Vol 2 - Cont. J. Fisheries and Aquatic Sci.

Continental J.
Fisheries and Aquatic Science 2: 1 - 5, 2008

© Wilolud Online Journals, 2008.
LENGTH-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP OF BENTHIC BIVALVES OF THE ANDONI FLATS, NIGER DELTA,

NIGERIA
1
Ansa, E. J., 2Allison, M. E.
1. African Regional Aquaculture Centre/Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research, Buguma,
P.M.B. 5122, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
2. Dept of Fisheries, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
The length weight relationship of three benthic bivalves namely, Senilia (= Anadara) senilis
(bloody cockle), Tagelus adansonii (knife clam), Tellina nymphalis (soft shell clam) from the
Andoni Flats were determined. The bivalves which are of ecological importance were
obtained from the intertidal areas of the Andoni Flats. Shell lengths of the bivalves were
measured and corresponding dry weight measurements were also taken. The data obtained
were then subjected to regression analysis using the FAO-ICLARM Fish Stock Assessment
Tools (FiSAT). The length weight relationships obtained from the FiSAT analysis indicated
isometric growth for Senilia (= Anadara) senilis, with slope (b) value of 2.942; positive
allometric growth for Tagelus adansonii, with a ‘b’ value of 3.395 and negative allometric
growth for Tellina nymphalis with ‘b’ value of 2.633.
KEYWORDS: bivalves, length-weight, isometric growth, allometric growth, cockle, clam.
INTRODUCTION
Length-weight relationships are useful tools in fisheries research because they can be used in converting length in
weight or in the estimation of biomass from length observations, and in comparing life histories of species in
different regions (Stergiou and Moutopoulos 2001; Park and Oh, 2002). Several studies have been carried out in this
regard for fin-fish species (King, 1991; King, 1996a and b; Cucalon – Zenck, 1999; Kleanthidis et al, 1999; Nasser,
1999; Bernardes and Rossi – Wongtschowski, 2000; Muto et al., 2003); but there is a dearth of information on
length-weight relationships in shellfish and bivalves in particular from Nigerian waters. Length-weight relationships
of bivalves collected from the southwest coast of Korea were determined by Park and Oh (2002). The data obtained
showed that estimates of ‘b’ ranged from 2.44 in Atrina (servatina) pinnata japonica to 3.31 in Scaphora
broughtonii; with a mean value of 2.89 ± 0.212. Out of 17 species reported, nine exhibited isometric growth patterns
at 95% confidence limit.
Three species of benthic bivalves of the Andoni Flats, in the Niger Delta were studied in order to provide
information on their length-weight relationship, namely:
a) Senilia (= Anadara) senilis bloody cockle
b) Tagelus adansonii (knife clam)
c) Tellina nymphalis (soft shell clam)
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study Area
Live specimens of three bivalves (Senilia senilis, Tagelus adansonii and Tellina nymphalis) were obtained from the
intertidal zone of the Andoni Flats. The area is a brackish water habitat characterized by tides, mangroves, several
species of fin and shellfish. Specimens were handpicked from sediments in randomly sampled areas; washed with
water from the creek and preserved in 5% buffered formalin.
Morphometric Measurements and Growth Conversions

Specimens of bivalves, obtained were measured to determine the following morphometric parameters:
1
Ansa, E. J and Allison, M. E: Continental J. Fisheries and Aquatic Science 2: 1 - 5, 2008
a) Shell length in mm determined with the aid of a pair of Vernier calipers, model: mechanic type 6911.
b) Dry weight in g determined after oven drying specimen for 72 h at a temperature of 60°C till constant
weight and measured with Sartorius balance model BP 310S.
Length-weight conversions were then calculated for the different species using the log transformation of the
regression.
W = aLb (Winberg, 1971)
Where L = length, W = weight, a = constant, b = exponent
Using the FAO-ICLARM Fish Stock Assessment Tools (FiSAT) the relationship between length and dry weight
were calculated and graphs constructed to show the regressions.
Log W = -3.334+2.942 Log L

r = 0.999
Log (dry weight g)
Log (shell length mm)

Fig. 1: Length dry weight relationship of Senilia senilis in the Andoni Flats
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The growth relationships of Senilia senilis, Tagelus adansonii and Tellina nymphalis, are shown in Figures 1 to 3;
corresponding values of intercept, slope, standard deviations and coefficient of determination are presented in Table
1. The regression analyses for length-weight relationships were statistically significant at p < 0.01 for Senilia senilis
and Tagelus adansonii and p < 0.05 for Tellina nymphalis.
Values of ‘b’ (Table 1) for Senilia senilis, Tagelus adansonii and Tellina nymphalis were 2.942, 3.395 and 2.633
respectively. Isometric growth pattern was observed in Senilia senilis; similar growth pattern was reported for an
arcid clam Scapharca subcrenata from the coastal waters of Korea (Park and Oh, 2002). From our study positive
allometric growth was observed in Tagelus adansonii while negative allometric growth was observed in Tellina
nymphalis. Similar growth patterns were also reported by Park and Oh (2002) for the arcid clams Scapharca
broughtonii and Tegillarca granosa showing positive allometric growth and negative allometric growth
respectively.
2
Log W = -5.096+3.395 Log L

r = 0.997
Log (dry weight g)
-2
-3

Fig. 2: Length dry weight relationship of Tagelus adansonii in the Andoni Flats
Log W = -3.978+2.633 Log L

r = 0.994
Log (dry weight g)

Fig. 3: Length dry weight relationship of Tellina nymphalis in the Andoni Flats
3
Table 1: Regression Analysis of Length Weight Relationships of Three Benthic Bivalves from the Andoni Flats,
Niger Delta.
Species Intercept a S.D. Confidence Slope S.D. Confidence r r2 Confidence

of a interval of a b of b interval of b interval of
r
Senilia -3.334 0.036 -3.408 2.942 0.032 2.877 0.999 0.997 0.997
senilis to to to
-3.259 3.008 0.999
Tagelus -5.096 0.075 -5.264 3.395 0.077 3.224 0.997 0.995 0.991
adansonii to to to
-4.928 3.565 0.999
Tellina -3.978 0.075 -4.136 2.633 0.069 2.487 0.994 0.988 0.984
nymphalis to to to
-3.821 2.779 0.998
REFERENCES
Bernardes R. A. and Rossi – Wongtschowski C.L.D.B. (2000). Length weight relationship of small pelagic fish
species of the southeast and south Brazilian exclusive economic zone. Naga, The ICLARM Quarterly. 23(4): 27 –
29.
Cucalón – Zenck E. (1999). Growth and length weight parameters of pacific mackerel (Scomber japonicus) in the
Gulf of Guayaquil, Ecuador. Naga, The ICLARM Quarterly. 22 (3): 32 – 36.
King R.P. (1991). The biology of Tilapia mariae Boulenger, 1899 (Perciformes: Cichlidae) in a Nigerian rainforest
stream. Ph. D Thesis, University of Port Harcourt. 237pp.
King R.P. (1996a). Length – weight relationships of Nigerian freshwater fishes. Naga, The ICLARM Quarterly. 19
(3): 49 – 52.
King R.P. (1996b). Length – weight relationships of Nigerian coastal water fishes. Naga, The ICLARM Quarterly.
19 (4): 53 – 55.
Kleanthidis P.K., Sinis A.I., Stergiou, K.I. (1999). Length – weight relationships of freshwater fishes in Greece.
Naga, The ICLARM Quarterly. 22 (4): 37 – 41.
Muto E.Y., Soares L.S.H., Rossi – Wongtschowski C.L.D.B. (2000). Length weight relationship of small pelagic
fish species of the southeast and south Brazilian exclusive economic zone. Naga, The ICLARM Quarterly. 23(4): 27
– 29.
Nasser A.K.V. (1999). Length – weight relationships of tuna baitfish from the Lakshadweep Islands, India. Naga,
The ICLARM Quarterly. 22 (4): 42 – 48.
Park K.Y. and Oh C.W. (2002). Length – weight relationship of bivalves from coastal waters of Korea. Naga, The
ICLARM Quarterly. 25 (1): 21 – 22.
Stergiou K.I. and Moutopoulos D.K. (2001). A review of length – weight relationships of fishes from Greek
Marine waters. Naga, The ICLARM Quarterly. 24 (1&2): 23 – 39.
Winberg G. (1971). Methods for the estimation of production of aquatic animals. Translated from the Russian by
Annie Duncan. Academic Press. London and New York. 175p.
4
Received for Publication: 17/05/2008

Accepted for Publication: 15/06/2008
Corresponding Author
Ansa, E. J.
African Regional Aquaculture Centre/Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research, Buguma, P.M.B.
5122, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
5
Continental J. Fisheries and Aquatic Science 2: 6 - 12, 2008
A MESOCOSM ANALYTICAL STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF FRESHWATER MUSSEL

(LAMELLIDENS MARGINALIS LAMARCK) MEDIATED BIOTURBATION AND BIODEPOSITION ON
SOME ECOLOGICAL FACTORS OF A FRESHWATER LAKE
P. Jayakumar, N. Jothivel, A. Thimmappa and V.I. Paul

Department of Zoology, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar 608 002, Tamil Nadu, India.
ABSTRACT
The biotic potential of the benthic filter feeding freshwater bivalve mollusc Lamellidens
marginalis (Lamarck) influencing the nutrient dynamics of the bottom sediments of the lake by
means of biodeposition and bioturbation activities were analysed using a lake mesocosm
experiment. Five control as well as experimental mesocosms was maintained up to 60 days (d).
The factors studied included the percentage of water content of the sediment, percentage of total
nitrogen, percentage of organic matter along with the total phosphorus and humic acid content.
While total phosphorus and humic acid content of the experimental mesocosoms showed gradual
and significant increases from 30d of the experiment to reach the maximum levels after 60d, the
percentage of organic matter registered significant increases right from 15d onwards and reached
the maximum values after 60d. On the other hand, while the percentage of water content of the
sediments of the experimental mesocosoms increased only up to 30d experiment, percentage of
nitrogen was increased during the first half and at the fag end of the experiment. All the
investigated ecological factors were found to be significantly influenced by the presence of L.
marginalis in the experimental mesocosms. The study indicated that the mussel influence the
nutrient dynamics of the inhabitant ecosystem through the processes of excretion, biodeposition of
pseudofaeces and faeces, along with the bioturbation of the sediments brought about by their
ploughing movements.
KEYWORDS: freshwater mussel, Lamellidens marginalis, bioturbation, biodeposition,

mesocosms.
INTRODUCTION
The freshwater mussel (Lamellidens marginalis Lamarck) is a benthic filter feeding organism and is continuously
exposed to the water, suspended particles in the water column and bottom sediments. The biotic potential of L.
marginalis even though largely remains un-attended, plays very important roles in the ecosystem functions.
According to Vaughn and Hakenkemp (2001), freshwater bivalves have the potential to strongly influence the
ecosystem processes in freshwater systems. This also holds true with L. marginalis because of their characteristic
filter feeding and ploughing movements through the bottom sediments. While filter feeding is an important means of
removing particles including plankton suspended in the water column (Widmeyer and Bendell-Young, 2007) and
biodepositing it to the bottom sediments as faeces and mucous bound pseudofaeces, the ploughing movements and
burrowing activity brings in active bioturbation of the medium leading to sediment mixing, improved oxygen
penetration and affects other ecological functions. Due to all these activities mussels can repackage nutrients and
act as a nutrient source for other benthic organisms (Christian et al., 2008).
Unionid mussels are historically important bioturbating macrobenthic organisms and as they can move and disturb
large amounts sediments, they may be designated as “biological bull dozers”. They reportedly burrow themselves
and mix the bottom sediments (Vaughn and Hakenkemp, 2001). The digging and burrowing activities of L.
marginalis leading to the bioturbation of the bottom sediments is a form of ecosystem engineering. However,
according to Vaughn and Hakenkemp (2001), uncertainty over the extent and importance of sediment-related
ecological processes performed by bivalves represent the most significant gap in our understanding of the role of
burrowing bivalves in freshwater ecosystems. The influence of bioturbators in altering the conditions at the sediment
water interface is reported to be due to the biogenic mixing of sediments (Christian et al., 2004; Solan et al., 2004;
De Haas et al., 2005). In this context, attempts have been made in this work to understand the ecological importance
of bioturbation and biodeposition by the freshwater mussel L. marginalis through a lake mesocosm experiment.
6
P. Jayakumar et al: Continental J. Fisheries and Aquatic Science 2: 6 - 12, 2008
Table 1. Sediment sampling schedule for the control and experimental mesocosms after the expiry of 15, 30, 45 and
60 days
To be sampled from the control Parameter To be sampled from the experimental
mesocosm mesocosm
C1 C2 C3 % Water content E1 E2 E3
C2 C3 C4 % Total nitrogen E2 E3 E4
C3 C4 C5 % Organic matter E3 E4 E5
C4 C5 C1 Total phosphorus E4 E5 E1
C5 C1 C2 Humic acid E5 E1 E2
Note: Three samples each were taken from each of the mesocosm on each sampling interval

Setting up of mesocosm
In order to study the influence of bioturbation and biodeposition by the freshwater mussel L. marginalis on selected
ecological factors of the freshwater lake ecosystem, a lake mesocosm experiment was done in the Srinivasapuram
lake (10 ha. area) in the Denkanikottai taluk of Krishnagiri district, Tamilnadu, India. Setting up of the mesocosms
was done in the month of February 2008 and was maintained up to May 2008. Altogether ten plastic mesocosms
were setup. Five of them (viz., C1 to C5) were used as controls and the remaining five (viz., E1 to E5) were used as
experimental mesocosms. A distance of about 5 m was maintained between the mesocosms and the duration of the
experiment was 60 days (d).
Each plastic mesocosm was having a diameter of 87.2 and 100 cm height. They were fixed in the shallow region of
the lake in such a way that each of them contained about 30 cm of fine sediments of the lake bottom, carefully
avoiding any unaccounted L. marginalis, other macro invertebrate fauna or fish. However, the benthic infaunal
invertebrates of the lake bottom viz., nematodes, oligochaetes, chironomids and small snails of 2 to 3 mm size along
with the soil bacteria were left undisturbed both in the control as well as experimental mesocosms. In the present
study, even though a sediment depth of 30 cm was maintained, L. marginalis was never found burrowing below 7
cm. Each of the mesocosms was provided with 32 holes (2 cm dia.) above the sediment level and was covered with a
nylon net having about 4 mm2 mesh to allow the free flow of water and movement of other infaunal benthic micro
invertebrates while preventing the entry of fishes and other macro invertebrates. The top of each mesocosm was
about 10 to 13 cm above the water surface and each of them had a sediment surface area of 0.6 m2. In this
condition, all the mesocosms were allowed to equilibrate with the surroundings for 10 days before the introduction
of the mussels.
Test organism and their maintenance

Freshwater mussels (L. marginalis) having a body weight of 31 ± 1.62 g, 7 ± 0.53 cm length and 3 ± 0.5 cm breadth
were collected from the same lake. The shells were cleaned in the lake water and they were introduced into the
experimental mesocosms (E1 to E5) at the rate of eight mussels m-2 i.e., five mussels per mesocosm. The rate of
introduction is based on the fact that on average eight mussels m-2 were obtained on most of the occasions of mussel
collection from the lake. No mussels were introduced into the mesocosms, which severed as controls (C1 to C5). All
the mesocosms were maintained up to 60d and no mortality of mussels were seen during the period.
Physico-chemical properties of lake water
The ambient lake water was having an average dissolved oxygen content of 6.3 ± 0.3 ppm, pH 7.5 ± 0.2; water
temperature 26 ± 2 °C; total alkalinity 72 ± 8 ppm and total hardness 142 ± 12 ppm. More detailed analysis was not
carried out as the experiment involved only comparative assessment between control and experimental mesocosms
maintained in the same ambient water.
Sediment sampling
In order analyse the selected abiotic ecological factors of the bottom sediment as well as to maintain consistency,
three sediment samples each were taken from each of the mesocosms at each sampling interval as scheduled in the
Table 1. Sampling was done separately from the experimental as well as control mesocosms after the expiry of
7
15, 30, 45 and 60d using a core samples of 5 cm diameter and up to a depth of 6 cm. The collected samples were
processed separately for each of the parameter as given below.
Table 2. One-way analysis of variance showing significant alterations in the percentage of water content of the
sediment, percentage of organic matter, percentage of total nitrogen, total phosphorus and humic acid content of the
bottom sediment of mesocosms at different intervals of the experiment
Source Sum square df Mean square F P
(ss) (ms)
Percentage of water content in the sediment
Total 287.81 14
Between groups 279.44 04 69.86 83.46 < 0.001
Within groups 8.37 10 0.83700
Percentage of organic matter in the sediment
Total 16.98 14
Between groups 16.90 04 4.23 528.75 < 0.001
Within groups 0.08 10 0.00800
Percentage of total nitrogen in the sediment
Total 0.8286 14
Between groups 0.7828 04 0.1957 42.73 < 0.001
Within groups 0.0458 10 0.00460
Total phosphorus in the sediment
Total 0.0355 14
Between groups 0.0346 04 0.0087 96.67 < 0.001
Within groups 0.0009 10 0.00009
Humic acid content of the sediment
Total 0.2563 14
Between groups 0.2537 04 0.0634 243.85 < 0.001
Within groups 0.0026 10 0.00026
Sediment analyses
In order to quantity to selected ecological factors, three sediment samples each from each of the three respective
mesocosms (Table 1) were used at each sampling interval. Percentage of water content of sediment, percentage of total
nitrogen and total phosphorus content of the sediment were estimated by following the method of Murugesan and
Rajakumari (2005). While percentage of organic matter present in the sediment was calculated by following Trivedy
et al. (1998), humic acid content of the soil was estimated by following Oviasogie and Unuigbe (2006) and
Parthasarathi et al. (2007).
Statistical analysis
In order to ascertain whether the parameters measured were significantly influenced by the activity of L. marginalis
at various time intervals, the data collected from the control and experimental mesocosms were subjected to one way
analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Duncan’s multiple range test (Tables 2 and 3). Since each category of
parameters collected from the control mesocosms did not very significantly during the entire period of the
experiment, the overall averages of each of them were taken into account.
RESULTS
In order to understand the ecological significance of biodeposition and bioturbation, the various soil parameters
analysed in the lake mesocosm study included percentage of water content of the soil, percentage of organic matter,
percentage of total nitrogen, total phosphorus and humic acid content.
8
Percentage of water content

The water content of the bottom sediment of the experimental mesocosms was found to be greatly influenced by the
presence of L. marginalis when compared to that of the control ones (Tables 2 and 3). The percentage of water
content was steadily increasing up to 30d of experimentation (Tables 2 and 3; p<0.01). However after 30d, it
remained more or less at the same level through out the experiment. No significant change in the percentage of
water content was noticed in the control mesocosms.
Table 3. Alterations in the percentage of sediment water content, percentage of organic matter, percentage of total
nitrogen, total phosphorus and humic acid content of the bottom sediment of the mesocosms at various intervals of
the experiment
Control 15d 30d 45d 60d
Percentage of water content in the sediment
40.65 ± 0.16 45.78 ± 0.52 52.24 ± 0.28 50.75 ± 0.93 50.96 ± 0.40
a** a** b** a** bNS a** bNS
Percentage of organic matter in the sediment
1.11 ± 0.033 1.8 ± 0.038 3.33 ± 0.012 2.84 ± 0.046 4.08 ± 0.047
a** a** b** a** b** a** b**
Percentage of total nitrogen in the sediment
1.66 ± 0.0360 1.92 ± 0.0404 2.06 ± 0.0289 2.11 ± 0.0549 2.35 ± 0.0284
a** a** b* a** bNS a** b**
Total phosphorus in the sediment
0.19 ± 0.0033 0.20 ± 0.0033 0.22 ± 0.0058 0.27 ± 0.0067 0.32 ± 0.0058
aNS a** b* a** b** a** b**
Humic acid content of the sediment
0.3033 ± 0.0033 0.330 ± 0.0058 0.4066 ± 0.0088 0.4933 ± 0.0088 0.6633 ± 0.0145
aNS a** b** a** b** a** b**
Note: X ± SEM (Duncan’s multiple range test); a = between the respective experimental group and control
group; b = between the respective experimental group and the preceding experimental group; d = days; NS
= not significant; * = p < 0.05; ** = p < 0.01.
Percentage of organic matter

The organic matter content was also increasing up to 30d in the experimental mesocosms. But after 45d it decreased
significantly (Tables 2 and 3; p<0.01). However, in contrast to the percentage of water content, the organic matter
again registered a significant increase after 60d. There were no significant changes in the organic matter contents of
the control mesocosms.
Percentage of total nitrogen

In contrast to the percentages of water content and organic matter, the percentage of total nitrogen in the
experimental mesocosms showed a steady increase throughout the experiment (Tables 2 and 3) reaching the
maximum after 60d. No significant changes in the nitrogen content were noticed in the control mesocosms.
Total phosphorus
The phosphorus content of the experimental mesocosms also increased gradually (Tables 2 and 3) reaching the
maximum after 60d (p<0.01). The increase was however not significant during the initial stage (e.g., 15d). The
phosphorus content of the control mesocosms was more or less same throughout the tenure of the experiment.
Humic acid content

The humic acid content (Tables 2 and 3) in the experimental mesocosms remained more or less at the control level
up to 15d and after that it started an increasing trend to reach the maximum value of 0.6633 ± 0.0145 after 60d
(p<0.01). As in the case of the other ecological parameters, humic acid content in the control mesocosms remained
statistically unchanged. From 30d onwards, highly increased quantities of muscilaginous scum/organic debris rich in
algal cells were also seen on the walls and bottom sediments of the mesocosms.
9
DISCUSSION
The findings of the present study clearly indicate the significant ecological roles played by the freshwater mussel
L. marginalis in the freshwater ecosystems through bioturbation and biodeposition of faeces and pseudofaeces.
The ploughing movements of L. marginalis, in addition to making the soil more loose and soft, increase the
penetration of water into the sediments and bring in more dissolved oxygen and nutrients to the deeper layers of
the soil. This finding assumes greater significance due to the fact that the water content of the bottom soil is
reported to influence the micro and macro invertebrates in a variety of ways (Vaughn and Hakenkemp, 2001;
Vaughn and Spooner, 2006). However, after 30d onwards the percentage of water content remains more or less
same in the experimental mesocosms throughout the remaining period of the experiment, but still at a significantly
higher level than the control mesocosms (Tables 2 and 3). This is basically because of the fact that percentage of
water content might have reached the saturation point. In general, the increase in the percentage of water content in
the bottom sediments of the experimental mesocosms as against the control ones is the result of the direct physical
habitat modification by the bioturbation process where L. marginalis plays an important role.
In filter feeding freshwater bivalves, particle covered by mucus and trapped on the gills are moved forward toward
the labial palps by a set of specialized cilia. The palps then convey these materials to the mouth and during this
process any excess quantity is dropped into the mantle for expulsion (Dillon, 2000). Such mucous laden particulate
materials are known as pseudofaeces. Further, the particles assimilated are only a subset of those ingested and the
particles ingested are only a subset of those gets collected by the cilia. The remaining portion is biodeposited as
pseudofaeces to the bottom sediments (Dillon, 2000; Vaughn and Hakenkemp, 2001; Christian et al., 2008). In
short, removing particles from water column, biodepositing pseudofaeces and faeces along with excretion of
nutrient rich excretory materials are some of the nutrients cycling processes being done by the sediment dwelling
freshwater bivalves such as L. marginalis. Faeces and pseudofaeces are important available organic matters to
the aquatic ecosystems and are having a high degradation rate and rapid turnover (Mirto et al., 2000; La Rosa
et al., 2002). The active biodeposition of faeces and pseudofaeces by the mussels could be the reason for the
increased percentage of organic matter in the experimental mesocosms (Table 3). However, the exact reason for
the significant decrease in the organic matter after 45d of the experiment is not clearly known. It is appropriate to
note that biodeposition of faeces and pseudofaeces by L. marginalis is an important sedimentation process by which
high-quality pelagic resources are brought to the bottom soil and thereby contribute to the organic content of the
soil.
Again, the accumulation of the excretory products, faeces and pseudofaeces of the mussels might also be primarily
responsible for the steady increase in the quantity of total nitrogen and phosphorus in the experimental mesocosms.
This observation is in line with the findings that fresh water bivalves produce nitrogen rich hypo-osmotic urine
consisting primarily of ammonia (Vaughn and Hakenkemp, 2001), which by bacterial action gets converted into
nutrients for primary producers. Along with ammonia, unionids reportedly excrete phosphorus also (Davis et al.,
2000; Vaughn et al., 2004; Christian et al., 2008). This observation becomes more credible due to the fact that both
nitrogen and phosphorus contents in the experimental mesocosms increase more or less at the same pace.
While making comparative studies on the seasonal nutrient cycling by unionid species, various authors have
reported that while excretion rates varied seasonally, the direction and magnitude of these changes were
species specific (Davis et al., 2000; McMahon and Bogan, 2001; Spooner and Vaughn, 2006). Recently
enhancement of denitrification process associated with zebra mussel beds has also been reported (Bruesewitz et al.,
2006). In view of all these ongoing discussions, it is quite vivid that the freshwater bivalve mollusc L. marginalis
plays crucial roles in the ecosystem processes involving nutrient cycling. Epifaunal bivalves such as Driessena
(zebra mussel) are also known to be important in nutrient cycling (Arnott and Vanni, 1996; Vanni, 2002; Gardner et al.,
2001).
Even though the exact source of the increasing quantities of humic acid in the experimental mesocosms at various
stages is not clearly understood, benthic microbial mediated disintegration and degradation of the organic matter
biodeposited by the mussels may at least be partially responsible for it. Therefore, along with other benthic
organisms mussels also would have contributed to the organic disintegration and formation of humic acid. It is also
worth mentioning that the significant increases in the humic acid contents of the experimental mesocosms especially
in the later half of the experiment is accompanied by the appearance of increasing quantities of mucilaginous
10
scum/debris containing rich quantities of algal cells. As humic acid is known to play important roles in plant growth
(Parthasarathi and Ranganathan, 2002), it might have been contributed to the increased presence of algal cells in
the mucous bound debris from 30d onwards. Further, according to Watson et al. (1997) biodeposition of nutrient
rich organic matter can also increase the algal population. Accumulation of the mucous laden pseudofaeces could
be responsible for the appearance of the scum to a great extent.
CONCLUSION
It may be summarized that the freshwater bivalve L. marginalis through the processes of biodeposition and
bioturbation, could alter the physical and chemical properties of the habitat and thereby play critical roles in
managing the availability of resources to other organisms e.g., primary producers. As organisms that control the
availability of resources to other organisms by physical modifications of habitat, freshwater mussels including
L. marginalis could appropriately be called as ecosystem engineers. However, they being a threatened species,
deleterious anthropogenic environmental alterations could wipe out them leading to unsolicited changes in the
process of bioturbation and biodeposition, which in turn could inhibit or alter a number of critical ecosystem
functions that occur in the bottom sediment or sediment water interface of freshwater ecosystems.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors are thankful to Annamalai University authorities for providing lab facilities.
REFERENCES
Arnott, D.L. and Vanni, M.J. (1996): Nitrogen and phosphorus recycling by the zebra mussel (Dreissena
polymorpha) in the western basin of Lake Erie. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 53: 646-659.
Bruesewitz, D.A., Tank, J.L., Bernot, M.J., Richardson, W.B. and Strauss, E.A. (2006): Seasonal effects of the
zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) on sediment denitrification rates in pool 8 of the upper Mississippi River.
Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 63: 957-969.
Christian, A.D., Crump, B.G. and Berg, D.J. (2008): Nutrient release and ecological stoichiometry of freshwater
mussels (Mollusca : Unionidae) in 2 small, regionally distinct streams. J. N. Am. Benthol. Soc., 27: 440-450.
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V.I. Paul
Department of Zoology, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar 608 002, Tamil Nadu, India.
12
PRODUCTION EFFICIENCY IN CATFISH (CLARIAS GARIEPINUS) BURCHELL, 1822 IN CROSS RIVER

STATE , NIGERIA
1
ADINYA, I. B, and 2 IKPI, G. U.
1
Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, 2Department of Fisheries, Cross River University Of
Technology (CRUTECH) Obubra Campus, Cross River State, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
In the study, the production efficiency of catfish in Cross River State was determined. Data
was obtained from 120 fish farmers were randomly selected from Cross River Agricultural
Zones, using a multistage random sampling technique. Multiple regression analysis model was
the main tool of data analysis where different functions were tried. The results indicated that
Cobb-Douglass production function had the best fit in explaining the relationship between
output of catfish and inputs used, the coefficient of multiple determinant (R2 = 0.61) indicates
that sixtyone percent of the variability in output of catfish is explained by the independent
variables. The results also indicate that farmers’ educational level positively influence their
level of efficiency in catfish production in the study area. The F-value of 16.427 indicates the
overall significance of the model at 1 percent level, indicating that there is a significant linear
relationship between the independent variables taken together and the yield of catfish produced
in Cross River State. The marginal value products of fish pond size (farm size), labour and
feed (diet) were N67.50, N 178.13 and N 728.00 respectively, while allocative efficiency for
(farm size), labour and feed (diet) were (0.09 over utilized, 2.85 under utilized and 0.99 over
utilized), respectively, there existed allocative in-efficiency, there is a high potential for catfish
farmers to increase their yields and income. Based on the findings of this study, it is
recommended that fish farmers should expand fish farms, improving on production efficiency
and adopting new technologies. Regular awareness campaign about new technologies in fish
farming should be embarked by extension agents to make fish farmers know the importance of
adopting new technologies.
KEYWORDS: Production efficiency, Catfish, Cobb-Douglass, Production function,

Cross River State
INTRODUCTION
Fish provides an excellent source of protein in the diet of many families in tropical Africa (Sule, 2006). Of all the
animal protein foods produced and consumed in Nigeria, fish is of prime importance as it has remained a major
source of protein which is rich in essential-amino acids for both rural and urban poor households (Murtala, et al
2005).
According to Lale and Sestswa (1996) fish is rich in protein, which is very essential for the health of the body and it
account for about 40 percent of the total animal protein of an average person in the tropics. Fish is rich in fats,
phosphorus, sulphur, potassium, iron, calcium and copper. Fish fat is characterized by high poly-unsaturated acid,
which provides diet low in cholesterol. Its oil has high quantities of vitamin especially vitamin A, B and D, thiamin,
riboflavin, nicotinic acid and vitamin B12 (Disney, et al 1978). Fish contains less than 1% fat and about 10% protein
with energy value ranging from 220 – 330 Kilojoules (50 – 80Kcal/100g) of fish (John 1980). In Nigeria, fish is
consumed fresh or processed (dried). Fish meal and fish flour are two products produced by fishing industries,
which are used as food in dairy animals and poultry (Disney, et al 1978; Sule 2006).
Akpet, et al (2005) revealed that the recent ban on the importation of broilers has further put the cost of animal
protein beyond the reach of many, especially the rural population, they have resorted to consumer fish. The low
13
ADINYA, I. B, and IKPI, G. U: Continental J. Fisheries and Aquatic Science 2: 13 - 22, 2008
price per kilogram of fish, is a very strong indicator that they can be used to bridge the wide animal protein gap that
has become the hallmark of most developing countries (FAO, 2005; Essien ,et al 2008).
According to Campbell-Platt (1984) the world population reaching the 6.0 billion mark by year 2000 A.D, a lot of
pressure is being placed on the world fish production in order to meet the high demand from the teaming human
population. This demand is greater in tropical countries including Nigeria with increasingly rising human
population. In Nigeria, fish production over the years has been inadequate to bridge the demand supply gap. Nigeria
with about 13 million hectares of fresh water bodies capable of producing 511,702 metric tones of fish under
adequate management but the actual production is about 334,213 metric tones. Thepotential yield of fish from the
coastal and brackish water of Nigeria has been estimated as follows 22,000 metric tones from demersal resources,
120,000 metric tones from pelagic resource and 48,000 metric a total yield of 190,000 metric tones which is far
below the quantity demanded in the markets (Ayayi, 1996; Ezekiel, 2005).
Cross River State is endowed with natural and human resources being presently exploited. According to Ezekiel
(2005), fish is the most widely exploited natural resources by man. The state has the potential to be self-sufficient in
fish production because of the presence of rivers and suitable ecological zone for its production either in ponds,
dams or rivers. In the local markets in Cross River State, there is a great gap between production and consumption
offish. Unfortunately, fish production in Cross River State has been inadequate to bridge the demand-supply gap.
There exists a high incidence of protein malnutrition as a result of non-optimal use of resource and enormous losses
in post-harvest of fish. To reserve this trend, the rural farmers must learn to use improved technologies and
improvement in efficiency of resource use (Idiong , et al 2006). However, given the low rate of adoption of fish
technologies by farmers, improvement in efficiency remains the most cost effective way in enhancing productivity
in the shortrun.
Efficiency could be measured from a production function or profit function approach. Efficiency of production is a
very important factor for productivity especially in areas where resources are meager as in Nigeria (Adinya, et al
2008). Efficiency of production is achieved through optimal resource allocation such that more output is achieved
with the same resource level or the same level of output is achieved using fewer resources. Production function
gives the possible output that can be produced from given quantities ofa set of inputs (resources) and their quantities
can be varied to obtain optimal output. In carry out econometric analysis, production function provides the basis of
decision making for fish farmers.
Economic theory identifies three important production efficiencies (Farrel, 1984). These include allocative, technical
and economic efficiencies. Allocative efficiency is the ability of the farmer to use the inputs in optimal proportions
given their respective prices and the production technology. Technical efficiency is the measure of the farms success
in producing maximum output from a given set of resources (inputs) i.e. ability to operate on the production frontier
(Farrel, 1984).
Economic efficiency is the product of the technical efficiency and allocative efficiency. There is evidence that fish
farmers in developing countries fail to exploit fully the potential of resources and make allocative errors; which
results to low yields.
Several studies have shown that resources are not efficiently utilized by fish farmers in Nigeria (Adeleye,1996; Lale
and Sestswa 1996; Murtala , et al 2005; Ezekiel,2005; Sule, 2006; Ibrahim and Olayemi,2006). Therefore, having
established the obvious fact that resources are not efficiently utilized in fish production in Cross River State, itis the
aim of this study to examine critically the problems of resource use in fish production. Ultimately, it is hoped that
the study will help to bridge the gap between resources availability and efficient utilization in fish production in
Cross River State. This study seeks to examine the production efficiency in catfish (Clarias gariepinus ; Pisces;
CLARIIDAE) in Cross River State, Nigeria; therefore this paper tried to provide some useful information in
policies towards increasing fish production in Nigeria. Hence, this study had the following objectives:
(i) To analyze the production function of fish in the study area.
(ii) To analyze the costs and returns of fish production in the study area.
(iii) To determine resource use efficiency (allocative efficiency) in fish production.
14
ADINYA, I . B, and IKPI, G. U: Continental J. Fisheries and Aquatic Science 2: 13 - 22, 2008
METHODOLOGY
STUDY AREA: The research study will be conducted for a period of one year and three months from 15th October,
2005 to15th December,2007 in Cross River State,Nigeria. The state occupies an area of about 22, 342.176 Square
Kilometers (Quarterly News Letter of the Ministry of Local Government Affairs, C.R.S 2006 Pp 4-8). It is located at
Latitude 5o 25’N and longitude 25o 00’E (Figure 1). The soils of Cross River State are utisols and alifisol but
predominantly utisol (USDA) or (FAO/UNESCO, 1974).
The state’s geographical almalgam strecting from the mangrove swamps, criss-crossed by rivers on the Atlantic-
coast in the central to the rugged and mountain savannah in the north. Cross River State has the largest rainforest
covering about 7,290 square kilometers described as one of Africa’s largest remaining virgin forest harbouring as
many as five million species of animals insects and plants (MOFINEWS, 2004). Cross River State is located within
the evergreen rainforest zone. There are two distinct climate seasons in the area, rainy season from March to
October and dry season from November to February. The annual rainfall varies from 2,942mm to 3,424mm. The
averagetemperature is around 28oc (CRADP, 1992). Cross River State is characterized by presence of numerous
ecological and zoo-geographically important high gradient streams, rapids and waterfalls. About 2,888,966 people
inhabit the area, of which the Efiks, Ejaghams and Bekwarras are the major ethnic groups (Population Census 2006
In MOFINEWS, 2007. Fishing and subsistence agriculture are the main occupations of the people. Crops grown in
the locality include rice, maize, yam, cassava, plantain and banana. Population depends largely on natural water
sources for all their water-related activities, as piped water supply is limited and grossly inadequate. Health services
in the area require a lot of improvement. Level of hygiene in the communities is generally poor (Arene,et al 1991).
A multi-stage stratified random sampling technique was used to select the respondents. This procedure recognized
the delineation of the study area into zones. The Cross River Agricultural Development Project (CRADP) divided
this agricultural zone into Northern Zone (Ogoja Zone), Central Zone (Ikom Zone) and Southern Zone (Calabar
Zone) of the state. There are 18 Local Government Areas in Cross River State. The agricultural zones consists of 17
blocks, 8 circles and 136 cells with 5200 contact farmers. At the first stage seventeen (17) local government areas
were selected from eighteen (18) local government areas, four (4) farming communities were randomly chosen from
each of the three agriculturalzones of the state. For better coverage in the study area, one village was randomly
chosen from each of the communities (therefore twelve villages were taken from the three agricultural zones). Ten
respondents were randomly chosen from each of the selected villages. In all, 120 respondents were randomly
selected from a list compiled by the extension agents of Cross River Agricultural Development Programme.
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUE

The researchers visited the villages to administer copies of the questionnaire to selected respondents as a pilot
survey to pretest the instrument. Thereafter, the instrument was corrected based on the experience gained in the pilot
survey. Thus, the problem of ambiguity and misperception was sufficiently dealt with and enough time was spent on
the administration of interview schedule to ensure that the records are accurate. The completed questionnaires were
checked for quality. In the course of doing this, 120 questionnaires were distributed to respondents in the three
agricultural zones at the rate of 40, 40 and 40 to Northern Zone (Ogoja Zone), Central Zone (Ikom Zone) and
Southern Zone (Calabar Zone), respectively.
Data for this study was subjected to different types of analytical tools. This study employed the following analytical
tools in order to achieve the already stated objectives of the study:
(1) The descriptive statistics such as frequencies distribution, and percentages were used.
(2) The inferential statistics is the regression analysis. Regression analysis is important and useful for
describing the relationship between the exogenous and endogenous variables. It estimates the statistical
significance of the exogenous variables as well as the overall effect of all these variables on the
endogenous variables. The data obtained were analyzed using the Ordinary Least Square (OLS)
multiple regression technique to determine the relationship between fish output and the selected
variables. The linear, double-log and semi-log function forms were used to determinewhich of the
forms would best fit the relationship between fish output and the explanatory variables.
15
The implicit form of regression model for this analysis was given as:
Y = f (X1, X2, X3, X4, X5 e1) and explicitly form of the regression model for this analysis is given by:
Y= bo + b1X1 +b2X2+b3X3 +b4X4+b5X5+e

Where Y = Output of fish (kg)
X1 = Fish pond size (Farm size) (ha)
X2= Labour (man-days)
X3,= Feed(Diet containing 40% crude protein was used in feeding fish( fish ingredient was measured
on a 9 point scale of yellow maize =1, groundnut cake=2, fish meal=3, brewer’s grain=4, oil =5,bone meal= 6
oyster shell=7, AD-Vitamin=8, salt=9)
X4=Adoption of improved technologies (measured on a 3 point scale of improved management of fish
farm=1, improved catfish fry/fingerlings production=2, construction of fish pond=3)
X5= Educational level of the respondents (measured on a 4 point scale of First School Leaving
Certificate=1, JSSC/SSC=2, Tertiary Institutions=3, no formal education=4 )
e1= Error term (error or disturbance term is included to capture the effects of exogenous and
endogenous variables not included in the model).
Three linear function forms were tried; these are Linear, Cobb-Douglas production function (double logarithm), and
semi-log production function forms. Whichever model that has the highest R2 and shows many statistical significant
variables will be adopted following (Kmenta, 1971; Koutsoyiannis, 1977 and Awoke, 2001). The functional forms
fitted are specified below:
(a)Linear production function: Y= a + b1X1+ b2X2 + b3X3 + b4X4+ b5X5+ e…equation (1)
X1-X5= are defined in the implicit form
b1-b5=Regression coefficients of variables X1-X5 a = Constant term
e = Error term
(b) Cobb-Douglas Production Function (double log)

Log Y=Log a +b1LogX1+b2LogX2 + b3LogX3 +b4LogX4+b5LogX5 +e…equation (2)
(c) Semi-Log Production Function:

Y =Log a+b1LogX1+b2LogX2 + b3LogX3 +b4LogX4+b5LogX5 +e… equation (3)
Each resource was measured using the formula:

The average physical product (APP) was derived by dividing total output by total input i.e. APP= Y
X
The marginal physical product (MPP) was derived by dividing total output by total inputs MPP= DY
DX
MPP x Price of product= marginal value product (MVP)
The allocative efficiency (AEL) of resource was determined by ascertaining whether or not the ratio of the marginal
value product to the inputs price was equal to one
AEL= MVP=1
P
where MVP= Marginal Value Product
P= Unit Price of Input
The marginal Products (MP) were derived by multiplying the average product (AP) by the elasticity of
production(EP), given that: MP= AP x EP
16
EP= MP
AP

Table1: Distribution of respondents according to socio-economic characteristics of fish farmers in Cross River State
Educational Northern Zone Central Zone (Ikom Southern Frequency Percentage (%)
Attainment (Ogoja Zone Zone Zone
(Calabar
Zone),
FSLC 4 10 14 28 23.33
JSSC/ SSSC 21 13 13 47 39.17
Tertiary 15 14 12 41 34.17
Institution
No formal education - 3 1 4 3.33
Total 40 40 40 120 100
Farm size
(Ha)
0.1-2 34 37 27 98 81.67
3-4 6 3 13 22 18.37
5-6 - - - - -
7-8 - - - - -
9ha and - - - - -
Above
Total 40 40 40 120 100
Labor
(man-days)
1 9 5 4 18 15.00
2 12 10 10 32 26.67
3 8 12 9 29 24.17
4 4 9 7 20 16.67
5 5 1 6 12 10.00
6 man-days and above 2 3 4 9 7.50
Total 40 40 40 120 100
Adoption of improved
technology
Improved management of 10 19 10 39 32.50
fish farm
improved catfish fry/ 1 5 13 19 15.83
fingerlings production
Construction of pond 29 16 17 62 51.67
Total 40 40 40 120 100
Diet
31% of protein diet 11 10 7 28 23.33
34% of protein diet 8 10 8 26 21.67
37% of protein diet 1 6 4 20 16.67
40% of protein in diet 10 8 15 24 20.00
48.8 -50% of protein diet 10 6 6 22 18.33
Total 40 40 40 120 100
Source: Field survey, 2008
Analysis of table 1 revealed that 39.17% of the respondents had Junior Secondary School Certificate (JSSC)/ Senior
Secondary School Certificates (SSSC). However, 34.17% of the respondents revealed that they attended high
education. While 23.33% of the respondents disclosed that they had First School Leaving Certificates (FSLC). Only
3.33% of the respondents never had any formal education. The result implies that education acquired by fish farmer is
17
very important for taking positive decisions aimed at improving their income. Of course, this goes to confirm the earlier
deduction by (Adinya,2001; Idiong , et al 2006 ) that technical and commercial education broaden farmer’s
intelligence and it also enable fish farmer to perform the farming activities intelligently and improve their income.
Table 2: Average Production Costs, Inputs Usage and Returns Per Hectare of Catfish Production in Cross River
State
Variables Unit Northern Central Southern State’s State’s

price(N)/kg Zone Zone Zone average average
(Ogoja (Ikom (Calabar value
Zone Zone Zone),
1. Fish output(FO)kg
100 3.56 4.30 4.58 12.44 1,244,000
2. Capital operating inputs
*Catfish fingerlings/ fry 30 1.78 2.15 2.30 6..23 186,900
** Feed input 735.17 25,065 28,075 35080 - 88,220
3.Labour input(man-days)
*Family Labour 62.5 60 72 84 216 13,500
**Hired labor 62.5 36 42 48 126 7,875
4 Fixed cost rent on land
Fish pond size (farm size)
Maximum
Minimum
mean 1000 2.0 2.5 2.8 7.3 7,300
Depreciation 500 1.0 1.2 1.6 3.6 1,800
750
3.00 303.3 306.7 910
5 Total variable cost
(TVC=TCO=TLI) 2,900
6.Total fixed cost (TFC)
966.66 966.66 966.66
7. Total cost TC=TVC=TFC 309405
8. Net Return 934595
Table 1, also revealed that 81.67% of the respondents farm sizes were between 0.1-2 hectares While 18.37% of them
had farm sizes ranging from 3-4 hectares. The result suggests that most people practicing fish farming are mostly in
the low- income class. The result confirms similar findings by Etim, et al (2006) that farmers who had plot size 1.5
hectares are mostly in the low- income class who farm mainly to augment family income and nutrition supply.
Further analysis of Table 1 revealed that 24.17% of the respondents spent 3 man-days. Whereas, 10% of them spent
5man-days. Only 7.50% of the respondents spent 6 man-days and above. Table 1 revealed that 32.50% of the
respondents adopted improved management of fish farms, while 15.83 percent of them adopted improved catfish
fry/ fingerlings production. The result suggests that most fish farmers refused to adopt improved catfish fingerlings
production. The result of findings agrees with the findings of Ajayi and Madukwe (2001)that some illiterate farmers
refused to adopt improved technologies in agricultural production. Food crisis in Nigeria can be arrested through
agricultural research, adoption improved technologies, improvement in efficiency of resource use and effective
/efficient agricultural extension services. However, some farmers in the rural areas are illiterates, therefore cannot
18
read or write, they need agricultural extension agents through which such information from research station(s) will
be interpreted to them. Agricultural extension service is a necessary prerequisite to widespread and sustained
agricultural development. Further analysis of table 1 revealed that 20.00 per cent of the respondents used 40% of
protein in diet to feed fish, this promote the growth of fish. The result of findings agrees with the findings of
Ugwu , et al 2001 that the linear increase in specific growth rate (specific growth rate of the Africa catfish fry )
of experimental fish fry with increasing dietary protein level to 40 percent. WhileClarias gariepinus fry fed
48.8percent of protein in diet showed relatively poor growth response( Ugwu , et al 2001).
Table 2 revealed that the per hectare state’s average value of catfish production was N1244000.00. A total of 342
man-days was used in catfish production. The average yield was 12.44(tons) per hectare. The profit margin obtained
was N 934595.00 per hectare.
Table 3: Multiple Regression Equations for Catfish Production in Cross River State, Nigeria
Production CONSTANT X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 R2 AdJ F-

function Fish labour Feed Adoption edu. R2 V
forms pond (Diet) of Level a
size improved l
(Farm tech. u
size) e
Linear -2.659 0.130 1..237 1.295 0..281 0.134
(1.498 (0.117) (0.163) (0.0492) (0.374) (0.212) 0.601 0.565 16.427
Semi-log -5.754 1.053 7.249 4.018 0.991 0.579

(5.058 (0.912) (1.182) (1.681) (1.306) (1.008) 0.551 0.510 13.393
Double- -1.313 0.252 -0.941 0.553 0.164 9.687E- 17.163
log (0.710 (0.128) (0.166) (0.236) (0.183) 02 0.612 0.576
(-0.142)
Source: Field survey, 2008 Note: = Values significant at 1%
Figure in parentheses are standard errors.
Table 4: Estimated Elasticities of Production Function (EP), Average Product(AP) Marginal Product(AP), Marginal
Value Product(MVP) and Allocative efficiency(AEL)
Variables EP AP MPP MVP P AEL Inference

X1 0.00082 10.9 0.09 67.50 750.00 0.09 Over
Fish pond utilized
size (Farm
size)
X2 0.0083 342 2.85 178.13 62.50 2.85 under
Labour utilized
X3 0.00825 119.9 0.99 728.00 735.17 0.99 Over
Feed utilized
(Diet)
Table 3: Judging from the value of the R2 in the analysis above for the three production function forms, one can
conclude that double log equation is a good one compared to all other functional forms (linear and semi-log
production functions). Double –log (Cobb-Douglass production function) is the lead equation because it has the
19
highest R2 value (0.612) and meeting other econometric criteria. The F-value for the functions are also significant at
1 percent indicating that there is a significant linear relationship between the independent variables taken together
and the yield of catfish produced in Cross River State, Nigeria.
The regression analysis, however, revealed that education has positive influence on output of fish production and are
significant at 1 percent level of significance.
Further analysis of Table 3, revealed that labour, farm size, diet has positive influence on output of catfish
production and it is significant at 1 per cent level of significance. The F-value of 17.163 indicates the overall
significance of the model at the one percent level. Karlirajan(1981) and Fujimoto (1988) reported similar results for
labour in the aggregate; while (Ugwu, 1984;Ugwu , et al ,2001) reported similar results for diet and Clarias
gariepinus fry.
Table 4 revealed the marginal value products of fish pond size (farm size), labour and feed (diet) were N67.50, N
178.13 and N 728.00 respectively, while allocative efficiency for (farm size), labour and feed (diet) were (0.09 over
utilized, 2.85 under utilized and 0.99 over utilized), respectively, there existed allocative in-efficiency, there is a
high potential for catfish farmers to increase their yields and income. This findings agrees with the findings of
Adeleye, 1996; Ohen and Dixie, 2007 that fish farmers are
in-efficient in catfish production because not all of them possess the skills necessary to know how to improve
productivity and this implies that actually farmers are operating below their full potential due to lack of skills, the
cost per unit output was proportionately higher.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study has revealed that catfish production was profitable but catfish farmers are not allocative efficient. There
is a very high potential for fish farmers to increase yield. Based on the findings of the study, it is recommended that
catfish farmers should increase their yield and income by expansion of their fish farms, improving efficiency and
adopting new technologies. Beside that, extension agents should train fish farmers on the adoption of new
technologies in fish production.
Food crisis in Nigeria can be arrested through agricultural research and effective /efficient agricultural extension
services. However, some farmers in the rural areas are illiterates, therefore cannot read or write, they need
agricultural extension agents through which such information from research station(s) will be interpreted to them.
Agricultural extension service is a necessary prerequisite to widespread and sustained agricultural development.
REFERENCES
Adeleye O.A (1996); Conservation needs of fisheries resources and re-orientation for sustainable captive and culture
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Ugwu L.L C.,B.O.Mgbenka, H.O.Nwamba and B.I. Odo (2001). Nitrogen Metabolism and Specific Growth Rate
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Ibadan, Nigeria Pp180-184.

ADINYA, I. B
Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Cross River University Of Technology (CRUTECH) Obubra
Campus, Cross River State, Nigeria.

22
EVALUATION OF PROCESSED GROUNDNUT (ARACHIS HYPOGAEA) CAKE MEALS IN THE FEEDING
OF CLARIID CATFISH, CLARIAS GARIEPINUS, FINGERLINGS.
FAPOHUNDA Olawumi Oluwafunmilola

P. O. Box 4440, Akure, Ondo-State, Nigeria. E-mail: olawumif@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Groundnut cake (GNC) meal is an important source of dietary protein for domestic animals
with a cost advantage over the conventional animal protein sources used in aquaculture feed
production. It would be useful to evaluate the effects of GNC processing methods on the
density and nutritional values of processed GNC meals. The use of processed GNC meals in
the diets of Clarias gariepinus fingerlings was evaluated. Seven iso-proteic and iso-caloric
diets were formulated, replacing fish meal with roasted and boiled GNC meals, each at three
inclusion levels of 30%, 35%, and 40%. Diet I is 100% fishmeal, Diet II is 30% roasted GNC
meal, Diet III is 35% roasted GNC meal, Diet IV is 40% roasted GNC meal, Diet V is 30%
boiled GNC meal, Diet VI is 35% boiled GNC meal and Diet VII is 40% boiled GNC meal.
Results showed that the crude protein content of GNC meals was 40.5% and 40.8% in boiled
and roasted GNC meals respectively; the lower protein content for processed GNC meals
might be due to heat denaturation of the seed protein, with boiled GNC meal being more
adversely affected. The mean weight gain of fingerlings fed roasted GNC meals ranged
between 5.29 – 5.64 while for boiled GNC meals, it was between 4.60 – 5.22. Generally, fish
performed better when fed diets containing roasted GNC meals, than boiled GNC meals, and
compared favorably with fish fed fish meal based diet. Body mass increase, total feed increase,
protein efficiency ratio and specific growth rate by C. gariepinus fingerlings in all diets,
showed no significant differences, suggesting that processed GNC meals could partially
replace diets for C. gariepinus fingerlings without adverse consequences. This study showed
that processed GNC meals could partially replace fish meal up to 30% without significantly
influencing fingerling growth and health. It is recommended that the use of fish meal as the
main basal ingredient for fingerlings could be discontinued, since GNC meal was a cheaper
alternative, and could replace fish meal up to 35%, without any significant adverse effects on
the fingerling performance.
KEYWORDS: Clarias gariepinus, Fingerlings, Groundnut cake meal, Nutrient utilization,

Performance.
INTRODUCTION
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) cake meal is an important source of dietary protein for domestic animals, and has
a cost advantage over the conventional animal protein sources used in aquaculture feed production. It has been
considered among others as a good substitute for fish meal Ezenwa (1982), Ekanem (2003).
Groundnut cake is an abundant, cheap and easily available plant protein source that is high in crude protein content
(40-45%). Feed ingredients used for fish rearing are usually chosen on the basis of their nutrient content (proximate
composition), cost, availability and acceptability by fish, as food Eyo and Ezechie (2003). The protein content of
GNC meal has sub-optimal amount of cystine and methionine, although the first limiting amino acid in GNC is
lysine Jackson et al. (1982).
When GNC meal is used in a diet with a high cereal composition, adequate supplementation with animal protein is
necessary, to ensure that the deficiencies of vitamin B12 and calcium would be corrected (Fagbenro et al., 2000).
There are many constraints on the use of legume seeds in fish feeding; these include the presence of anti-nutrients
such as trypsin-inhibiting tannin, Lemaglutannins, phytase, anthocyanniona, unacceptable taste or flavour, and the
long and tedious cooking/processing time. Many methods have been employed to reduce or remove these problems
FAPOHUNDA Olawumi Oluwafunmilola: Continental J. Fisheries and Aquatic Science 2: 23 - 30, 2008
23
associated with legumes in fish feed. The effects of sprouting, cooking, roasting, autoclaving, soaking and
germination on legumes had earlier been reported Egwaikhide et al. (2005).
In Africa, Clarias gariepinus is of some great economic importance, as an esteemed fish food with a higher dressing
percentage and consumer preference than most cultured fish species in freshwater Balogun and Fasakin (1996). It is
hardy and can be bred in captivity.
However, the provision of adequate, cheap and nutritive feed has hindered the development and profitability of
catfish farming, especially in developing countries. The possibility of supplementing or replacing one meal with
another in the aquaculture industry exists. Several authors (Ekanem 1992, Balogun and Fasakin 1996, Fagbenro et
al., 2000, Arimoro 2005, Eyo and Ezechie 2003, Oresegun et al., 2004, Oharei 2005) have successfully carried out
these replacements. But there is a lack of information on the use of processed GNC meals in fish feed. Therefore,
this study was conducted to evaluate the effects of two processing methods (roasting and boiling) on the density,
nutritional values of processed GNC meals, and growth performance of C. gariepinus fingerlings.

Location of investigation
The experiment was conducted in Akure, Ondo-State, Nigeria. Akure is located in the humid forest region of
southwestern Nigeria. The town has tropical climate with two distinct seasons, namely: rainy season (April -
October) and dry season (November – March). Temperature ranges vary from 21oC during the rainy season to 28oC
during the dry season, while humidity is relatively high. It is located between longitudes 5o.22’ and 5o.23’ East of
Greenwich Meridian and latitudes 7o.15’ and 7o.17’ North of the equator. The town is mainly on upland zone, rising
above 250meters above the sea level.
Preparation of GNC meals

Raw groundnut seeds (2 kg) were purchased from Divine Mills, Akure, Nigeria. The seeds were manually selected
to remove dirt, after which they were washed, and dried at 600C for 24 hours AOAC (1990) methods in a
domestic/kitchen oven. When dry, they were divided into two equal batches.
Boiled sample
One batch of raw groundnut seeds was boiled at 900C for 30 minutes, sieved to remove water, and then sun-dried at
ambient temperature (250C) for two weeks. Thereafter, the seeds were ground in a hammer mill, sieved (25 mm wire
mesh), and stored in an airtight container prior to chemical analysis.
Roasted sample
The second batch of raw groundnut seeds was roasted in a sauce pan containing sand that was heated over a Bunsen
burner. The sample and sand were roasted for 30 minutes, stirring occasionally using a wooden spoon. The roasted
sample was allowed to cool for 20 minutes, after which the seeds were ground with a hammer mill, sieved (25 mm
wire mesh) and stored in an airtight container, awaiting chemical analysis.
Chemical analysis
The proximate composition (moisture, crude protein, crude lipid, crude fibre and total ash) was performed using
standard AOAC (1990) methods.
Diet formulation
Based on the nutrient composition of the feedstuff (Table 1), seven isoproteic and isocaloric diets were formulated
as presented in Table 2. Diet I, serving as the control diet contained 100% fishmeal with 0% GNC meal, whereas the
other six test diets (II to VII) contained GNC meal (roasted or boiled) as partial replacement for fishmeal (Table 2)
providing 30%, 35% and 40% of total protein. The description of diets was as follows: I, 0% GNC meal; II, 30%
roasted GNC meal; III, 35% roasted GNC meal; IV, 40%, roasted GNC meal; V, 30% boiled GNC meal; VI, 35%
boiled GNC meal; and VII, 40%, boiled GNC meal. The lipid content of all diets was adjusted with 2.5% groundnut
oil while gelatinized cornstarch 3.0% was supplemented to adjust gross energy content (Fagbenro et al., 2000). After
mixing all ingredients together, the prepared starch was added. This helped to hold the ingredients as well as being a
24
source of gross energy. Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) was added at 10 g per kg, as a non-nutritive binder,
(Fagbenro et al., 2000).
Table 1. Proximate composition (%) of feedstuff.

Nutrient Fishmeal Maize Roasted groundnut Boiled groundnut
cake cake
Crude 65.67±0.01 9.13±0.01 40.75±0.01 40.52±0.04
protein
Crude lipid 13.10±0.01 2.70±0.02 9.81±0.01 9.67±0.01
Crude - 2.42±0.01 4.25±0.03 4.33±0.02
fibre
Ash 4.36±0.04 3.61±0.01 5.31±0.02 5.29±0.01
Moisture 7.60±0.02 7.24±0.01 7.01±0.02 7.31±0.02
*NFE 9.27±0.01 74.90±0.02 32.87±0.02 32.88±0.02
*NFE (Nitrogen free extract), calculated as 100-(Moisture + crude protein + crude lipid + ash).
Table 2. Composition of the experimental diets (dry matter basis, %).

Ingredients Fishmeal Roasted GNC Roasted Roasted Boiled Boiled Boiled
100% 30% GNC GNC GNC GNC GNC
35% 40% 30% 35% 40%
Fishmeal 57.0 26.0 36.9 42.0 26.0 36.9 42.0
GNC meal 0.0 20.5 18.1 18.0 20.5 18.1 18.0
Maize 33.0 43.5 35.0 30.0 43.5 35.0 30.0
Vit-min 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
premix
Bone meal 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Groundnut 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
oil
CMC 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Starch 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
Calculated Nutrient Composition%
Crude 40.30 39.86 39.85 39.74 39.87 39.71 39.78
protein
Crude 2.08 5.56 4.12 4.02 5.66 4.32 4.47
fibre
Crude 8.12 8.99 7.78 7.62 9.74 8.38 8.27
lipid
Ash 4.75 5.45 5.34 5.22 5.40 5.31 5.10
*NFE 44.75 40.18 43.05 43.05 39.40 42.28 42.55
*NFE: Nitrogen free extract.
The feedstuff was blended in a Hobart A120 food processor (Hobart, Troy, OH, USA), and the resultant mash was
moistened and pressed through a 3-mm die. The resulting strands were oven-dried at 450C for 24 hours,
(Fagbenro1999), broken into pellet lengths of 1.0 cm, and stored in airtight plastic containers at ambient
temperature. Water stability of pellets was determined in triplicate samples (Wood 1987).
Experimental fish and systems

Hatchery-bred fingerlings of C. gariepinus (mean mass: 3.69±0.01g) were procured from the Agricultural
Development Project (ADP), Akure, Nigeria, and randomly allotted to 15 plastic circular tanks (50-litre capacity) at
20 fingerlings per tank. The fish were acclimated to experimental conditions for seven days, and starved for 24
25
hours prior to the feeding trial Ekanem (2003). Water from a borehole was passed through a circulatory filtration
system before entering the experimental tanks to filter away impurities and to aerate the water.
Each diet was fed to C. gariepinus fingerlings in triplicate tanks per treatment to apparent satiation twice daily (9am
to 4 pm) for 56 days. Fish mortality was monitored daily. Individual fish in each tank was weighed at the start of the
experiment and weekly for the appropriate indices (Steffens 1989).
Table 3. Performance of C. gariepinus fingerlings fed processed groundnut cake meals dietary inclusion for 56 days.
Diets
Fishmeal Roasted Roasted Roasted Boiled Boiled Boiled
100% GNC GNC GNC GNC GNC GNC
30% 35% 40% 30% 35% 40%
Initial mass g 3.81ab 3.86b 3.96b 3.40a 3.76ab 3.64ab 3.40a
Final mass g 10.49c 9.50b 9.25b 8.80ab 8.98ab 8.54ab 8.00a
c ab ab ab ab a
Mean Weight 6.68 5.64 5.29 5.40 5.22 4.90 4.60a
Gain g
Average Daily 0.12b 0.10a 0.09a 0.10a 0.09a 0.09a 0.08a
Growth
Body Weight 175.33b 146.11ab 133.59a 158.82b 138.83a 134.62a 135.29a
Increase %
Specific 0.44b 0.39ab 0.37a 0.41ab 0.38a 0.37a 0.37a
Growth Rate
Protein 2.78c 2.62c 2.17ab 2.56b 2.01a 2.00a 1.89a
Efficiency
Ratio
Total Feed 3.45c 3.33b 3.12ab 3.28b 2.89ab 2.81a 2.69a
Intake g
Daily Feed 0.029b 0.025b 0.021a 0.022a 0.020a 0.021a 0.021a
Intake g
Survival % 96b 97b 87a 91b 89a 90a 95b
Growth performance parameters

Mean weight gain (MWG): mean weight gain was estimated according to the method of Pitcher and Hart (1982).
MWG = mean final weight – mean initial weight.
Average daily growth (ADG) = mean weight (MWG)/ rearing period (days)
% Body weight increase (%BWI): this was obtained according to Stuart and Hung (1989).
% BWI = mean weight gain (MWG)/ mean initial weight X 100
Specific growth rate (SGR): this was estimated from the logarithmic difference between final and initial mean
weight of fish per time (Hogendoorn 1980).
SGR = Log Wf – Log Wi / t X 100
Where Wf = mean final weight

Wi = mean initial weight
t = rearing period (days).
Feed gain ratio (FGR): Tf/ Wf – Wi

26
Where Tf = total amount of diet fed to a tank for the rearing period divided by the number of fish in the same tank.
Survival: this was monitored daily by examining experimental tanks each morning and dead fish were removed and
counted. At the end of every week, fish in each tank were counted.
% Survival = Nf/ Ni X 100

Where Nf = final number of fingerlings per tank
Ni = initial number of fingerlings per tank
Daily weight gain (DWG) = body weight gain/ rearing period (days) i.e. Wf – Wi/ t
Total feed intake (TFI) = feed weight/ no of fish per tank
Daily feed intake (DFI) = TFI/ t
Protein intake (PI) = protein content X DFI
Protein efficiency ratio (PER) = ADG X PI
Statistical analysis
All data obtained were subjected to one-way ANOVA test (P<0.05). Where ANOVA revealed significant
differences, Duncan’s multiple-range test (Zar 1996) was applied to characterize and quantify the differences
between treatments using Statgraphics 5 Plus Package for Windows (Mannugistics Inc. and Statistical Graphics
Corp, Maryland, US. 1998).

Proximate composition of GNC meals
Table 1 shows the results of proximate composition of differently processed GNC meals. Crude protein content of
GNC meals was 40.52% and 40.75% in boiled and roasted GNC meals, respectively. These values fell within the
range of 40-55% as reported by Pillay (1993) and 40.7% to 41.2% reported by Fagbenro (1999). The lower protein
content recorded for processed GNC meals may be due to heat denaturation of the seed protein with boiled GNC
being more affected. Heat-treated protein cause irreversible denaturation leading to association and precipitation of
the polypeptide chains as high molecular weight compounds, (Wolf 1970). The results showed that boiled GNC
meals had measurable lower (P> 0.05) dietary protein, lipid and ash than those of the roasted GNC meals.
According to Fagbenro et al., (2000), boiling, fermentation and roasting of seeds have affected their nutritional
contents. Crude lipid, crude fibre and ash of the processed samples were similar, but were higher than the values
reported for maize (Zea mays). The data from the present study indicated that processed GNC meals could
conveniently be incorporated into the diet of C. gariepinus fingerlings. The substitution of fishmeal with processed
GNC meals enhanced the energy, ash and fibre profiles of the diets (Table 1). Similar enhancement has been
reported by Arimoro (2005) who replaced artificial Stanlor with Brachionus calyciflorus larvae in catfish.
Growth performance of fingerlings

Mean weight gain was highest in diet with 30% inclusion of roasted GNC meals and least in diet with 40% inclusion
of boiled GNC meal. Total feed intake was least in diet with 40% boiled GNC meal, while it was highest in diet with
30% roasted GNC meal. Protein efficiency ratio was also found to be lowest in fingerlings fed diet with 40% boiled
GNC meal while the highest value was obtained in fingerlings fed diet with 30% roasted GNC meal.
Growth performance and nutrient utilization of fish fed on all the treatment diets are summarized in Table 3. The
responses of fish to the different diets showed that growth and nutrient utilization were significantly (P< 0.05)
influenced by the processing methods. Fish fed diets containing boiled GNC meals had significantly (P< 0.05) lower
body mass, total feed intake, protein efficiency ratio and specific growth rate compared to the control diet. This is
evidenced in the proximate composition of the major protein sources in the experimental diets (Table 1). Table 3
shows that the best growth response was obtained in C. gariepinus fingerlings fed the control diet (Diet 1). C.
gariepinus fingerlings fed diets II, III and IV had comparatively similar growth response as those fed the control
27
diet, although lower. The different processing methods applied on the GNC meals might have led to decreased
dietary protein utilization, since the protein had been denatured, leached and vaporized, hence reduced
performances, although roasted GNC meal produced better results. According to Emiola and Ologhobo (2006), heat
treatments are less effective in the detoxification of tannin, phytate and oxalate in seeds. Roasting appears to be
partially effective in inactivating the lectins and trypsin inhibitiors. The results obtained in this study affirms that the
good performance of fish fed diets containing roasted GNC meal may be due to the processing technique (roasting)
compared to boiling to remove anti-nutrients which probably influenced nutrient availability, palatability and
utilization of the meals.
Acceptance of the diets was good and fingerlings became accustomed to the diets within the first week because there
were no morphological defects observed during this period. Body weight mass increase, total feed increase, protein
efficiency ratio and specific growth rate by C. gariepinus fingerlings in all diets (Table 3), showed no statistical
differences, which suggests that processed GNC meals could partially replace diets for C. gariepinus fingerlings
without compromising growth and fish health. This deduction is in agreement with observations made by Fagbenro
(1999) on the performance of winged bean meals on African Clariid catfish; Eyo and Ezechie (2003), on the
performance of rubber meals on Heterobranchus bidorsalis and C. gariepinus; Arimoro (2005) on the performance
of Brachionus calyciflorus on H. longifilis larvae; and Okoye et al. (2006) on the performance of graded levels of
sorghum meal on broiler chicks. Each of them discovered no significant differences in the TFI, SGR, PER and BWI
of fingerlings fed the test diets and the control diets.
Means with the same superscripts along the same row are not significantly different, according to Duncan ’s
Multiple Range test.
Fish mortality
It was observed that survival rate was high with the lowest at 87% and the highest was 97%. The fingerlings easily
got acclimatized to the test diets and accepted the diets readily without compromising their health thereby reducing
the rate of mortality.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This study revealed that processing GNC meals can successfully partially replace fishmeal up to 30% without
significantly affecting growth and fish health. Replacing fishmeal with GNC meal up to 30% will lower the cost of
feeding fish since GNC meal is relatively cheaper than fishmeal which hitherto was used as the main basal
ingredient in formulating diets for fish. Under critical fishmeal shortfall GNC meal can be used as main basal
ingredient in formulating fish diet, since replacing fishmeal up to 35% GNC shows that fish were still gaining
weight. It is recommended that the use of fishmeal as the main basal ingredient could be discontinued, since GNC
meal was a cheaper alternative, and could replace fishmeal up to 35%, without any significant adverse effects on
fingerling performance.
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29
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30
A FIELD AGRONOMIC EVALUATION OF TYPHA GRASS IN TOMAS DAM KANO STATE NIGERIA
Y. A. Birnin Yauri M. L. Balarabe* Mohammed. H. A. and S.O. Owotunse

Aquatic Vegetation Programme, National Institute for Freshwater Fisheries Research.PMB 6006 New Bussa,
Nigeria
* AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY ZARIA, Biological Sciences Department.
ABSTRACT
The study was carried out by measuring plant height, length of leaves, width of the leaves,
length of inflorescent, length of inflorescent tip were also measured with a measuring tape.
Number of tillers per plants was counted. Soil auger was used to take soil samples randomly
from ten different locations in Tomas Dam Kano states Nigeria. At the depths of 0-5cm, 5cm –
10cm, 10cm – 15cm. The soil samples were put into polyethylene bags and labelled according
to their depth for mineral analyses. In the two season calcium, nitrogen and phosphorus
constitute the highest concentration of the minerals at 0―5 cm depth. There is no significant
differences in terms of mineral composition between wet season and dry season.
(P<0.005).There is significance differences between plant Length of inflorescent and length of
inflorescent tip when the two season are compared.
KEYWORDS: Typha grass, field, agronomic evaluation,
INTRODUCTION
Typha grass can be found in wetland, sedges and meadows along moving streams, rivers banks and lake edges. The
plant is found in areas of fluctuating water level such as road side ditches and reservoirs (Morton 1975). It is an erect
perennial freshwater aquatic herb which can grow up to 3 or more meters in height. The leaves are thick ribbon like
structure which have a spongy cross-section exhibiting air channels.
The subterranean stem arises from thick creeping rhizomes. Flower structure is a dense, fuzzy, cylindrical spike on
the end of stem, with a gap 1-3 cm of naked stem between the upper, male portion (stamina) an lower, female
(Pistillate) portion. is a clonal monocotyledon with sword-like leaves that grow vertically from the shoot base. The
leaves are made of aerenchyma tissue and a large portion of biomass allocation is directed toward sexual
reproduction(Mal, Mal, T. K., J. Loveet-Doust and L. Lovett-D0ust (1997). At maturity the spike bursts under dry
condition releasing the fruits. The fruits have bristly hairs that aid in wind dispersal. When the fruits come in
contact with water, the pericarp opens rapidly, releasing the seed.
The fruits often fall to the ground in dense mats. Vegetative reproduction occurs through an extensive rhizomes
system which is responsible for the maintenance and expansion of existing stands (Shekhov, 1974).Studies
conducted on Typha germination suggests that seeds germination can be 100 percent in slightly flooded condition
(Smith, 1967). Typha studies revealed that its basic requirements are wet pure sand, peat, clay and loamy soil. It also
requires higher percentage of nitrogen. Best germination of Typha grass is obtained under non saline condition and
germination decrease with increase in salinity. Absence of light completely inhibited seed germination of Typha
grass (Gulzar, 2002).
Typha grass causes a variety of problems in Nigeria that are broadly similar to those caused by Typha grass
elsewhere in the world (Morton, 1975). Earlier studies (NIFFR, 2000) revealed that, this plant caused problems in
Hadejia|Jama`are, Jigawa state, and Bagga Kano state, in Nigeria. Such problems includes interfering with water
from flood lands; impeding the movement of boats for transport, fishing and recreation among others It also
interfers with various methods of catching fish; competing with rice in paddy systems, leading to degrading of
Y. A. Birnin Yauri et al: Continental J. Fisheries and Aquatic Science 2: 31 - 34, 2008
31
water quality by adding taints and odours to the water, thus, decreasing dissolved oxygen content. It also alters the
flora and fauna of aquatic ecosystems as well as a reduction in light penetration within the aquatic system.
The aim of this study is to evaluate Environmental factors which favours growth of Typha grass in Kebbi and
Katsina state with the aim of determining its current status.
Results of the study are expected to provide appropriate recommendations to solve problems posed by Typha grass
on the water bodies so that, optimal uses of the lakes and rivers in this two states may be enhanced, and also to
provide information on seasonal variation in the plant morphology and minerals composition.
Table 1: Morphological features of Typha grass during dry season in Tomas Dam Kano States.
Plant height 2m 2.5m 2.8m 2.5m 2m
Length of leaf 2.1m 2m 1.8m 19m 2m
Width of leaf 0.5cm 0.4 cm 0.5 cm 0.8 cm 0.8cm
Length of 22cm 31.0 cm 19.6 cm 25 cm 30cm
inflorescent tip
Length of 42cm 90 cm 36 cm 39 cm 42cm
inflorescent
No. Of tiller 8 9 10 5
Table 2: Morphological features of Typha grass during wet season in Tomas Dam Kano States.
Plant height. 2.0m 2.5m 3m 1.5m 2m
length leaf 2m 1.75m 1.75m 2m 1.8m
width of leaf 0.5cm 0.8cm 0.5cm 0.5cm 0.5cm
Length of Absent in
inflorescent tip wet season
Length of Absent in
inflorescent wet season
No. of plant 8 6 5 2 5

This study was carried out at Tomas Dam, Kano state Nigeria in 2007.The plant height, length of leaves, width of
the leaves, length of inflorescent, length of inflorescent tip was measured with a measuring tape. Number of tillers
per plants was counted. Soil auger was used to take soil samples randomly from ten different locations, at the
depths of 0-5cm, 5cm – 10cm, 10cm – 15cm. The soil samples were put into polyethylene bags and labelled
according to their depth for mineral analyses. Depth of the water was also measured, with measuring tape and
samples were collected into plastic bottles.
The soil samples were air dried to stop microbial activities before taken to laboratory. The soil was analyzed at
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria using Flame Photometer (Model Jeaway pf p7) . All data collected on morphology
of the plant were subjected to statistical analysis using one- way ANOVA .

The result in tables 1and 2 show the morphological characteristics of Typha grass during wet season and dry season
in Tomas dams Kano state. Soil nutrient figures) 1, and 2 showed the mineral composition of Tomas Dam Kano
state at different season and soil depth studied. Figure 1 showed that soil depth between 5-10cm has the highest
percentage of nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium and potassium during dry season compared to other depth.
It also follows the same pattern during wet season.
DISCUSSION.
The mineral composition of the two season indicated higher concentration of minerals at soil depth 5-10 cm. How
ever potassium was found in higher percent at 10-15cm depth. This may be due to leaching. In the two seasons
calcium, nitrogen and phosphorus constitute the highest concentration of the minerals at 0―5 cm depth. This might
32
be as a result of extensive use of fertilizers by farmers which might have been leached by rain to Typha infested
areas. The same observation was reported by Singh et. al. (1976) that, sometimes the chemical fertilizer applied by
the farmer may not be useful to the plant rather it gets leached or washed away by rain water to lowland areas.
1.4
1.18
1.2 1.1
1.05
1
percentage composition (%)
0-5cm
5-10cm
0.74 10-15cm
0.8
0.61
0.58 0.58 0.56
0.6 0.48
0.41 0.4 0.42
0.39
0.4 0.32 0.31
0.2
0
Figure1.Nitrogen%
Mineral compositionPhosphorus%
of soil from Tomas
MineralDamCalcium% Magnessium%
Kano state at differnt
composition depths during thePotassium%
wet season
1.2
0-5cm 5-10cm 1.01
1 0.91
10-15cm 0.83
Percentage composition (%)
0.8
0.63
0.59
0.6 0.55
0.47 0.48
0.44
0.39 0.41
0.38 0.37 0.38
0.4 0.34
0.2
0
Nitrogen% Phosphorus%Mineral composition
Calcium% Magnessium% Potassium%
Figure 2. Mineral composition of soil from Tomas Dam Kano state at different depths during the dry
season
From the study it is recommended that the best time for controlling Typha grass is during wet season. That is the
time when the grass does not bear flowers.
The soil nutrient studied at different depths in the two states showed that calcium and nitrogen have the highest
percentage for the two seasons studied. This may be associated with the fact that during the wet season farmers use
chemical fertilizer in their farms which gradually wash away into to Typha infested area. Therefore this study
recommend that, excess use of chemical fertilizer by the farmer should be minimized if possible organic manure
should only be used only.
REFERENCES.
Gulzar, S. (2002). Effects of salinity on germination, dormancy, growth, and osmoregulation of perennial
halophytes. PhD dissertation University of Karachi, Pakistan.
33
Mal, T. K., J. Loveet-Doust and L. Lovett-D0ust (1997).Time-dependent competitive displacement of Typha
angustifolia by lythrum salicaria, Oikos 79:26-33.
Morton, J. F. (1975). Cattails (Typha sp.) Weed: Problem or potential crop? Economic Botany 29: 7 – 29
NIFFR (2000). National survey of infestation of water hyacinth, Typha grass and other noxious weeds in water
bodies of Nigeria. A report prepared by NIFFR, April, 2002.52p
Singh, S. P. Dahuja; S. S. and Moolani, M. K.(1976).Cultural Control of Typha angustata at different stages of
growth. In: C. K varshney and J. R Zoska(Eds). Aquatic weeds in south East Asia Jonk. The Hague; Pp 245-
247
Shehov, A. G. (1974). Effect of moving times on regeneration .of reed and reed mace Growths. Hydrobiology 211.
10(3): 61-65. Smith, S. G.(1967). Experimental and natural hybrids in North America Typha

Y. A. Birnin Yauri
Aquatic Vegetation Programme, National Institute for Freshwater Fisheries Research.PMB 6006 New Bussa,
Nigeria
34

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Continental J.

Fisheries and Aquatic Science 2: 1 - 5, 2008

LENGTH-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP OF BENTHIC BIVALVES OF THE ANDONI FLATS, NIGER DELTA,

KEYWORDS: bivalves, length-weight, isometric growth, allometric growth, cockle, clam.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Morphometric Measurements and Growth Conversions

W = aLb (Winberg, 1971)

Where L = length, W = weight, a = constant, b = exponent

Log W = -3.334+2.942 Log L

Log (shell length mm)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Log W = -5.096+3.395 Log L

Log (shell length mm)

Log W = -3.978+2.633 Log L

Log (shell length mm)

Species Intercept a S.D. Confidence Slope S.D. Confidence r r2 Confidence

Received for Publication: 17/05/2008

A MESOCOSM ANALYTICAL STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF FRESHWATER MUSSEL

P. Jayakumar, N. Jothivel, A. Thimmappa and V.I. Paul

KEYWORDS: freshwater mussel, Lamellidens marginalis, bioturbation, biodeposition,

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Test organism and their maintenance

Percentage of water content

Percentage of organic matter

Percentage of total nitrogen

Humic acid content

Received for Publication: 17/08/2008

PRODUCTION EFFICIENCY IN CATFISH (CLARIAS GARIEPINUS) BURCHELL, 1822 IN CROSS RIVER

KEYWORDS: Production efficiency, Catfish, Cobb-Douglass, Production function,

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUE

Y= bo + b1X1 +b2X2+b3X3 +b4X4+b5X5+e

(b) Cobb-Douglas Production Function (double log)

(c) Semi-Log Production Function:

Each resource was measured using the formula:

MPP x Price of product= marginal value product (MVP)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Variables Unit Northern Central Southern State’s State’s

** Feed input 735.17 25,065 28,075 35080 - 88,220

Production CONSTANT X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 R2 AdJ F-

Semi-log -5.754 1.053 7.249 4.018 0.991 0.579

Variables EP AP MPP MVP P AEL Inference

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

FAO/UNESCO(1974). Soil Map of the World Report.pp1-10

Koutsoyiannis,A.(1977).Theory of Econometrics.Published by Macmillan London,.pp1- 667.

Received for Publication: 17/08/2008

Continental J. Fisheries and Aquatic Science 2: 23 - 30, 2008

FAPOHUNDA Olawumi Oluwafunmilola

KEYWORDS: Clarias gariepinus, Fingerlings, Groundnut cake meal, Nutrient utilization,

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Preparation of GNC meals

Table 1. Proximate composition (%) of feedstuff.

Table 2. Composition of the experimental diets (dry matter basis, %).

Experimental fish and systems

Growth performance parameters

MWG = mean final weight – mean initial weight.

% BWI = mean weight gain (MWG)/ mean initial weight X 100

SGR = Log Wf – Log Wi / t X 100

Where Wf = mean final weight

Feed gain ratio (FGR): Tf/ Wf – Wi