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A Small-Scale CAES (Compressed Air Energy Storage) System For Stand-Alone Renewable Energy Power Plant For A Radio Base Station: A Sizing-Design Methodology
A Small-Scale CAES (Compressed Air Energy Storage) System For Stand-Alone Renewable Energy Power Plant For A Radio Base Station: A Sizing-Design Methodology
Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 15 May 2014
Received in revised form
24 September 2014
Accepted 5 October 2014
Available online xxx
In this paper, a novel CAES system (compressed air energy storage) is proposed as a suitable technology
for the energy storage in a small scale stand-alone renewable energy power plant (photovoltaic power
plant) that is designed to satisfy the energy demand of a radio base station for mobile
telecommunications.
The innovation introduced in this study concerns two aspects: the rst one is the using of a small-scale
CAES system integrated with a TES (thermal energy storage) unit with inter-cooling compression and
inter-heating expansion; the second one is the cooling energy production, that is obtained by the cold air
(3 C) at the turbine outlet of the CAES system. For this reason, the storage system is dened a PSS-CAES
(Polygeneration Small-Scale Compressed Air Energy Storage) system.
In this paper, a sizing-design methodology of the energy power plant has been illustrated and the
overall performance has been calculated.
Results have highlighted that the storage system has an efciency equal to 57%, that is an interesting
value considering its small size. Moreover, the contribution of the PSS-CAES unit on the cooling energy
requirements results equal to 17% with reference to the cooling energy required in the hours in which it
works.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
CAES
Stand-alone power plant
Energy storage
Renewable sources
Performance analysis
System design
1. Introduction
Current energy policies and strategies are mainly addressed to
sustain the diffusion of renewable energy source technologies, even
if they are often recognized as less competitive than the energy
conversion systems based on fossil fuels, due both to the intermittency of the energy sources (a mismatch between the electricity
production and the corresponding occurrence of load demand), and
to the high maintenance costs [1e4]. Thus, electricity storage systems are needed if the renewable power has to become a major
source of base-load dispatchable power [5,6].
Existing storage technologies, based on various processes,
include electrochemical batteries and fuel cells, supercapacitors,
thermal-storage materials, ywheels, PH (pumped hydro), SMES
(superconducting magnetic energy storage), chemical storage
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016
0360-5442/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Jannelli E, et al., A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for stand-alone renewable energy
power plant for a radio base station: A sizing-design methodology, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016
Nomenclature
W
COP
E
t
g
M
T
m_
cp
b
p
k
hpol
j
Q
Q_
u
A
C
Please cite this article in press as: Jannelli E, et al., A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for stand-alone renewable energy
power plant for a radio base station: A sizing-design methodology, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016
Fig. 1. Power plant layout. MPB: Motor Power Block system; CAT: Compressed Air Tank; OT: diathermic Oil Tank; E: Expander; C: Compressor; HE: Heat Exchanger; P: oil Pump.
Please cite this article in press as: Jannelli E, et al., A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for stand-alone renewable energy
power plant for a radio base station: A sizing-design methodology, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016
Wd t Wel;eq t
Q_ cool t
Wel;eq t Wel;cool t
COP
(1)
* t can be
The electric power produced by a PV module WPV
determined by using a mathematical model.
The daily electric energy demand Ed;i and the daily PV module
* are:
energy production EPV;i
Please cite this article in press as: Jannelli E, et al., A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for stand-alone renewable energy
power plant for a radio base station: A sizing-design methodology, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016
Zti
Ed;i
Wd;i t dt
where
(2)
g maxgi
(6)
EPV;i
Zti
*
WPV;i
t
(3)
gi
Ed;i
*
EPV;i
(4)
(5)
WPV;i t Wd;i t < 00We;i t WPV;i t Wd;i t
WPV;i t Wd;i t > 00Wc;i t WPV;i t Wd;i t
(7)
(8)
Fig. 3. The behaviour of the main operating data (PV power production, turbine power production, compressor power consumption and air pressure in the storage tank) of the
power plant during two days.
Please cite this article in press as: Jannelli E, et al., A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for stand-alone renewable energy
power plant for a radio base station: A sizing-design methodology, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016
Ed;max
max Ed;i
(9)
EPV;min min EPV;i
(10)
The value of air mass that must be stored (M) and that determines the air tank size, results to be the highest:
M maxMA ; MB
(11)
The ideal gas law is applied to calculate the volume of the air
tank; the pressure is assigned according to the numerical assumptions while the temperature of the air storage tank is known
by solving TES unit sizing procedure.
The size of the turbines (ne is the number of turbines), according
to eq. (7) and to the constraint on the air temperature at inlet of
each turbine, are calculated by solving the following equations
system:
8
e
e
e
>
t Ta;out
< We t ne m_ a tcp;a T Ta;in
k1
>
hpol;e
: T e t T
k
a;out be; ne t
a;in
13
s
pa t patm
be;ne t
patm
(14)
m_ ea tdt
(15)
e
Q_ cool;av m_ ea tcp;a T Tset_point Ta;out
(16)
This cooling effect allows to reduce the electric power consumption Wel;cool due to the cooling system; thus, an iterative
procedure has to be adopted, in order to nd the right value of the
air mass that has to be stored in the tank.
Moreover, the size of each compressor (nc is the number of
compressors), according to eq. (8), is calculated by solving a system
of equations similar to that used for the turbine:
8
c
c
c
< Wc t nc m_ a tcp;a T Ta;out t Ta;in
17
: c
c
Ta;out t Ta;in
bc; nc t
18
k1
k
hpol;c
c
c
where cp;a is the specic heat, Ta;in
and Ta;out
t are the inlet and
outlet air compressor temperatures, respectively, k is the isentropic
expansion factor and hpol;c is the polytropic efciency of the
compressors.
The compression ratio bc;nc t, for the single compressor, is
calculated as follows:
s
pa t patm
bc;nc t
patm
nc
(19)
M max M A ; MB
(20)
where
Zti
MA;B
m_ ca tdt
(21)
12
Zti
MA;B
M
M
(22)
*
jWPV
WPV j gWPV
(23)
MzM
(24)
Please cite this article in press as: Jannelli E, et al., A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for stand-alone renewable energy
power plant for a radio base station: A sizing-design methodology, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016
e
> Ta;in
(25)
The second one regards the heat from the inter-cooling system
(Qc) and the heat needed at the inter-heating system (Qe):
Qc > Qe
(26)
Qc
Q_c t
Zti
Qe
(34)
(35)
or
(36)
where:
Zti
1
1
ln
NTU
C1
C 1
Zti
dt
(27)
e
e
dt
ne m_ ea tcp;a T Ta;in
t Ta;out
(28)
nc m_ ca tcp;a T
c
Ta;out
t
c
Ta;in
Q_e t
Zti
0
The NTU (number of transfer units) method has been applied for
sizing the counter-ow heat exchangers, so the energy balance, for
the analysis on the inter-cooling system, is solved by the following
equations system:
8 :
: c
>
c
c
>
t
n
m
tc
T
T
t
T
Q
c
c
p;a
>
a;out
a
a;in
>
>
>
< :
: c
HEc
HEc
Qc t nc mo tcp;o T To;out t To;in
>
>
>
>
:
>
HEc
c
>
: Qc t Cmin Ta;out
1=
t To;in
(29)
(30)
(31)
or
Ee;i
Ec;i
(33)
(37)
SPE
Ee;i
Qcool;av;i
COP
Ec;i
(38)
(32)
By solving the system, the ow rate of the diathermic oil and the
inlet and outlet oil temperatures are calculated.
This procedure is carried out for the cases A and B (eqs. (9) and
(10)) in order to estimate the maximum value of the oil mass that
has to be stored and, consequently, the size of the oil tank.
Finally, the sizes of the heat exchangers, according to the NTU
method, are calculated as:
uA NTU*Cmin
SSE
HEc
c
To;out
t Ta;out
t T
The numerical methodology has allowed to size each component of the power plant and to estimate the plant performance. In
this study the following performance parameters have been
introduced.
ESF;i
Ed;i
EPV;i
(39)
Please cite this article in press as: Jannelli E, et al., A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for stand-alone renewable energy
power plant for a radio base station: A sizing-design methodology, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016
Fig. 4. The electric energy consumption for the equipment and for the cooling system of the radio base station installed in Naples (Italy).
Table 1
Data on the installation site.
Location
Latitude
Longitude
Altitude
Number of heating degree-days
Average minimum temperature
Average maximum temperature
Monthly irradiation on horizontal plane (max)
Monthly irradiation on horizontal plane (min)
Naples (Italy)
40 510 4600 80 N
14 160 3600 12 E
0m
1034
8.7 C
24.7 C
7770 Wh/m2/day
1890 Wh/m2/day
Table 2
Input data and constraints.
e
Temperature of the air at the end of the expansion Ta;out
c
Inlet air temperature at the compressor Ta;in
The average air pressure in the storage tank
Max. air pressure in the storage tank
Min. air pressure in the storage tank
COP of the cooling system
Number of expansion stages (ne)
Number of compression stages (nc)
Turbine polytropic efciency hpol;e
Compressor polytropic efciency hpol;e
Heat exchangers efciency ()
Isentropic expansion factor (k)
3 C
15 C
30 bar
35 bar
25 bar
3
2
3
0.75
0.85
0.95
1.4
Turbine size
Expansion ratio behe
Turbine air ow rate m_ ea
e
Air temperature at turbines outlet Ta;in
TES unit
Diathermic oil tank volume
DT according to the eq. (30)
UA of inter-cooling exchangers
UA of inter-heating heat exchangers
33 kWp
180
60
293 m2
465 kg
268 kg
39.1 m3
1.74
3.7 kW
3.1
0.025 kg/s
159 C
1.35 kW
5.8
0.011 kg/s
130 C
1.91 m3
5 C
0.55 kW/ C
0.26 kW/ C
Please cite this article in press as: Jannelli E, et al., A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for stand-alone renewable energy
power plant for a radio base station: A sizing-design methodology, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016
Fig. 5. Comparison between the electric energy production (EPV and EPV theoretical) and electric energy demand. Trend of the energy supply factor vs. months.
5. Conclusion
In this paper, a novel CAES system is proposed as a suitable
technology for the energy storage in a small scale stand-alone
renewable energy power plant that is designed to satisfy the energy demand of a radio base station for mobile telecommunications.
The numerical methodology proposed in this study is based on
an iterative approach that, by means of numerical assumptions and
constraints, has allowed to size each sub-sections of the power
plant and to calculate their operating conditions and performance.
The innovation introduced in this study concerns two aspects:
- the adoption of a small-scale adiabatic CAES system integrated
with a thermal energy storage (TES) unit with inter-cooling
compression and inter-heating expansion; this conguration
provides a storage system efciency (SSE) equal to 57%;
- the cooling effect obtained by the cold air (3 C) available at the
outlet of the last turbine (according to the assigned constraint);
this aspect allows to obtain a maximum storage polygeneration
efciency (SPE) equal to 59%; moreover, the contribution of the
PSS-CAES unit on the cooling energy satisfaction results equal to
17% with respect to the cooling energy required in the hours in
which the PSS-CAES system works.
The numerical results have highlighted that the stand-alone
conguration leads to an oversizing of the PV power unit that has
Table 4
Power plant performance.
Performance parameters
Storage system efciency (December)
Maximum storage polygeneration efciency (July)
Annual energy supply factor
Annual energies
Electric energy demand
Cooling energy demand
PV electric energy production
Theoretical PV electric energy (without storage)
Daily electric energies
Turbines' production case A
Turbines' production case B
Compressors' consumption case A
Compressors' consumption case B
Daily cooling energies (case A)
Cooling energy production by PSS-CAES
Cooling energy demand during the PV energy production
Cooling energy demand during PSS-CAES operation
0.57
0.59
0.33
18,803 kWh
3849 kWh
57,703 kWh
33,162 kWh
27.3
37.8
47.8
55.7
kWh
kWh
kWh
kWh
2.57 kWh
22.7 kWh
15.2 kWh
Please cite this article in press as: Jannelli E, et al., A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for stand-alone renewable energy
power plant for a radio base station: A sizing-design methodology, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016
10
to satisfy the daily electric energy demand, taking into account the
electric energy requirements for the telecommunications equipment, for the cooling system and for the storage system. As a
consequence the annual energy supply factor (ESF) is equal to 33%.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by the Italian Research Project Fuel Cell
and Smart Hybrid GENeneration from fossil and renewable sources
e FC SMART GEN (PON01_02864).
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Please cite this article in press as: Jannelli E, et al., A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for stand-alone renewable energy
power plant for a radio base station: A sizing-design methodology, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016