Basic Principles of

Ultrasonic Testing
Michael Berke
Krautrkamer Ultrasonic Systems
Agfa NDT GmbH, Hrth, Germany
1986 - 2002
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Examples of oscillation
ball on
a spring

pendulum

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rotating
earth

Pulse
The ball starts to oscillate as soon as it is pushed
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Oscillation

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Movement of the ball over time

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Frequency

one full
oscillation T
From the duration of one
oscillation T the frequency f
(number of oscillations per
second) is calculated:

1
f =
T
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Time

The actual displacement a is

termed as:

a = A sin

Time

90

180

270

360
Phase

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Spectrum of sound

Frequency range
Hz

Description

Example

0 - 20

Infrasound

Earth quake

Audible
sound

Speech, music

Ultrasound

Bat, Quartz
crystal

20 - 20.000
> 20.000

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Atomic structures
gas

low density
weak bonding
forces

liquid

solid

medium density high density

medium bonding strong bonding
forces
forces
crystallographic
structure
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Understanding wave propagation:

Ball =
atom

Spring = elastic bonding

force

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star
t of

osc
illa

tion

distance travelled

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During one oscillation T the wave

front propagates by the distance
:
Distance travelled

From this we derive:

c=
T

or

c = f

Wave equation

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Sound propagation
Longitudinal wave Direction of propagation
Direction of
oscillation

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Sound propagation
Transverse wave
Direction of oscillation

Direction of propagation

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Wave propagation
Longitudinal waves propagate in all kind of materials.
Transverse waves only propagate in solid bodies.
Due to the different type of oscillation, transverse
waves
travel at lower speeds.
Sound velocity mainly depends on the density and Emodulus of the material.
Air
Water
Steel, long
Steel, trans

330 m/s
1480 m/s
5920 m/s
3250 m/s

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Reflection and Transmission

As soon as a sound wave comes to a change in material
characteristics ,e.g. the surface of a workpiece, or an internal
inclusion, wave propagation will change too:

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Behaviour at an interface
Medium 1

Medium 2

Incoming wave

Transmitted wave

Reflected wave

Interface
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Reflection + Transmission: Perspex - Steel

1,87

Incoming wave

1,0
0,87

Transmitted wave

Reflected wave

Perspex

Steel
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Reflection + Transmission: Steel - Perspex

Transmitted wave

Incoming wave
1,0
0,13

-0,87
Reflected wave

Perspex

Steel
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Amplitude of sound transmissions:

Water - Steel
Strong reflection
Double
transmission

Copper - Steel
No reflection
Single
transmission

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Steel - Air
Strong reflection
with inverted
phase
No transmission

Piezoelectric Effect

+
Battery

Piezoelectrical
Crystal (Quartz)
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Piezoelectric Effect

The crystal gets thicker, due to a distortion of the crystal

lattice
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Piezoelectric Effect

+
The effect inverses with polarity change
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Piezoelectric Effect
Sound wave
with
frequency f

U(f)

An alternating voltage generates crystal oscillations at the

frequency f
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Piezoelectric Effect

Short pulse
( < 1 s )

A short voltage pulse generates an oscillation at the crystals

resonant
frequency f0
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Reception of ultrasonic waves

A sound wave hitting a piezoelectric crystal, induces
crystal vibration which then causes electrical voltages
at the crystal surfaces.
Electrical
energy

Piezoelectrical
crystal

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Ultrasonic wave

Ultrasonic Probes
socket
crystal
Damping

Straight beam probe

Delay / protecting face

Electrical matching
Cable

TR-probe
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Angle beam probe

RF signal (short)

100 ns

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RF signal (medium)

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Sound field

Focus

Crystal

Accoustical axis

Angle of divergence
6

D0

Near field

Far field

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Ultrasonic Instrument

10

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Ultrasonic Instrument

+
Uh

10

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Ultrasonic Instrument

+
Uh

10

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Ultrasonic Instrument
+
Uv

Uh

10

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Block diagram: Ultrasonic Instrument

amplifier

IP

screen
BE

horizontal
sweep
clock
pulser

probe
work piece
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Sound reflection at a flaw

s

Probe

Sound travel path

Work piece

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Flaw

Plate testing
IP
BE

plate

delamination

IP = Initial pulse
F = Flaw
BE = Backwall echo

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10

Wall thickness measurement

s
s

Corrosion

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10

Through transmission testing

Through transmission signal

2
0

Flaw

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10

Weld inspection
a = s sin

a' = a - x

s
0

20

d' = s cos
40

60

80 100

d = 2T - d'

s
a
a

= probe angle
= sound path
= surface distance
= reduced surface
distance
d = virtual depth
d = actual depth
T = material thickness

a
a'

Lack of fusion

Workpiece with welding

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d
T

Straight beam inspection techniques:

Direct contact,

Direct contact,

single element probe

dual element probe

Through transmission

Fixed delay

Immersion testing

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Immersion testing
1

surface =
sound entry

water delay

backwall

flaw

IP

IE

IP

BE

10

IE

F
0

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BE

10

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems