
... , .

(1983) ( 1996: 231).

( , ,
...), , , ,
3 ,
, , .
, . (. . . .)
4 : http://www.mecd.gob.es/dms/mecd/cultura-mecd/areas-cultura/libro/mc/observatoriolect/
redirige/estudios-e-informes/elaborados-por-el-observatoriolect/sector-libro-abril2015/sector-libroabril2015.pdf
286
/ , , / XVII / 59
,
(, 2015).
Rayuela (, 1963) (Julio Cortzar), .
,
( 2002: 7).
,
( 2002: 131),

( 2004: 33) (idem).

(1962), La ciudad
y los perros ( ) (Mario Vargas Llosa) La
muerte de Artemio Cruz ( ) (Carlos
Fuentes), (Umberto Eco) ,

.

, , . , ,

a, (
) ( , ),
(. 2011: 368).
el fenmeno de la hipertextualidad no naci con Internet
sino con la literatura5 ( 2011: 368),
.
Tinsima
( , 1992) (Elena Poniatowska),
,

La mendiga (, 1999) (Csar
Aira),
5 .
287
(Cecilia Roth), Nueve lunas ( ) . La cultura de masas que

Aira hace ingresar en la escritura desde sus comienzos, est implicada con
las nuevas tecnologas que nos proponen renovadas maneras de entender el
detalle y el fragmento6 (Djibril Mbaye 2011: 42).

(Edmundo Paz Soldan), El delirio de Turing ( , 2006) . (
) (McOndo, 1996) a 7
,
: , , (.
2014: 6620). Sueos digitales ( , 2000),
, ,
.
We see references to porn stars, television shows, video games and literature accumulate as the very real world of corruption and politics in postdictatorship and neoliberal Bolivia co-exists with the quotidian consuption of
popular culture made available through the ubiquity of digital technology8
( 2014: 6642-6652).

scar y las mujeres ( ) (Santiago
Roncagliolo) 2013. , .
, a less delirious version of Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter9
( 2014: 6989).
,
2006. 10 , , , 6 , . (. . . .)
7 ; , ;
8 , , , - ,
. (. . . .)
9 . (. . . .)
10 http://www.elboomeran.com/nuevos-contenidos/0/720/ (5. 2015)
288
/ , , / XVII / 59

11. , :
Hay escritores que son catastrofistas pensando que la Red se va a comer al
papel. Yo no, la Historia ha ido demostrando que un medio puede convivir
con otro. No desapareci la escritura porque apareci la radio, ni la radio
porque lleg la televisin Hay que experimentar hasta llegar al punto en el
que ambos puedan cohabitar sin hacerse dao un medio a otro12 (
/ Intxausti, 2013).
,
.

, ,
, ,
, . ,
Casa del Libro
,
Amazon,
Kindle .
, I-Pad13
(Blanco) (Octavio Paz),
,
( 2015: 260).

.
,
. ,
1991. ,
11 : http://cultura.elpais.com/cultura/2013/02/20/actualidad/1361371780_340180.html
12 .
, .
, ... ,
. (. . . .)
13 : http://www.conaculta.gob.mx/detalle-nota/?id=17293#.VMxpB-G8pSI
289
2000.
(Zo Valds) 1995.
,
.

14, El Boomeran(g), blog literario en espaol15, . , : (Novedades), (Video), (Audio)
: (Librera: escaparate de novedades). ,
(Blogs); (Crtica literaria y
cultural); , (Ensayo, crnica y diario de
notas); (Revistas); (Claves de razn
prctica); (Revista Dissier) (Actualidad).
,
, , , , . ( , , ),
, Tres Tristes
Tigres, (Gullermo Cabrera Infante) 1965. ,
.
El Boomeran(g)
Boom. , ,
La gran novela latinoamericana (2011), ,
, (, 2011: 295)
. , ; ,
. , El
Boomeran(g) 8.835 , 16 8.968 5.444 . ,

Jet Lag (Alfaguara, 2007).
,
14 http://www.elboomeran.com/autor/84/santiago-roncagliolo/ (5. 2015.)
15 http://www.elboomeran.com/ (5. 2015.)
16 https://twitter.com/twitroncagliolo (5. 2015.)
290
/ , , / XVII / 59
, ,
, 17.
- 2008.
18 Ro Fugitivo,
, :
Ha sido un placer llegar a los lectores de ese sitio tan importante para la
literatura en espaol, en el que se encuentran algunos de los blogs que ms
admiro. A partir de este lunes 5, comienza una nueva etapa: este blog ser
parte intrnseca de El Boomeran(g). No cambiar de nombre, tampoco de
estilo, pero s de formato, y tambin de frecuencia (mi intencin es escribir
ms seguido). Cuando comenc este blog, hace dos aos y medio, haca trampa
y lo utilizaba para divulgar los artculos que escriba en peridicos (sobre
todo La Tercera, de Chile) y revistas. Con el tiempo, me di cuenta de que un
nuevo medio necesitaba de otro lenguaje, y me puse a mezclar textos escritos
para otros medios con posts escritos directamente con el blog. La idea, ahora,
es que no desaparezcan los artculos, pero que predominen los posts (
, 5. 5. 2008)19.
20
,
(Joyce Carol Oats)
.
, crack , 25 .
, , 21.
22, Libertad y vida ( ), o . , , ,
17 http://www.casadellibro.com/libro-jet-lag/9788420471662/1129405
18 http://www.elboomeran.com/blog-post/117/3910/edmundo-paz-soldan/rio-fugitivo-en-elboomerang/
19 ,
, .
: ().
, , ( ). , , , , ( , La Tercera) .
,
. ,
.
20 https://twitter.com/edpazsoldan (7. 2015.)
21 http://www.elboomeran.com/blog/12/jorge-volpi/ (7. 2015.)
22 http://zoevaldes.net/
291

.
, . ,
,
La mujer que llora ( ). :
2013.
: .
( ) XXI , ?
? , ?
. , ,
2007. :
.

,
, .
( 2007:
218-219).
A
a . , , , ,
, : ,
XXI , . ,
, ,
, , , .

, . , ,
.
292
/ , , / XVII / 59
, , , ,
.
, ,
, 23
, .
, . , () ,
,
, , (
) ()
.
,
, ,
.
1996: . . , ,
/ [] (
), : .
2014: J. A. Brown, Edmundo Paz Soldn, The contemporary Spanish-American
Novel: Bolao and after (Kindle edition), New York/London/New Delhi/Sidney:
Bloomsbury
2004: . , , :
.
2007: . , 2, :
.
2014: J. de Castro, Santiago Roncagliolo, The contemporary SpanishAmerican Novel: Bolao and after (Kindle edition), New York/London/New Delhi/
Sidney: Bloomsbury.
2015: . ,
( ),
IV/1 ( ), 255-267.
M 2011: Dj. Mbaye, La obra de Csar Aira: una narrativa en bsqueda de su crtica
(tesis doctoral), Madrid: Universidad Complutense.
2011: M. Martnez Prsico (2011): Juglares electrnicos.
Nuevos soportes digitales en la novela espaola e hispanoamericana, :
, 18, 367-384.
23 http://www.mecd.gob.es/dms/mecd/cultura-mecd/areas-cultura/libro/mc/observatoriolect/
redirige/estudios-e-informes/elaborados-por-el-observatoriolect/sector-libro-abril2015/sectorlibro-abril2015.pdf
293
2015: G. Martnez, , 24. 2015.

2002: . , , :
.
2008: E. Paz Soldn, Ro Fugitivo en el Boomeran(g), El Boomeran(g)
blog literario en espaol http://www.elboomeran.com/blog-post/117/3910/
edmundo-paz-soldan/rio-fugitivo-en-el-boomerang/ (20. 2015).
/ Intxausti 2013: A. Intxausti, El libro por entregas de Roncagliolo Oscar
y las mujeres, en las libreras, El Pas, 20. feb. 2013.
http://cultura.elpais.com/cultura/2013/02/20/actualidad/1361371780_340180.
html (20. 2015)
2011: C. Fuentes, La gran novela latinoamericana, Madrid: lfaguara.
Bojana Kovaevi Petrovi / LITERATURA HISPANOAMERICANA CIBERNTICO
Resumen / En las ltimas dcadas del siglo XX y principios del siglo XXI literatura
hispanoamericana est experimentando una serie de cambios que se desarrollan
paralelamente con la sociedad en general. El motivo de uno de los cambios ms llamativos es el desarrollo de nuevas tecnologas que inevitablemente estn influyendo
la literatura. En este trabajo consideraremos la presencia del mundo virtual en obras
de los narradores hispanoamericanos contemporneos, su representacin en el ciberespacio en las pginas web, blogs, redes sociales y trataremos de encontrar una
respuesta a la pregunta de si se trata de un nuevo gnero literario, o simplemente un
nuevo agente de comunicacin y de la distribucin de la informacin literaria. Despus de haber revisado los artculos y libros relacionados con las nuevas tendencias
de la narrativa hispanoamericana contempornea, destacaremos los escritores de
ese continente cuya obra impresa y virtual se destaca por su calidad y pertinencia,
as como los escritores que pueden ser considerados los precursores de la literatura
ciberntica. Entre ellos se encuentran Jorge Luis Borges, Julio Cortzar, Edmundo Paz
Soldn, Santiago Roncagliolo, Zo Valds. Tambin vamos a sealar el pensamiento
de algunos de los autores serbios que han escrito sobre el tema de la literatura virtual
o hispanoamericana principalmente Vladislava Gordi Petkovi y Vasa Pavkovi.
Palabras clave: Literatura ciberntica, la literatura latinoamericana, historias virtuales, el blog
j 2016.
2016.
294
/ , , / XVII / 59

821.134.2(85):929 . .

1974. 1.
, ,
, .
.
(, , ). ( ). .
, , ,
, , .
, , .

.
, 1990.
, , ,
.
,
.
.
( , 2008.
, , ,
, ,
, .)
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299
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.
, ,
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, ,
, : , , ,

.
- , ,
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.
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2003. ,
, ,
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,

, 3.
, ,
, .
2003. 4.
, , (1993),
, ,
1936. 1992. , ,
2 Ibid.
3 , 2003.
, Diario de Irak, Aguilar, Buenos Aires. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/sep/05/iraq.
features11
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- XIX ,
,
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. .
(, , :
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.
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303
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ZOON POLITIKON

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1990. .
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304
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2015.) , , - , -,

, .
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( ), ,
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a , The nd of Poverty? 2010. . ,
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,
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,
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. ,
, , ,
.
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-
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, . , ,
,

. -, .
. ( , !) , , .
.
,
9, ,
, 10.
8 : La novela en Amrica Latina: dialogo [entre Gabriel
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11 http://www.vijesti.me/caffe/ustanovljena-nagrada-knjizevni-plamen-casne-nagrade-su-uvijekstimulans-piscima-839322
307

821.134.2(85)-32.09 . .
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umbanda, Beograd: Muzej afrike umetnosti
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10 Selected Poems, Poesa Selecta, Luis Pals Matos, transl. and introd. by Julio Marzn, University of
Houston, Texas, USA, 2000.
11 Luis Pals Matos, Tuntn de Pasa y Grifera, Edicin de Mercedes Lpez-Baralt, Instituto de Cultura
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1 http://reclaimingthelatinatag.tumblr.com/post/40768980574/child-of-the-americas-by-auroralevins-morales
http://hubpages.com/literature/Child-of-the-Americas-An-analysis-on-a-Poem
( ,
, . ,
Getting Home Alive by Aurora Levins Morales and Rosario Morales, Firebrand Books, Ithaca, New
York, 1986.)

Child of the Americas by Aurora Levins Morales
I am a child of the Americas,

a light-skinned mestiza of the Caribbean,
a child of many diaspora, born into this continent at a crossroads.
365
(Aurora Levins Morales), 1954.

. (Boon Cheema), Stories of Transformation2,
, ,

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1968.
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I am a U.S. Puerto Rican Jew,
a product of the ghettos of New York I have never known.
An immigrant and the daughter and granddaughter of immigrants.
I speak English with passion: its the tongue of my consciousness,
a flashing knife blade of crystal, my tool, my craft.
I am Caribea, island grown. Spanish is my flesh,
Ripples from my tongue, lodges in my hips:
the language of garlic and mangoes,
the singing of poetry, the flying gestures of my hands.
I am of Latinoamerica, rooted in the history of my continent:
I speak from that body.
I am not African. Africa is in me, but I cannot return.
I am not tana. Tano is in me, but there is no way back.
I am not European. Europe lives in me, but I have no home there.
I am new. History made me. My first language was spanglish.
I was born at the crossroads and I am whole.
2 2013. , .
3 , , , , , . , , 2016. . ,
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. : http://www.auroralevinsmorales.com/blog/
are-you-now-or-have-you-ever-been
366
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Remedios: Stories of Earth and Iron from the History of

Puertorriqueas (1998),
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4 One of the first things a colonizing power, a new ruling class or repressive regime does is to attack the sense of
history of those they wish to dominate, by attempting to take overand control their relationships
to their own past. When the invading English rounded upthe harpists of Ireland and burned their
harps, it was partly for their function in carryingnews and expressing public opinion, for their role
as opposition media; but it was alsobecause they were repositories of collective memory. When the
Mayan codices were burned, it was the Mayan sense of identity, rooted in a culture with a past that
was assaulted. The prohibitions against slaves speaking their own languages, reading and writing,
playing drums all had obvious uses in attempting to prevent organized resistance,but they were
also ways of trying to control the story of who slaves thought they were. One important way that
power elites seek to disrupt the sense of historical identity ofthose they want to dominate is by taking over the
transmission of culture to the young. Native American and Australian aboriginal children were taken from their
families byforce and required to abandon the language, dress, customs and spirituality of their own people. Irish
and Welsh children in English controlled schools, and Puerto Rican, Mexican, Chinese and many other nationalities of children in US public schools were punished and ridiculed for speaking their home languages. Invading
the historical identities of the subjugated is one part of the task of domination. http://www.jsri.msu.edu/upload/
working-papers/wp40.pdf &
http://www.auroralevinsmorales.com/uploads/4/2/9/2/4292077/the_historian_as_curandera.pdf
5
.
: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/275564070926097627/
368
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City) on January 30, 1891.
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393
792.071.2.027:929 Kiru L.
AIM CSAIRE: OD MARTINIKA DO MARTINSKE

(Razgovor sa kazalinim, filmskim i TV redateljem
Lawrence Kiiruom)
Gospodine Kiiru, kada ste prvi put uli za Aimea Cesairea?
Ja sam 70ih godina prolog stoljea, kao student zagrebake Akademije za kazalite, film i televiziju, uz svjetsku knjievnost intenzivno
prouavao afriku knjievnost, kulturu i umjetnost. Svoju sam ogromnu
ljubav za djela pisaca kao to su Ngg wa Thiongo (Kenija), Wole Soyinka (Nigerija), Chinua Achebe (Nigerija), L. S. Sengor (Senegal) te brojnih
drugih afrikih romanopisaca i pjesnika u to vrijeme obogatio i onom knjievnou koju mi frikanci esto zovemo knjievnost crnake diaspore.
Tako sam otkrio sjajne amerike i karipske pisce kao to su L. Hughes, A.
Csaire, i F. Fanon itd.
Posebno sam tada bio ugodno iznenaen injenicom da je u Jugoslaviji ve niz godina, naroito od 1950. godine, vladala interes za afriku
knjievnost te da je jugoslavenska knjievna kritika i publicistika bila esto zaokupljena tom literaturom. Uoio sam da se moe doi do vrlo zanimljivih lanaka o toj knjievnosti i u brojnim asopisima te u listovima za
knjievnost, umjetnost i kulturno-drutvena istraivanja. Bilo mi je divno
vidjeti da su prevedena brojna knjievna djela afrikih pisaca, primjerice,
Peter Abrahams, Dennis Brutus, Alan Paton, John Pepper Clark, Chinua
Achebe, Amos Tutuola, Bernard Dadi, Joe de Graft, Birago Diop, Nadine
Gordimer, Richard Rive, Antnio Jacinto, Alex La Guma, Taban Liyong,
Patrice Lumumba, Agostinho Neto, Ngg wa Thiongo, Gabriel Okara,
Okot pBitek, Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo, Ousmane Sembne, Lopold Sdar
Senghor, Wole Soyinka, Tchicaya U Tamsi. U to vrijeme otkrivanja svog
crnakog identiteta sam i doao do sjajne poezije i dramskih djela karipskog pisca Aimea Cesairea s otoka Martinique.
Otkuda vae prijateljstvo sa profesorom Petrom Guberinom? Kakva je bila
veza izmeu Guberine i Cesairea? Kako se uopte rodila ideja za snimanje
filma o prijateljstvu Guberine i Cesairea?
Poto sam studirao i ivio u Zagrebu, ja sam naravno puno puta uo
i itao o profesoru Petru Guberini. On je tad bio osniva i direktor uvenog
zagrebakog centra SUVAG (System Universal Verbotonal dAudition Guberina) Sistem univerzalnog sluanja Guberina. U tom centru se i danas
primjenjuje posebna metoda lijeenja koju je izumio sam profesor Petar
397
Lawrence Kiiru
Guberina1. Zahvaljujui prijateljima i poznavateljima afrike kulture i umjetnosti iz tadanjeg zagrebakog Instituta za prouavanje Afrike, saznao
sam da je Guberina studirao u Parizu 30ih godina prolog stoljea te da
je jedan od najboljih poznavalaca crnake poezije francuskog i engleskog
izraza. Osim toga, govorili su mi da je ljubitelj i crnake kulture. Imao sam
silnu potrebu da upoznam tog ovjeka. Nekoliko puta sam pokuavao doi
do njega. Kad sam konano uspio i doao u SUVAG, kod njega u ured, profesor Petar Guberina mi je onda detaljno ispriao kako je incidencijom sluajnih dogaaja bio svjedok nastajanja pokreta Ngritude (Crnatva).
Bilo je to 1934., kada su studenti Leopold Sedar Senghor, Aim Csaire i
Lon Damas i drugi odluili da u Parizu izdaju novine L Etudiant Noir.
Guberina je te godine, kao student, ivio u studentskom domu Deutsch
de la Meurthe, u kojem su stanovali L. S. Senghor i A. Cesaire. Zajednike materijalne teskoe su ih zbliile. Svakodnevno su vie sati provodili
zajedno, mjesecima, naroito u ljetno doba. Njihova zajednika strast za
znanjem i knjigama i Guberinin veliki interes za Afriku, pridonijeli su da
ve od prvih dana njihovog druenja postanu dugogodinji prijatelji. Vrlo
vaan dogadaj je bio onaj kad je Guberina pozvao kolegu i prijatelja Cesairea u posjet u Dalmaciju, u Guberinin rodni grad ibenik, ljeta 1935.
godine, gdje su proveli zajedno etiri mjeseca. Nasuprot Guberininoj kui
u ibeniku (u Dolcu) je alo koje se zove Martinska. A. Cesaire je bio jako
impresioniran tim imenom. Martinska mu je imenom dozivala njegov rodni otok Martinique. Jednoga jutra je Cesaire kazao Guberini: Htio bih ii
svaki dan na Martinsku. Ve prvoga jutra uzeo je biljenicu s obinom
olovkom i vratio se s nekoliko napisanih stihova. I tako svakog jutra, da bi
nakon tri mjeseca uspio stvoriti prvu verziju poeme Cahier dun retour au
pays natal (Povratak u rodni kraj).
I tako je nastalo Cesairovo remek-djelo, ujedno i remek-djelo crnake i
francuske knjievnosti ?
Da. Vrlo zanimljivo. Guberina je dalje meni priao kako se kasnije od
1936. do 1939. vrlo esto sastajao sa Cesairom i sa Senghorom u Parizu.
Njihovo zajedniko druenje je nastavilo i odmah iza II svjetskog rata. Naime, Guberina je dolazio gotovo svake godine u Pariz, gdje je ostajao koji
put i vie mjeseci na slubenoj dunosti (kao diplomat nove Jugoslavije).
Da li je to vrijeme kad je Cesaire bio komunistiki poslanik otoka Martiniquea
u Francuskoj i naelnik glavnog grada Martiniquea Fort de France?
Da. Upravo tako. Treba dodati da se godine 1946. u Parizu prvi put
pojavljuje Presence Africaine, revija i drutvo koje je osnovano na idejama
Crnatva i koje je iru zajednicu upoznavalo sa velikim brojem mladih cr1 Navedena metoda lijeenja podrazumijeva metodske pristupe i postupke koji se koriste u dijagnostici i rehabilitaciji sluanja i govora i u terapiji govornih poremeaja, neovisno o etiologiji i karakteru
oteenja te kronolokoj dobi pacijenta.
398
/ , , / XVII / 59
Aim Csaire: od Martinika do Martinske
nakih knjievnika iz svih tadanjih kolonija, francuskih, engleskih, portugalskih, koji su suraivali s Presence Africaine. Nadalje, godine 1956. Guberina sudjeluje u organizaciji i radu Prvog kongresa crnake knjievnosti i
umjetnosti u Parizu. Taj kongres je predstavljao prvi bilans Crnatva. Tu
se ve oituju razni stavovi crnakih knjievnika i umjetnika prema kulturnoj i politikoj koncepciji Crnatva. Vrlo bitan je i moment kad je godine
1956., Presence Africaine zamolila Guberinu da priredi kritiko izdanje
Cesaireove poeme Cahier dun retour au pays natal i da napie predgovor.
Kako bismo mogli ukratko objasniti vrlo bitan kulturni i politiki pojam
Crnatvo koji pominjemo i dovodimo u usku vezu sa Cesaireom i ostalim
stvaraocima i borcima za prava i identitet kolonizovanih?
Rekao bih da je Crnatvo bilo i politiki revolucionarni pokret. U to
vrijeme je knjievno stvaranje bilo jedini put da alijenirani crnci zbog kolonijalnog stanja postanu svijesni svojega identiteta, svoje kulturne vrijednosti, svojeg ljudskog dostojanstva. Stvaraoci Crnatva su imali vrsti stav
da se jedino tako moe doi do aktivnijeg otpora protiv kolonijalne sile.
Kasnije su se, koliko je meni poznato, pojavili brojni nesporazumi medu
crnakim intelektualcima u ocjeni Crnatva. Meu najglasnijima su bili
nigerijski nobelovac Wole Soyinka i juno-afriki pisac Ezekiel Mphahlele.
Cesaire je ve od 1950. vrlo istanano i paljivo sluao kritiku koja je bila
upravljena Crnatvu i elio da osvijetli svaki nesporazum. Naroito je elio da nitko ne shvati Ngritude kao epopeju nadahnutih pjesnika, punih
emocije, a bez realne podloge.
Pretpostavljam da va dokumentarni film pod nazivom MARTINSKA
MARTINIQUE obuhvaa svega ovog to ste ispriali?
Da. Htio sam sve to prezentirati u filmu i usput gledaocima ispriati
jednu divnu toplu priu o prijateljstvu izmeu Guberine i Cesairea. Mislim
da sam donekle uspio.
A da li vam je poznato da je 2013.godine, u ibeniku, francuska TV-ekipa
snimila film koji se bavi upravo istom temom, o prijateljstvu izmeu
Guberine i Cesairea?
Jako malo znam o tome. Jedino to mogu rei je da sam te godine
saznao preko gospoe pokojnog profesora Guberine da je u Hrvatsku stigla neka mala francuska TV-ekipa koja namjerava snimiti film o Guberini.
Traili su susret sa mnom, valjda samo da me upoznaju. Nali smo se u kafiu jednog hotela u Zagrebu i iz tog kratkog susreta sam nekako shvatio da
me oni hvala Bogu uope ne trebaju. Od te iste TV-ekipe sam tada saznao
da je i prije toga snimljen jedan drugi dokumentarni film o velikom Cesaireu. okiralo me je i saznanje da su u tom filmu koriteni kadrovi iz mog
filma (bez mog znanja?!). Taj film nisam do dan danas gledao.
399
Lawrence Kiiru
Vi ste sa ekipom boravili nekoliko dana u Parizu i bili ste gosti Aimea
Cesairea u njegovom domu. Kakvu je impresiju na vas ostavio veliki Cesaire?
Iz prve je ostavljao dojam veoma diskretne osobe, pomalo i srameljive. Ali u razgovoru s njim sam otkrio da se radi o velikom ovjeku, intelektualcu. Kad se opustio i poeo govoriti u kameru, odgovarati na moja
brojna pitanja, izalo je sve ono to mi je trebalo za zanimljiv film. Ispred
kamere je bio znaajan crnaki knjievnik, politiar, borac za priznanje
crnake umjetnosti, crnakih prava...
Mislite li da je Aime Cesaire i danas vaan i da se trebamo vraati njegovom
Diskursu o kolonijalizmu ali i drugim djelima da ih oivimo?
Svakako.
Vi i danas ivite u Zagrebu?
Da.
Da li postoji prevod Diskursa o kolonijalizmu na hrvatski jezik a ako
ne postoji, ta je Vae misljenje, zato?
Da vam iskreno kaem ne znam da li postoji. Nije mi poznato. Nisam
uo. Rekao bih i da ne vidim razlog zato ne bi bio preveden. Vjerojatno
se nije naao ovjek koji bi na sebe preuzeo takav zadatak. Prevedene su
njegove pjesme pogotovo zahvaljujui profesoru Guberini i prevodiocu
Boi Kukolju.
Zato su, po Vama, lino, Eme Sezer i posebno njegov Diskurs... bitni za
sve ono sto je vezano za N
gritude i za nekoga ko sebe, moda, naziva
pripadnikom grupe kolonizovanih naroda?
Moram priznati da ni meni kao Afrikancu, pripadniku tamnopute
rase koja je stoljeima bila rtva kolonizacije europskih zemalja, nije jednostavno danas govoriti o Ngritude, Crnatvu. Prolo je puno godina od
postanka tog pokreta. U svijetu se uistinu puno toga promijenilo. Skoro sve
afrike zemlje su stekle nezavisnost ak i one u kojima su vladajue strukture bile strogo rasistike, kao npr. Junoafrika Republika ili Juna Rodezija.
Ma nije Crnatvo bilo samo kulturni pokret kako se proireno tvrdi. Ja bih rekao da je ono prvenstveno bilo politiko-revolucionarni pokret za oslobaanje crnakih masa u itavom svijetu kulturno i politiki!
Naravno da uz sve to svaki razuman ovjek mora priznati da Ngritude
ili Crnatvo ima vrlo vano mjesto za napredak ovjeanstva, pogotovo na
polju jednakosti svih rasa.
Kao to je poznato knjiga Discours sur le colonialisme je bila velika inspiracija za brojne politike i ratne borce za oslobaanje brojnih afrikih, la400
/ , , / XVII / 59
tino-amerikih i karipskih zemalja od kolonijalizma. U Sjevernoj Americi je

itava generacija Afro-Amerikanaca koja je vodila veliku borbu protiv rasizma te traila da se crncima prizna ljudska prava i ravnopravnost bila, itekako, upoznata sa razmiljanjima i idejama velikog Aime Cesairea. ezdesetih
godina prolog stoljea, u Sjedinjenim Amerikim Dravama su pripadnici
pokreta Black Power citirali reenice Aimea Cesairea i Franza Fanona. Te
ideje su se ule i na antiratnim demonstracijama protiv rata u Vijetnamu...
Puno se toga moe kazati o Cesaireovoj knjizi ali mislim da je najbolje da ja zavrim odgovor na vae pitanje citatom Franza Fanona, ovjeka
koji je jako cijenio djela Aime Cesairea i puno utjecao na borce oslobaanja
Alira od Francuza:
Pokret Negritude nastao je kao emocionalna antiteza uvredi koju je
bijeli ovjek nanio ovjeanstvu.
Razgovor vodila Vesna Savanovi
,
MARTINSKA MARTINIQUE
401
Lawrence Kiiru
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.: Du Toit, A. Teaching Info-preneurship: students perspective. ASLIB
Proceedings, February 2000. Proquest. 21.02.2000.
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XVII/ 59 / 2016.

CHRISTOPHER HAPTON AND EDUARDO GALEANO:

INTO THE WATER: ,

ART AND ACTIVISM IN THE WORKS

AIM CSAIRE: OD MARTINIKA DO MARTINSKE (Razgovor

The Puerto Rican Journey (1950)

The Sailor, Sex Market, and Mexican ,

2014: S. Aronowitz, Taking It Big: C. Wright Mills and the Making of

( 12: 5, 7, 12, 13).

, (Cardenal 1974: 321). , (,

to note that Cardenals poetic orientation centered on the concept of exteriorismo

, (1921-1997), (19312009), , 1960.

(El Teatro Campesino), , 2010. ,

2009: A. Boal, The interview with Amy Goodman, <https://www.youtube.

Boal, A. The 2009 World Theatre Day International Message, 2009,

CHRISTOPHER HAPTON AND EDUARDO

1. WHITE CHAMELEON (1991): CHRISTOPHER HAMPTONS

Christopher Hampton and Eduardo Galeano...

He chooses, as he says, to drop an anchor in Alexandria, Egypt,

Christopher Hampton and Eduardo Galeano...

On 23rd February 1969, the Sunday Times Colour Magazine published an

Christopher Hampton and Eduardo Galeano...

In the conversation between the General, and the Attorney General,

Christopher Hampton and Eduardo Galeano...

Christopher Hampton and Eduardo Galeano...

The practice of overthrowing democratically elected governments

US attempted the overthrow of fifty governments, Guatemala, Panama,

Christopher Hampton and Eduardo Galeano...

every possible medium to make apparent the isolation and exclusion of

Christopher Hampton and Eduardo Galeano...

In the manner of Aime Csaire, David Stannard, Sven Lindqvist, and

Christopher Hampton and Eduardo Galeano...

the Egyptian pyramids, technically efficient constructions for the battle

Today, the same as in the past when it was dominated by European

There is no change in the system through which circulation of capital

As Galeano understood very well, the U.S. needs to dominate and

Christopher Hampton and Eduardo Galeano...

[T]o awaken consciousness, to reveal identity can literature claim a better

6. SER COMO ELLOS (1992): TO BE, OR NOT TO BE,

[] it seems strikingly clear to me that America wasnt discovered in 1492,

Christopher Hampton and Eduardo Galeano...

21 Translated by Marija Stojii

As in America, Christian missionaries crushed or burned pagan effigies of

Christopher Hampton and Eduardo Galeano...

concentration camp was used was in 1904 by the Chancellor of Goring,

The book includes comments on several other types of wars we are

Of course, the point of his stories, with which he hopes to restore

Galeano was deeply aware that the institutionalized violence and

Christopher Hampton and Eduardo Galeano...

Christopher Hampton and Eduardo Galeano...

INTO THE WATER: ,

Into the Water: , ...

Into the Water: , ...

Into the Water: , ...

Into the Water: , ...

Into the Water: , ...

Into the Water: , ...

Into the Water: , ...

Into the Water: , ...

Into the Water: , ...

Into the Water: , ...

Into the Water: , ...

Into the Water: , ...

Into the Water: , ...