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Polynomials With Palindromic and Unimodal Coefficients: R R S S R S R+i S I N n+1 J N 2j J N 2j J N 2j N
Polynomials With Palindromic and Unimodal Coefficients: R R S S R S R+i S I N n+1 J N 2j J N 2j J N 2j N
Abstract
Let f (q) = ar q r + + as q s , with ar 6= 0 and as 6= 0, be a real polynomial. It is a
palindromic polynomial of darga n if r+s = n and ar+i = asi for all i. Polynomials
of darga n forms a linear subspace Pn (q) of R(q)n+1 of dimension n/2+1. We give
transition matrices between two bases q j (1 + q + + q n2j ) , q j (1 + q)n2j
and the standard basis q j (1 + q n2j ) of Pn (q). We present some characterizations
and sufficient conditions for palindromic polynomials that can be expressed in terms
of these two bases with nonnegative coefficients. We also point out the link between
such polynomials and rank-generating functions of posets.
MSC: 05A20; 05A15; 15A03; 06A07
Keywords: Unimodal sequence; Palindromic sequence; Linear space; Poset
Introduction
Partially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 11071030,
11371078) and the Specialized Research Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education of China
(Grant No. 20110041110039).
Corresponding Author.
Email address: wangyi@dlut.edu.cn (Y. Wang)
-polynomials arise often in algebra, analysis, and combinatorics. Two most well
P
known -polynomials are 1 + q + + q n and (1 + q)n = ni=0 ni q i . Another famous
-polynomial is the Gaussian polynomial defined by
(q n 1)(q n1 1) (q ni+1 1)
n
=
.
i q
(q i 1)(q i1 1) (q 1)
The symmetry of the Gaussian polynomial follows immediately by definition. But the
unimodality of the Gaussian polynomial is not so easy to prove. The first proof of the
unimodality was given by Sylvester [16] in 1878 using the classical theory of invariants.
Then there have been several different proofs based on methods of Lie algebras, linear algebra, algebraic geometry or Polya theory [11]. In 1990, K. OHara [9] gave her celebrated
constructive proof, which, roughly speaking, is to decompose the Gaussian polynomial
into a finite sum of suitable palindromic polynomials of the same darga [18].
To prove the unimodality of a polynomial is often a very difficult task. The case for
palindromic polynomials is somewhat different. -polynomials have much better behavior
than unimodal polynomials. For example, the product of two unimodal polynomials is not
unimodal in general; however, the product of two -polynomials is still a -polynomial
[2, Theorem 1]. This is the motivation for us to study palindromic polynomials. The
object of the present paper is to explore such a topic from a viewpoint of linear algebra.
The organization of the paper is as follows. We first study algebraic properties of
palindromic polynomials in the next section. Palindromic polynomials of darga n form
a linear space of dimension n/2 + 1. We give transition matrices between the bases
{q j (1 + q + + q n2j )} , {q j (1 + q)n2j } and the standard basis {q j (1 + q n2j )}. Then
in Section 3 we study palindromic polynomials that can be expressed in terms of the
first two bases with nonnegative coefficients respectively. Certain known results can be
obtained and extended in a unified approach. Finally in Section 4 We point out the link
between palindromic polynomials and rank-generating functions of posets.
Throughout this paper all polynomials considered are real. As usual, denote by R[q]n+1
the set of real polynomials of degree at most n, and let the binomial coefficient ni = 0
unless 0 i n. For the sake of convenient, denote n = n/2 and 0 is viewed as a
palindromic polynomial (of any darga).
Palindromic polynomials
n
f (q) = q f
.
q
2
f (q) = aq (1 + q)
k
Y
i=1
Y
[(1 + ri q)(ri + q)]
(1 + bj q + cj q 2 )(cj + bj q + q 2 ) j ,
ei
j=1
Theorem 2.8. Let {fj (q)}j0 be a sequence of basic palindromic polynomials. Assume
that f (q) is a real polynomial of darga n. Then f (q) is palindromic if and only if f (q) can
be written as
n
X
cj q j fn2j (q),
cj R.
(1)
j=0
Proof. The if part follows from Corollary 2.2 since all terms q j fn2j (q) in the summation
(1) are palindromic polynomials with the same darga n. We next prove the only if part
by induction on dar f . We may assume, without loss of generality, that all fj are monic.
Let f (q) = ar q r + +as q s be a palindromic polynomial of darga n, where ar = as 6= 0
and r + s = n. Define
f (q) ar q r fsr (q)
.
g(q) =
q
Then g(q) is a palindromic polynomial of darga n 2. By the induction hypothesis,
g(q) =
n1
X
bj q j fn22j (q),
bj R.
j=0
Hence
r
n1
X
bj q
j+1
fn22j (q) =
j=0
n
X
cj q j fn2j (q),
j=0
Then the transition matrix from the basis Fn = {q j fn2j (q)}nj=0 of Pn (q) to the basis
Gn = {q j gn2j (q)}nj=0 is the (n + 1) (n + 1) lower triangle matrix
M(Fn , Gn ) =
t(n, 0)
t(n, 1)
t(n, 2)
..
.
0
t(n 2, 0)
t(n 2, 1)
..
.
0
0
t(n 4, 0)
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
..
.
q gn2j (q) =
n
X
i=j
k=0
1
1
..
.
1
O
.. . .
.
.
1 1
1 1 1
M(S, A) =
1
1
and
1
n
1
n
..
.
n2
n
n1
n
n2
n2
n2
..
.
n1
n2j
ij
1
..
.
..
.
n4
n3
n4
n2
1
n2n+2
1
for 0 j i n.
1 + q + + q n = (1 + q n ) + q(1 + q n2 ) + q 2 (1 + q n4 ) +
and
n 2
n
n2
q (1 + q n4 ) + .
q(1 + q ) +
(1 + q) = (1 + q ) +
2
1
n
Other transition matrices between these three bases can be deduced from M(S, A)
and M(S, B). For example,
1
1
1
O
1
M(A, S) = M 1 (S, A) = 0 1
,
.
.
.
.
.. . . . .
..
0
0 1 1
and
M(A, B) = M(A, S)M(S, B) = (di,j )(n+1)(n+1) ,
n2j
where di,j = 0 for i < j and di,j = bi,j bi1,j = n2j
for 0 j i n. It is
ij
ij1
not difficult to verify that all di,j are positive for 0 j i n.
We can also obtain M(B, S) by another approach.
Corollary 2.11. Let M(B, S) = (ci,j )(n+1)(n+1) . Then ci,j = 0 for i < j and
nij
ij n 2j
ci,j = (1)
ij
nij
for 0 j i n.
Proof. Recall the classical Chebyshev inversion relation
n
n
X
X
n
yn2i yn =
C(n, i)xn2i ,
xn =
i
i=0
i=0
where
ni
n
C(n, i) = (1)
i
ni
i
n/2
n/2
n
X
n (n2i)/2
q
Sn2i (q).
Bn (q) =
i
i=0
So by (2),
n
X
n (n2i)/2
Sn (q) =
q
Bn2i (q),
i
i=0
i.e.,
Sn (q) =
n
X
i=0
(2)
ij
n 2j n i j
ij
nij
Hence all C(n, i) are integers, and so are all ci,j . Thus M(B, S) is an integer matrix.
-polynomials
Let F be a basis of Pn (q) and f (q) Pn (q). We say that f (q) is F-positive if f (q) can
be expressed in terms of the basis F with nonnegative coefficients. Clearly, the set of all
F-positive polynomials forms a convex cone of Pn (q). Our concern in this section is Apositive polynomials and B-positive polynomials. A B-positive polynomial is usually said
to have nonnegative -vector and a A-positive polynomial is precisely a -polynomial.
Theorem 3.1. Let f (q) be a palindromic polynomial of nonnegative coefficients. Then
f (q) is A-positive if and only if f (q) is unimodal, i.e., f (q) is a -polynomial.
Proof. Let f (q) be a palindromic polynomial of darga n. Assume that
f (q) =
n
X
aj q (1 + q
n2j
)=
j=0
n
X
cj q j (1 + q + + q n2j ).
j=0
Then c0 = a0 and cj = aj aj1 for 1 j n by the transition matrix M(A, S). Thus
cj is nonnegative if and only if aj is nondecreasing for 0 j n. In other words, f (q) is
A-positive if and only if f (q) is unimodal.
The following result is an immediate consequence of Corollary 2.11
P
Theorem 3.2. Let f (q) = nj=0 aj q j be a palindromic polynomial of darga n and
f (q) =
n
X
bi q i (1 + q)n2i .
i=0
i
X
j=0
(1)
ij
n 2j n i j
aj .
ij
nij
7
(1)
ij
j=0
n 2j n i j
aj > 0
ij
nij
for all 0 i n.
Clearly, if all elements of a certain transition matrix from the basis F to the basis F
are nonnegative, then a F -positive polynomial must be F-positive. In particular, if f (q)
is B-positive, then it is a -polynomial.
Let {fj (q)}j0 be a sequence of basic palindromic polynomials. Then
Fn = q j fn2j (q) : j = 0, 1, . . . , n
is a basis of Pn (q) by Theorem 2.8. For any i, j 0, the product fi (q)fj (q) is a palindromic
polynomial of darga i + j, and so it can be expressed in terms of the basis Fi+j . We say
that the sequence {fj (q)}j0 is self-positive if fi (q)fj (q) is Fi+j -positive for any i, j 0.
Example 3.3. Let us examine the self-positivity of three sequences of basic palindromic
polynomials in Example 2.7. The sequences {Sj (q)} and {Bj (q)} are obviously selfpositive. Note that
(i+j)/2
i
q k (1 + q + + q i+j2k ).
k=0
ak q k fn+m2i2j2k (q),
k=0
f (q) =
bi q i fn2i (q),
bi 0
cj q j fm2j (q),
cj 0.
i=0
and
m/2
g(q) =
X
j=0
ak 0.
Then
n/2 m/2 (n+m2i2j)/2
f (q)g(q) =
X X
i=0
j=0
k=0
X X
i=0
j=0
r=i+j
f (q)g(q) =
ck q k (1 + q)n+m2k ,
k=0
where ck = i+j=k ai bj . In other words, {ck } is the convolution of {ai } and {bj }. This
result also holds for the product of arbitrary finite such polynomials.
A concept closely related to unimodality is log-concavity. Let {ai }ni=0 be a sequence
of nonnegative numbers with no internal zeros, i.e., there are no three indices i < j < k
such that ai , ak 6= 0 and aj = 0. It is log-concave if ai1 ai+1 a2i for 0 < i < n. Clearly,
the sequence is log-concave if and only if ai1 aj+1 ai aj for 0 < i j < n. Thus a
log-concave sequence is unimodal. A basic approach for attacking unimodality and logP
concavity is to utilize the Newtons inequality: If the polynomial f (q) = ni=0 ai q i has
only real zeros, then
1
1
2
1+
,
i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1
ai ai1 ai+1 1 +
i
ni
(see Hardy, Littlewood and Polya [6, p. 104]). It follows that if all ai are nonnegative,
then f (q) is log-concave and therefore unimodal. So, if f (q) is a palindromic polynomial
with nonnegative coefficients and with only real zeros, then it is a -polynomial. Branden
further showed that f (q) is actually B-positive [3, Lemma 4.1]. We end this section by
showing the following stronger result.
P
Theorem 3.7. Let f (q) = nj=0 aj q j be a palindromic polynomial of darga n and
n/2
f (q) =
bi q i (1 + q)n2i .
i=0
P
If the polynomial f (q) = nj=0 aj q j has nonnegative coefficients and has only real zeros,
P
i
then so does the polynomial n/2
i=0 bi q . In particular, f (q) is B-positive.
9
Proof. We first consider the case that q f (q) and (1 + q) f (q). Now f (q) is palindromic
and has only real zeros, so by Proposition 2.4, n is even and
f (q) = a
n/2
Y
(q + rk )(q + 1/rk ),
k=0
n/2
Y
k=0
(1 + q)2 + sk q ,
bi q = a
i=0
n/2
Y
(1 + sk q),
k=0
f (q) =
(m+2r)/2
ci q r+i (1 + q)m+e2i =
i=0
cjr q j (1 + q)n2j ,
j=r
m/2
j
bj q = q
j=0
ci q i ,
i=0
which is a polynomial with nonnegative coefficients and with only real zeros, as required.
This completes our proof.
Remark 3.8. It is well known that Eulerian polynomials, Narayana polynomials and derangement polynomials are palindromic and have only real zeros (see, e.g., [7]). So these
polynomials are all B-positive. See [14, 15] for combinatorial interpretations to express
these polynomials in terms of the basis B with nonnegative coefficients.
Remarks
F (P ; q) =
cj q j (1 + q + + q n2j ),
j=0
n
Y
1 q ri
i=1
1 qi
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