A) SOAP & DETERGENT

I)

II)

Definition of Soap
o Soap are sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic
acids
o The general formula of a soap : RCOO Na / RCOO K
R is an alkyl group which contain 12 to 18 carbon atoms.
The history of soap manufacturing.

Babylonians
made soap
around 2800
B.C.

Michel Chevreul (French)

discovered animal fats are
cmposed of fatty acids and
glycerol ( Causes rapid
development of soap &
candle.)

Purifying oils is recorded on

Hebrew Tables around 4000 B.C.
Ash + Lime Caustic potash
Caustic Potash + fats soap

Sodium carbonate Na CO
is produced cheaply &
used for glass making ,
soaps and detergent.

Process of making soap

ashes or sodium
carbonate from common
salt is patented by
Nicholas Leblane
(French).

After 20 years, Ernest

Solvay ( Belgian Chemist)
developed Solvay process.

Later on, vegetables oil is

used to replace animal fats.

Solvay Process
- Carbon dioxide ( obtained from heating CaCo ) is passed into
concentrated NaCl solution which is saturated with ammonia .
NaCl +NH +H O + CO Na HCO +NH Cl
- NaHCO is then heated to obtain soda.
2NaHCO Na CO +H O +CO .

III) Preparation of Soap by Saponification

Saponification is a process whereby the soaps are prepared by hydrolyzing
fats or oils under alkaline conditions.
It is also the alkaline hydrolysis of esters using alkaline solutions.
Fats/ Vegetable oils + concentrated alkalis soap + glycerol
(Fats- tallow from cow)
( Vegetable oils palm oil or olive oil)
For example,
- Glyceryl tristearates
is a naturally occuring esters
found in fats or oils.
CH COOC H
CHCOOC H

3 NaOH
(concentrated alkali)

CH OH

CH COOC H
(glyceryl tristearate)

3C H COONa
( sodium stearate)
Soap

CHOH
CH OH
(glycerol)

Example of soap,
1) sodium palmitate, C H COONa
2) Sodium oleate, C H COONa
3) Sodium stearate, C H COONa
To enhance the soaps marketability,additives are used such as perfume,

colouring matter and antiseptic.

Production of soap can be precipitated by adding common salt to the
reaction mixture in order to reduce the solubility of soap in water.
Properties of soap depends on
a) type of alkali used for saponification
b) type of animal fats or vegetable oils used
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 Potassium soap are softer, milder than sodium soap which can be used for

bathing.
IV) Structure of soap molecule.
When soap is dissolved in water, it will dissociate and produce sodium
ions and carboxylate ions.
The active substances in soap is carboxylate ions which consists two
parts:
a) the Head
1. negatively charged
2. contains the C O ion
3. is hydrophilic ( like to dissolves water)

b) the Tail
1. positively charged
2. is a long hydrocarbon chain
3. is hydrophobic ( do not like to dissolves water)

I )Definition of Detergent
Detergent is a synthetic cleasing agents which is made from hydrocarbons
obtained from petroleum fraction.
It is a kind of petrochemicals.
There are 3 types of detergent which depends on the charge on detergent ion.
a) Anionic Detergent.
Head of the detergent particle contains a negatively charged ions.
Example : R O SO Na
Divide into two types:
Sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate ( detergent molecule with a benzene ring)

R-

- S O Na

SO

Sodium alkyl sulphate ( without a benzene ring)

R OSO
b) Cationic Detergent
Head of the detergent particle contains a positively charged ion.
Example : R N(CH ) Br
c) Non- ionic detergent
Example : R O CH CH OH
II) Preparation of Detergent
Sodium alkyl sulphate
- can be prepared from alcohols with chain

lengths of 12 to 18 carbon atoms.

- Step 1:
Reaction with Concentrated sulphuric acid

Sodium alkylbenzene sulphonates

Starting materials
- long chain alkene, RCH = CH , obtained from
the cracking of petroleum.
Step 1 :
Alkylation ( introduction of the alkyl group to
an organic molecule)

Step 2 :
Sulphonation ( introduction of the sulphonic
Step 2 :
Neutralisation with sodium hydroxide solution acid group to an organic molrcule to form
sulphonic acid)

Sodium alkyl sulphate

Example :
Dodecan - 1- ol, CH (CH ) CH OH
Detergent prepared from dodecan 1 ol is
called sodium dodecyl sulphate / sodium
lauryl sulphate

Sodium alkylbenzene sulphonates

Step 3 :
Neutralisation

III) The Structure of Detergent Molecule

When a detergent is dissolved in water, it dissociates to form sodium ions
and detergent ions.
It consists of two parts:
a) the Head (sulphate group, - OSO / sulphonate group - SO)
1. negatively charged
2. hydrophilic ( like water)
b) the Tail ( long hydrocarbon chain)
1. neutral
2. hydrophobic ( hates water)

The cleansing action of soap and detergent

The cleansing action of soaps and detergent results from
the ability to lower the surface tension of water,
to emulsify oil/ grease and
to hold them in suspension in water
This can be occurred due to their chemical bonding and the structure.
Oil cannot be washed away from clothing with water only as it is a covalent
molecule which is insoluble in water.
1. sodium soap dissolves in water to form soap (-ions) and sodium (+ions).
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2. Anion consists of a long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxylate group on

one end.
3. the hydrocarbon (hydrophobic)soluble in oil/ grease.
4. carboxylate group (hydrophilic) soluble in water.
Process of the cleaning action of soap and detergent.
A piece of cloth is stained with grease and then dipped into
soap/ detergent water.
Through this, the wetting ability of water increases.
Thus, the surface of cloth is wetted thouroughly.
The hydrophobic part of the soap/ detergent anion dissolve in
grease while the hydrophilic part is attracted to water molecule.
Because of the forces of attraction between water molecules and
negatively-charged heads, the grease begins to be lifted off the
surface when the water is agitated slightly.
Mechanical agitation during scrubbing helps the process of
emulsfication occurs whereby the grease is broken into small
droplets.
The droplets do not coagulate and redeposit on the surface of
the cloth due to the repulsion between the negative charges on
th surface. These droplets are suspended in water to form
emulsion. The droplets is rinsed and washed away and leave the
surface clean.
IV) Additives in detergents
Additives in detergent is used to increase their cleaning power and make
the detergent more attractive and saleable.

Additives

Function

Example

Builders

To enhance the cleaning efficiency of detergent

by softening the water.
To increase the pH value of water.
To ensure that the detergent in powdered form
is always in dry condition.
To add to the bulk of the detergent and enable to
pour it at ease.
To add fragrance to both detergent anf fabrics.
To control foaming in detergent.
To add brightness and whiteness to white
fabrics.
To prevent dirt particles removed from
redepositing onto cleaned fabrics.
To remove protein stains such as blood.
To break down fat and protein molecules in
food stains.
To convert stains into colourless substances.
To make the fabrics whiter and more beautiful.

Sodium tripolyphosphate

Drying agents

Fragrances
Foam control agents
Optical whitener
Suspension agents
Biological enzymes

Whitening agents

Sodium sulphate
Sodium silicate

Fluorescent dyes
Carboxymethylcellulose
(CMC)
Amylases ,proteases,
cellulases and lipases
Sodium perborate
Sodium hypochlorite
(NaClO)

V) The effectiveness of soaps and detergents as cleansing agents

Cleansing
agents
Soap

Advantages

Disadvantages

1. very effective in soft water to wash

clothes.( water does not contain Mg & Ca
ions)
2. Do not cause pollution as soaps are
made from fats and oils and can be
decomposed by the action of bacteria.

1. Ineffective in hard water.

2. A grey scum (Magnesium stearate &
calcium stearate) will be produced in hard
water.

3. Not effective in acid water.( exist as

molecules & do not have hydrophilic ends)
- H ion from rainwater (acid) will react
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with soap ions to produce carboxylic acid

molecules of large molecular size that are
insoluble in water. Example,
Detergent

1. effective in soft water and hard water.

( magnesium salt and calcium salts are
formed aand soluble in water)
( scum is not formed)

1. non-biodegradable
2. water pollution occurs.
3. Decrease in oxygen content in water and
the aquatic lives are given the harm.(
phosphates in detergents)
4. a lot of foam will be produced in water
that prevent oxygen from dissolving in
water.As a result, fish and other aquatic
lives face the death.
5. Additives (sodium hypochlorite )
releases chlorine gas that is highly toxic
and kills aquatic life.

2. Synthetic cleansing agents

- structure of hydrocarbon chain can be
modified to produce detergent.
3. effective in acidic water as H ions is
not combine with detergent ions.

B) FOOD ADDITIVES
- Definition of Food Additives are natural or synthetic substance which are
added to food to:
i)
prevent spoilage
ii)
improve its appaerance , taste or texture
iii) prevent growth of microorganisms
iv) prevent oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in air
v)
restore the colour of food destroyed during food
processing.
- Type of Food Additives and Their Functions
1. Preservatives substance added to food to slow down and prevent the
growth of microorganisms in order to kepp the lasts longer.
- salts, vinegar and sugar have been used for centuries to preserve food.
Preservatives

Molecular
Formula

Uses

Salt
sugar

Drwas water out of the cells of microorganisms

Retards the growth of microorganisms.

Vinegar

Provides acidic condition that inhibits the growth of

microorganisms.
To preserve the meat, sausage, cheese and dried fish.
To prevent food poisoning in canned food.
To maintain the natural colour of meat.
To make the meat look fresh.
To preserve sauces, fruit juice, jams and margarine.

Sodium nitrite NaNO

Sodium nitrate NaNO

Benzoic acid
Sodium
benzoate
Sulphur
dioxide
Sodium
sulphate

C H COOH
C H COONa
SO
Na SO

Used as antioxidants to prevent browning in fuits.

Maintain the colour and freshness of vegetables.
To prevent thr growth of yeast.

2. Antioxidants- added to food to

i)
pevent oxidation that causes rancid fats
and brown foods
ii)
to slow down the oxidation process.
- food containing fats or oils are oxidised and become rancid when exposed
to air. This makes the food unpalatable. Th rancid products are volatile
organic compounds with 4 odours.
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( exp : butanoic acid, C H COOH)

Antioxidants
Butylated Hydroxyanisole (BHA)
Butylated Hydroxytoluene (BHT)
Sodium citrate
Vitamin C

Vitamin E

Uses
To retard rancidity in oils.
To stop fats from turning rancid.
Inhibits the formation of carcinogeic nitrosamines.
Stimulates the immune systems.
Protects against chromosome breakage.
Preserve the colour of friut juice.
Neutralizes free radical compounds before the cell
membrane are damaged.
Reduce the risk of heart diseases and cancer.

3. Flavourings
- Flavourings are the largest group of food additives.
- Function : to improve the taste of food restore taste loss due to processing.
- There are 2 types of flavourings :
i)
Flavour enchancers
- Flavor enchancers are chemicals that are added to food to bring
out the flavours/ to enhance the tastes of food.
- Exp : monosodium glutamate (MSG)
MSG is a sodium salt of glutamic acid.
It exists as solid fine white crystal.
It is added to savoury prepared and processed
- frozen foods
- spice mixes
- canned and dry soups
- salad dressings
- meat and fish based products
In order to protect the public health, MSG is not allowed in baby
foods and less used for the adults.
ii)

artificial sweeteners
Aspartame
Aspartame is a white , odourless powder, approximately 200
times sweeter than sugar.
It is used in a variety of foodstuffs.

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 It is stable when dry or frozen but breaks down and loses its
sweetness over a time when stored in liquids at temperature
above 30.
Exp : diet drinks and soft drinks
- Synthetic Essences
o contain chemicals which are made to resemble natural flavour.
o Exp :pentyl ethanoate, CH COOC H give banana flavour and is
cheaper to use.
- Many of compounds are used to produce artificial flavours belong to the
homologous series of esters.
4. Stabilizers
- a substance which helps to prevent on emulsion ( oil /water droplets
suspended in water/oil droplets) from separating out.
- It is used in margarine, butter, ice cream and salad cream.
- exp : lecithin, mono- and di-glycerides of fatty acids.
5. Thickeners
- are chemicals that are added to food to thicken the liquid and to prevent the
food from liquefying.
- They absorb water and thicken the liquid in food to produce a jelly-like
structure.
- They are natural carbohydrates.
- Exp:
Thickeners
Explanation
Modified starch
Used in instant soups and puddings.
pectin
Used in jams and jellies.
Forms a firm jel when there is sufficient sugar in a
mixture.
Is not digested.
Can be considered as a beneficial and dietary fibre.
Acacia gum
To thicken chewing gum, jelly and wine.
Gelatine
To thicken yogurt.
6. Dyes
- chemicals that are added to food to give the colour so as to improve the
appearance of food.
- is used to add or restore the colour in food in order to
enhance its visual appeal
match consumer expectations
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 give colour to food that have no colour.

- artificial food dyes are oftenly used as they are more uniform, less
expensive and have brighter colours than natural food dyes.
- many food dyes are
i)
azo compounds ( red , orange, yellow)
- orang drinks, custard powders, sweets and apricot jam.
iii) triphenyl compounds( blue-brilliant blue FCF, green)
- main trend in colour of food towards the use of natural colours is
anthocyanin.
* found in red grapes, red cabbage sweet potatoes
* have antioxidants properties.
Effect of Food Additives on Health.
Effects
Explanation
Allergy
Caused by Sodium sulphite, BHA and BHT , MSG
and food dyes( yellow No.5).
Cause an diseases named Chinese restaurant
syndrome (giddiness, chest pain and difficulty in
breathing)
Cause blue baby diseases occuring on babies
which iits synptoms is lacking of oxygen and the
presence of sodium nitrate /nitrite.
Cancer
Caused by carcinogens(sodium nitrite)
Nitrite reacts with amines to produce nitrosamine(
cause cancer)
Brain damage
Caused by excessive intake of nitrites.
Hyperactivity
Caused by tartrazine (additives)
Difficul to sleep or relax and felt restles.
The Rationale for Using Food Additives

To prevent food
spoilage.

Advantages

To improve
nutritional value

Medical reasons
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Life without food

additives

Food spoilage
always occur

Diseases will occur

oftenly

Malnutrition will
occur particularly.

C) MEDICINE
- medicine is a substance used to prevent or cure diseases or to reduce pain
and suffering due to illness.
- it is classified as
i)
traditional medicine
is a medicine derived from natural resources without being
processed chemically.
Can be obtained from plants and animals.
Any medicinal plant containing alkaloid is potentially toxic to
liver.
Some of it interacts with medications resulting in serious side
reactions.
Exp : garlic capsules combined with diabetes medication can
cause a sudden decrease in blood sugar

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ii) Modern Medicine

they usually contain a mixture of active ingredientsprepared in different
forms such as capsules, pills, solution and suspensions.
Exp: Alka-Seltzer (used as antacid) contains sodium bicarbonate (NaHCo ),
citric acid and aspirin to neutralises the excess stomach acid.
can be classified as follows based on their sffect on the human body :
a) analgesics (painkillers)
medicines that relieve pain without causing numbness or affecting
consciousness.
Analgesics
Uses
Side effect
Aspirin
o Reduce fever
Cause brain and liver
o Relieve headaches,
Pain relief and antidamage of illedinflammatory action.
children.
muscle aches and joint
Acetyl salicylic acid
aches.
Cause bleeding in the
(IUPAC name)
o Treat arthritis
stomach.
Contains 2 functional
o Acts as an
Cause allergy
groups(carboxylic
anticoagulant
reactions, skin rashes,
acid/ester)
prevent clotting blood.
asthmatic attacks.
Acidic.
o Reduce the risk of
heart attack and
strokes.

Paracetamol
neutral

Codeine
Is an organic compounds
that contains carbon,
hydrogen oxygen and
nitrogen elements.
Uesd in headache tablets
and cough medicine
Is synthesized from
morphine

o To relieve mild to
moderate pain
(headache,muscle and
joint pain, backache ,
period pains)
o Does not irritate the
stomach to bleed.

Causes skin rashes,

blood disorders and
acute inflammation
of the pancreas.
Cause liver damage.
Cause addiction,
depression, nausea,
drownsiness

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 Is a nacortic drugs.
Is a strong analgesics.

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b) antibiotics
Cemicals that destroy / prevent the growth of infected microorganisms.
Will not cure the infection caused by viruses such as cold and flu.
Obtained from bacteria/fungi.
Broken down by acid in the stomach.
Antibiotics
Uses
Side effects
Penicillin
o Treat diseases
Cause allergic
caused by bacteria
Derived from the
reactions
such as oneumonia, Cause daeth for
mould penicillium
gonorrhoea, syphilis
notatum
people who
and tuberculosis.
allergiuc at it.
o Treat tuberculosis, Cause
Streptomycin
whooping cough
nausea,vomitng,
Produced by soil and
and some forms
dizziness, rashes
bacteris at the genus
of pneumonia.
and fever.
streptomyces
Loss of hearing
following long
term use.
c) psychotherapeutic medicines.
A group of dugs for treating mental / emotional ilness.
Psychotherapeutic medicines
Stimulants
A medicine which activates the
level of arousal and alertness of
the central nervous system to
reduce fatigue and elevate moon
in most people.

Uses
Side effects
i) Adrenaline
Cause addiction
A need in demanding energetic
activities.
ii) caffeine
weak, naturally occuring stimulant
found in coffee, tea and cola drinks.
iii) Amphetamines
Strong synthetic stimulants
Increase alertness & physical
ability.
Increase the heart *repiration rates
& blood pressure.

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Antidepressants
Medicine used primarily in the
treatment of depression.

Antipsychotic
i)
chlorpromazine
ii)
haloperidol
iii)
clozapine

i)
tranquilizers
to clam down a person
reduce tension & anxiety

cause drowsiness, poor

coordination and light
headedness, respiratory
difficulties,
sleeplessness, coma and
death if overdose.

i)
Barbituarates
Cause sleep (high dose)
To sedate, calm and relax individual Cause addiction and
in low doses.
habit forming
Cause death.
To treat psychiatrie illness such as Cause mild, dry mouth,
schizophrenia (loses touch with reality) blurred vision, urimary
retention, constipation,
tremor and less rrest as
well as sedation(more
clmer/sleepy)

! Drug Abuse taking drugs excessively and without a doctors

prescription.the examples of drugs are ectasy and ice.
D) THE EXISTENCE OF CHEMICALS
The chemicals for consumers such as soap, detergents , food additives and
medicine play an important role in our life . However, they can contribute
negative effects to our health and the environment if these chemicals are
not used wisely .
Some proper management of these chemicals :Detergents
Wear gloves when working with strong detergents to protect your hands .
Use biodegradable detergents .
Use appropriate amounts of detergents.
Food additives
Be wise when we consume the food with food additives.
Avoid consuming too much salt and sugar .
Avoid foods with additives which you are sensitive to .
Avoid rewarding children with junk food .
Medicines
No self medication .
Do not take medicine prescribed for someone else .
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 Check for expiry date .

Follow your doctors instruction for taking medicine .
Keep away from children .
Do not overdose .
Intensive scientific research must be carried out to produce new substances
and this takes more time . Scientists must patient and persevere for their
research and development to produce new chemicals in future .

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