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Deep Support Systems Using Diaphragm Walls and Contiguous Piles
Deep Support Systems Using Diaphragm Walls and Contiguous Piles
Deep Support Systems Using Diaphragm Walls and Contiguous Piles
CONTIGUOUS PILES
Manish Kumar
ITD Cementation India Limited,
Kalina, Mumbai
Email: manish.kumar@itdcem.co.in
ABSTRACT: Inadequate space in urban settings has set forth a challenging trend to
go deeper into the ground, and increase the space required for providing public
amenities, parking and for housing utilities. Closely spaced structures in the vicinity
of excavation, soft and compressible landfills, presence of underground utilities, and
restriction of lateral ground movements have made the supporting systems a
formidable task to execute. The support systems commonly adopted include Braced
walls, Sheet pile walls, Contiguous or Secant pile walls, Diaphragm walls and RCC
retaining walls. This article aims to present constructional and design elements of the
retaining systems very commonly adopted in cities of India, namely Diaphragm walls,
Contiguous piles and Soldier pile system with wooden laggings. The experiences and
factors advocating selection of appropriate retaining system, determination of lateral
earth and hydrostatic pressure distribution, constructional features, water related
problems and bottle-necks during execution are described herein.
1. INTRODUCTION
Urban settings pose unique challenge to the construction Industry. Special features of
urban areas are restricted movements, inadequate space for equipment, soil
heterogeneity (including fill and remains of old foundations or other unexpected
obstructions); effects of changes in the water table; foundation interaction (the
detrimental effects of construction of new structures on the surrounding buildings).
Heavy traffic and lack of adequate space has compelled Civil engineers to excavate
deeper into the ground to create additional floor space to meet increasing space
requirements for amenities, parking and for housing of building utilities.
As the number of deep excavations in city is seen to increase exponentially so are the
problems associated with their construction. Structures in the immediate vicinity of
excavations, dense traffic scenario, presence of underground obstructions and utilities
have made excavations a formidable task to execute. Clearly, deep excavations are
posing mounting problems that demand a site specific and tailor made retaining
solution.
Even in complicated urban settings, deep retaining systems have been deployed
successfully by overcoming construction challenges. This article describes some of
the key retaining structures that have been successfully executed in the urban areas of
India.
(ii)
(iii)
Dewatering problems
(iv)
(v)
Support provision for excavation depends on the type of soil in the area, the depth of
the excavation, the type of foundation being built, and the space around the
excavation. During excavation, some soil types pose greater problems than others.
Sandy soil is always considered dangerous even when it is allowed to stand for a
period of time after a vertical cut. The instability can be caused by moisture changes
in the surrounding air or changes in the water table. Vibration from blasting, traffic
and heavy machinery movement, and material loads near the cut can also cause
earth to collapse in sandy soil. Clayey soils in general, present less risk than sand;
however, soft clay can prove to be very treacherous. Silty soils are also unreliable and
require the same precautions and support provision as sand.
construction methodology, working space limitations etc. One of the key governing
factors is the requirement of water tightness of the retaining structure. Following
types of deep support systems are commonly used in metropolitan cities.
(i)
Diaphragm walls
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Diaphragm walls, Contiguous Piles and Soldier piles with wooden lagging walls are
addressed in the following sections.
4. DESIGN
PHILOSOPHY
INVOLVING
FLEXIBLE
RETAINING
SYSTEMS
Diaphragm walls and Contiguous piles are commonly designed as flexible retaining
walls. Such retaining systems are considered to be vertical cantilever designed to
resist lateral earth and ground water pressures, and to rotate about some point b below
the dredge level (Fig. 1). The flexibility leads to development of passive pressure at
the toe in the backfill side of the wall. Blums simplification replaces the passive
pressure behind the retaining wall with a force applied to the wall at some height
above the toe (Fc in Fig.1B). The necessary depth of penetration is found by taking
moments about the replacement force position, C. Moment equilibrium gives the
required depth of penetration, provided that the net pressure diagram is calculated
including the effects of groundwater. The computed may be increased by 20 to 40%
beyond the point required by equilibrium (Teng, 1962); or the effective horizontal
pressure on the passive side may be reduced by applying a factor of safety of 1.5 to
2.0 before the embedment depth of pile is computed. Unit length of diaphragm wall is
considered for determining its reinforcement requirements, whilst for contiguous
piles, the c/c spacing is used for estimating reinforcement quantity.
A C T IV E
N E T P A S S IV E
( P p- Pa)
N E T P A S S IV E
( P p- Pa)
X
c
(a) A S S U M E D M O D E O F W ALL M O V E M E N T
(b ) ID E A L IZ E D P R E S S U R E D IS T R IB U T I O N
R S H E E T - P I L E W A L L D E S I G N P R I N C IP L E S
A. C A N T I L E V EOF
A DESIGN PRINCIPLES
FLEXIBLE RETAINING SYSTEM
N E T T O T A L P R E S S U R E D IA G R A M ,
B A S E D O N A C T IV E P R E S S U R E + N E T
W ATER PRESSURE
- (p a s s iv e p re s s u re )
(fa c to r o f s a fe ty )
B
Fc
B DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS
OF FLEXIBLE RETAINING SYSTEM
D E S IG N A S S U M P T I O N F O R C A N T I L E V E R S H E E T - P I L E
B.
W ALLS
A generalized equation for active and passive earth pressure computation is stated
below:
pa = (q+h)Ka 2c Ka1/2
---- (1)
pp = (q+h)Kp + 2c Kp1/2
---- (2)
5. DIAPHRAGM WALLS
5.1 General
Diaphragm walling is a technique of constructing a continuous underground wall
from the ground level. Diaphragm walls provide structural support and water
tightness. These reinforced concrete diaphragm walls are also called Slurry trench
walls due to the reference given to the construction technique where excavation is
made possible by filling and keeping the wall cavity full with bentonite-water mixture
during excavation to prevent collapse of vertical excavated surfaces. These retaining
structures find following applications: earth retention walls for deep excavations;
basements, and tunnels; High capacity vertical foundation elements; Retaining wall
foundations; water control. These are also used as a permanent basement walls for
facilitating Top-down construction method.
Typical wall thickness varies between 0.6 to 1.1m. The wall is constructed panel by
panel in full depth. Panel width varies from 2.5m to about 6m. Short widths of 2.5m
are selected in less stable soils, under very high surcharge or for very deep walls.
Different panel shapes other than the conventional straight section like T, L are
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possible to form and used for special purposes. Traditionally, panel excavation is
carried out using cable supported Grab. Hydraulic grabs with Kelley arrangement
have recently been introduced in India on large Infrastructural projects. More recently
developed hydraulic cutter type machines are not being used in India hence have not
been discussed here. Slurry wall technique is a specialized technique and apart from
the crane mounted Grab, other equipment involved are cranes, pumps, tanks, desanding equipment, air lifts, mixers etc.
Steps involved in the construction of diaphragm wall can be broadly listed as follows:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Bentonite flushing
(iv)
(v)
BENTONITE
SLURRY
GUIDE WALL
II
IV
III
AIR LIFT
FLUSHING
REINFORCEMENT
CAGE READY FOR LOWERING
VII
VI
COMPRESSED AIR
FRESH BENTONITE
2.5M
5.0-6.0M
REINFORCEMENT CAGE
LOWERED
VIII
IX
TREMMIE PIPE
LOWERED FOR
D.W. CONCRETE
CONCRETING IN
PROGRESS
XI
COMPLETED
DIAPHRAGM WALL PANEL
XII
Project /
Location
Jungpura
Station
Khan Market
Station
JLN Stadium
Station
Vertical Shafts &
IV Shafts at
Lajpat nagar &
Udyog Bhawan
Wall Thickness
( mm )
800
1000
800
1000
800
1000
800
Wall Length
( m)
552
60
336
140
336
280
300
Wall Depth
(m)
20.0-22.0
24.0
20.0-22.0
17.0-18.0 for
vertical
10.0 for IV shaft
Among the various stretches of the Delhi Metro rail corridor, diaphragm wall
constructional features at Jungpura station have been discussed here.
The vertical alignment of the wall and the shape of cross section were checked using
Koden ultrasonic drilling monitor, which gave the precise output in form of
continuous log. Inclinometers were installed to monitor the movement of the
diaphragm walls during various stages of excavation.
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PLAN
CAPPING BEAM
DEPTH
CAPPING BEAM
CUT-OFF LEVEL
CAPPING BEAM
BACKFILL SIDE
PILES
MAXIMUM DREDGING
DEPTH
EMBEDMENT
DEPTH
SIDE ELEVATION
ELEVATION
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unlike the diaphragm wall which relies on the orthogonal geometry of the excavated
area contiguous pile retaining system can constructed to form any shape in the
excavated area.
They are however, not considered suitable for construction in areas of high water
table, as retention and containing water is not possible in contiguous piles. Perfect
alignment of piles is often difficult to achieve at site, and this in turn is found to affect
the dimension and alignment of the Capping beams. In design parlance, only the
portion of concrete and steel away from the neutral axis is known to offer resisting
moment. As a result, some concrete and steel area remains under-utilized.
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Individual piles were constructed in the same way as a typical Bored Cast-in-situ piles
using temporary casings and bentonite slurry. General construction sequence for
piling operation was:
(i)
(ii)
Carrying out the boring operation upto the weathered rock layer, that is
upto about 6m below the established ground level
(iii)
(iv)
with
bentonite slurry
(v)
Continuing boring operation in soil and rock using soil bucket and/or
Soil/Rock auger depending on the stratum
(vi)
(vii)
Pouring concrete through tremie upto about 0.5m above the cut-off
level.
124.8M
EXCAVATED PORTION
FILL MATERIAL
C=0;Phi=15
Navg=5
3.0M
5.0M
1.0M
3.2M
50.605M
BASEMENT
RETAINING
WALL
35.10M
ALIGNMENT OF
CONTIGUOUS
PILES
14.162
EGL(0.0M)
22.10
12.0M
RAMP
EXCAVATION
LEVEL
0.10
1.3
1200mm
PILES
13
In this project, the centre to centre spacing between adjacent piles was maintained as
1300mm. After completion of piling, Capping beam of 1200 x 750mm size was cast
along the alignment of the pile. Dowel bars emanating from the piles were inserted
into the capping beam to ensure continuity and homogeneity of concrete. Excavation
operations proceeded only in those areas where pile concrete attained maturity.
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Moment resistance in soldier pile and lagging walls is provided solely by the soldier
piles. Passive soil resistance is obtained by embedding the soldier piles beneath the
excavation grade. The lagging bridges and retains soil across piles and transfers the
lateral load to the soldier pile system.
SOLDIER PILES
(STEEL H- SECTION)
LAGGING
OODEN ELEMENTS)
EXCAVATED PORTION
8 0M
TO
3M
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7.3 Case Study Soldier Piles and Wooden Lagging supported system at BC-24
stretch of Delhi Metro Project, near Udyog Bhavan
Excavation was required at the Cut and Cover portion of TBM launching shaft of the
Delhi Metro Rail Corp. (DMRC) at Udyog Bhawan site of BC-24 stretch. Soldier
piles with timber lagging were provided to support the Eastern (Udyog Bhavan) and
Western (Airforce HQ) boundary of the excavation. The sub-surface comprised silty
strata of increasing N value from 5 at near ground surface to about 15 followed by
weathered Quartzite at varying depth. The average depth of excavation varied from
3m on the northern side to about 16m at the southern side which faces the launching
shaft.
The supporting system comprised soldier piles spaced at 1.8m c/c and with a closer
spacing of 1.6m c/c near the launching shaft (Fig.8). Wooden laggings of thickness
100mm to 120mm were supported between the soldier piles. Three levels of Struts
were provided at depths 3.285, 7.285, and 10.831m below the established ground
level (EGL-209.80m). Additional level of Waler beam with pre-stressed rock anchors
were provided 2m above the excavation level. Rock anchors with capacity of 86.4T,
spaced at 3.6m c/c, were embedded 6m into the quartzitic bedrock to meet the bond
strength considerations.
King Post consisting of H-shaped structural steel section NBP 600 x 220 x 154.4 was
employed. Boring operations was carried out with conventional way using Rotary rig
till 3 to 4 m depth, casing was then lowered into the drilled hole with necessary
verticality. Further, boring & drilling was carried out with auger / soil bucket and
boring operation was terminated after a penetration of 0.6 m into weathered Quartzite
Rock. Throughout, the boring operation, borehole wall was stabilized with bentonite
slurry having specific gravity of 1.04 at supply point to about 1.11 for the flushed out
flow.
On termination of borehole kingpost along with reinforcement cage provided for
bottom 1.5 m length was lowered into the borehole. After ensuring necessary
alignment, cement sand grout of M25 Grade was pumped into borehole. The kingpost
was supported and thereafter the annular space in the borehole was backfilled with
sand.
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Excavation of about 1.5 to 2.0 m was considered free standing for few hours and in
the ensuing period wooden laggings were inserted into the web portion of adjacent H
shaped soldier piles. Excavation operation was followed by insertion of lagging, and
was continued till the required excavation depth was achieved.
S O IL FAC E
28
PR E B O R E
SO IL FA CE
EX C AV A TED FAC E
S O LD ER PILE
H -S H A PE STEEL
S LO PIN G RAM P
TO W AR D S LA UN C H IN G
SH A FT
W O O D EN
L AG G IN G
LA G G IN G
S O LD ER PILE
EX C AV A TED FAC E
01
E X C A V A TED FAC E
27
ID IC A T IV E TEN TA TIV E
P O S IT IO N O F R O C K A N CH O R
(TY P)
Fig. 8: Soldier Piles & Laggings Wooden Supporting System at Udyog Bhawan
of DMRC, New Delhi.
Plate 5: Soldier Piles and Wooden Lagging System at Udyog Bhawan, New Delhi
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8.
In the forgoing sections, the retaining systems suitable in the urban environment were
outlined. Restrictions of space in the urban settings compel use of deep vertical
excavations, which require supports that are designed to consume minimum
construction space. Retaining systems like diaphragm wall, contiguous pile walls;
and soldier piles with wooden lagging described in this article has been successfully
used in India. Case studies of their use indicate that adequate quality control measures
and instrumentation monitoring of these systems go a long way in ensuring their safe
and economic deployment at site.
9. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express their gratitude to management and staff of ITD Cementation
India Limited, Mumbai, for encouragement and support in research and innovative
endeavours. Thanks are also to IGS Mumbai Chapter for providing august platform
for sharing their experiences.
10. REFERENCES
Clayton, C.R.I., Milititsky, J., Woods, R.I. (1993). Earth Pressure and Earth
Retaining Structures. Blackie Academic & Professional, London.
Teng, W.C. (1962). Foundation Design, Prentice Hall International.
Winterkon, H.F, Fang Hsai-Yang (1975). Foundation Engineering Handbook, Van
Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York.
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