Int J Biometeorol (2010) 54:131139

DOI 10.1007/s00484-009-0261-0

ORIGINAL PAPER

Modelling radiation fluxes in simple and complex

environments: basics of the RayMan model
Andreas Matzarakis & Frank Rutz & Helmut Mayer

Received: 22 April 2008 / Revised: 23 July 2009 / Accepted: 10 August 2009 / Published online: 12 September 2009
# ISB 2009

Abstract Short- and long-wave radiation flux densities

absorbed by people have a significant influence on their
energy balance. The heat effect of the absorbed radiation
flux densities is parameterised by the mean radiant
temperature. This paper presents the physical basis of the
RayMan model, which simulates the short- and long-wave
radiation flux densities from the three-dimensional surroundings in simple and complex environments. RayMan
has the character of a freely available radiation and humanbioclimate model. The aim of the RayMan model is to
calculate radiation flux densities, sunshine duration, shadow
spaces and thermo-physiologically relevant assessment
indices using only a limited number of meteorological and
other input data. A comparison between measured and
simulated values for global radiation and mean radiant
temperature shows that the simulated data closely resemble
measured data.
Keywords RayMan model . Radiation flux densities .
Mean radiant temperature . Human-biometeorological
indices . Human thermal comfort

Introduction
There is a strong demand in the field of applied sciences such
as architecture, agriculture, and medicine, etc., for climatological and biometeorological methods and means of calculation that are easily understandable. The radiation and
A. Matzarakis (*) : F. Rutz : H. Mayer
Meteorological Institute, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg,
Werthmannstrasse 10,
79085 Freiburg, Germany
e-mail: andreas.matzarakis@meteo.uni-freiburg.de

human-bioclimate model RayMan (Matzarakis et al. 2007)

meets this demand. Despite its simplicity, RayMan provides
good simulation results for radiation flux densities and
thermo-physiologically significant assessment indices. Use
of RayMan-derived results in applied sciences has many
advantages (Mayer 1993; VDI 1998; Thorsson et al. 2004;
Johansson and Emmanuel 2006; Matzarakis et al. 2007).
The human energy balance can be applied to the evaluation
of the impact of the thermal component of climate on humans.
This method has been used in several studies (e.g. Jendritzky
et al. 1990; Hppe 1993; VDI 1998; Mayer et al. 2008).
Under clear sky conditions in summer, short-wave radiation
flux densities exhibit the greatest variation amongst all
meteorological parameters, particularly in urban areas. The
human-biometeorological influence of short- and long-wave
radiation flux densities can be transferred into a synthetic
parameter, the mean radiant temperature Tmrt (Jendritzky et al.
1990; Hppe 1993; Mayer 1993; VDI 1998). Tmrt is defined
as the uniform temperature of a hypothetical spherical surface
surrounding a human (emissivity =1) that would result in
the same net radiation energy exchange with the subject as
the actual, complex radiative environment. The latter usually
varies considerably under open space conditions.
Existing methods for the calculation of short- and long-wave
radiation flux densities are applied mostly to the analysis of
radiation conditions at horizontal surfaces. For humanbiometeorological studies, the radiation environment of the
human body has to be considered in a three-dimensional way.
Several models and software packages designed to calculate
radiation and thermal comfort conditions in several ways
and with various input possibilities now exist (ENVI-met,
Bruse and Fleer 1998; Radtherm, www.thermoanalytics.com;
Townscope, Teller and Azar 2001). In addition, methods for
the calculation of short-wave radiation flux densities also
exist. These techniques apply both simple and complex

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Int J Biometeorol (2010) 54:131139

models with different time resolutions on the basis of different existing calculation methods (Valko 1966; Brhl and
Zdunkowski 1983; Jessel 1983; Olseth and Skartveit 1993;
VDI 1994; Badescu 1997; Ceballos and de Moura 1997;
Meek 1997; Gul et al. 1998; Mora-Lopez and Sidrach-deCardona 1998; Kemmoku et al. 1999; Marki and Antonic
1999; Roderick 1999; Santamouris et al. 1999; Craggs et al.
2000; Gueymard 2000). Models using sunshine duration for
the calculation of short-wave radiation flux densities are used
(Valko 1966; Gopinathan 1992; Revfeim 1997; Sen 1998) as
well as simple parameterisations for turbidity (Kasten 1980;
Power 2001). Methods for the calculation of long-wave
radiation flux densities are also available (Czeplak and Kasten
1987; Salsibury and DAria 1992; Diak et al. 2000; Nunez et
al. 2000; Prata 1996; Iziomon and Mayer 2001; Iziomon et al.
2003). For complex situations in urban settings, several
models and analytic methods are documented in the literature
(Kaempfert 1949, 1951; Terjung and Louie 1974; Mohsen
1979; Frank et al. 1981; Zdunkowski and Brhl 1983;
Littlefair 2001; Kanda et al. 2005).
The main purpose of this paper is to present a method for
the simulation of Tmrt for thermal human-biometeorological
studies on different space and time scales by use of the
RayMan model. Additionally, sunshine duration and shadow
in simple and complex environments are included in the
model. The model is compatible with Windows and can
analyse complex urban structures and other environments.
The model requires only basic meteorological data (air
temperature, air humidity and wind speed) for the simulation
of radiation flux densities and common thermal indices for
the thermal human-bioclimate. In this paper, a comparison
between results from possibilities of model runs and
measurements is discussed.

standard effective temperature (SET*; Mayer 1993; Gagge

et al. 1986; Hppe 1999) in many climate environments.
Here, the modelling/calculation of Tmrt only is presented.
For long-term studies without direct measurement of
radiation flux densities, Tmrt can be simulated using models.
In the literature, methods to estimate radiation flux densities
based on parameters including air temperature, air humidity,
degree of cloud cover, atmospheric turbidity, time of day, and
day of the year are recommended (Jendritzky et al. 1990;
Matzarakis et al. 2007). However, both the albedo of the
surrounding surfaces and their solid angle proportions must
be specified in these models. Additionally, other factors such
as the geometrical properties of buildings, vegetation,
reflexion properties, etc., have to be taken into account. For
the application of such models in simple situations, the
following radiation flux densities are required:

Scientific background and methods

To calculate Tmrt, the entire surroundings of the human

body are divided into n isothermal surfaces with the
temperatures Ti (i=1 to n) and emissivities i, for which the
solid angle portions (angle factors) Fi are used as
weighting factors. Long-wave radiation (Ei =i**Ti4) and
diffuse short-wave radiation, Di, are emitted from each of the
n surfaces of the surroundings (Fanger 1972; Jendritzky et al.
1990). This results in an approach for Tmrt (Fanger 1972;
Jendritzky and Nbler 1981) as:

Mean radiant temperature

Cause and effect relations between the atmospheric environment and human health or human comfort can be analysed by
a human-biometeorological classification (Kerslake 1972;
ISO 1983; Jendritzky et al. 1990; VDI 1998; Matzarakis
et al. 2007). The thermal component of the climate is an
important factor and can be described and quantified in a
thermo-physiologically significant way by thermal indices.
In summer, the mean radiant temperature Tmrt is the most
significant meteorological input parameter for the human
energy balance because of its modification by clouds as well
as topographical and urban morphologies (Winslow et al.
1936; Clark and Edholm 1985). Therefore, Tmrt has the
strongest influence on thermo-physiological significant indices like physiologically equivalent temperature (PET) or

&
&
&
&
&

direct solar radiation,

diffuse solar radiation,
reflected short-wave radiation,
atmospheric radiation (long-wave) from the open sky,
long-wave radiation from solid surfaces (lower hemisphere and horizon limitation).

The following parameters describing the surroundings of

the human body must be known:
&
&
&
&

sky view factorbecause of the limitation of the horizon

and the influence of short- and long-wave radiation flux
densities,
view factor of the different solid surfacesbecause of
the modification of the reflected short-wave radiation,
albedo of the different solid surfacesbecause of the
influence of the incoming short-wave radiation,
emissivity of the different solid surfacesbecause of
the influence on the surface temperature.

"

Tmrt

 #0:25
n

1 X
Di

E i ak
Fi
s i1
"p

where is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant [5.67*108 W/

(m2K4)] and p is the emission coefficient of the human body
(standard value 0.97). Di comprises the diffuse solar
radiation and the diffusely reflected global radiation, whereas

Int J Biometeorol (2010) 54:131139

133

ak is the absorption coefficient of the irradiated body surface

area of short-wave radiation (standard value 0.7).
Tmrt is incremented to T*mrt, if there is also direct solar
radiation (Jendritzky et al. 1990):
"
T *mrt Tmrt

fp ak I *
 
"p s

#0:25
2

In this case, I* is the radiation intensity of the sun on a

surface perpendicular to the incident radiation direction. The
surface projection factor fp 0:308cosg 0:998
g 2 =
50000 for the sun elevation angle (in degrees) is a function
of the incident radiation direction and the body posture (VDI
1998, 2001; Jendritzky et al. 1990). For applications in
human-biometeorology, it is generally sufficient to determine
fp for a rotationally symmetrical person standing or walking
(Jendritzky et al. 1990).
Estimation of radiation fluxes and Tmrt
by the RayMan model
The RayMan model is Windows-based software with the code
written in Delphi. The model offers several estimation and
input possibilities (described above and in Matzarakis et al.
2007). Here, only the method of estimation of the radiation
flux densities and Tmrt is described. The model divides the
three-dimensional environment into an upper and a lower
hemisphere. Usually, the lower hemisphere has a sky view
factor fsvf that is covered by solid surfaces. So, for the lower
hemisphere the adjustment of the solid properties is easier
than for the upper hemisphere. For the lower hemisphere, the
Fig. 1 Radiation flux densities
important for the determination
of the mean radiant temperature
(Tmrt)

albedo and emissivity have to been known in order to

simulate the short- and long-wave radiation flux densities
from the lower hemisphere (reflected short- and long-wave
emission from the ground, see Fig. 1). The parting plane
between the two hemispheres is at 1.1 m a.g.l., which
represents the weighting centre of the human body (Fanger
1972; Jendritzky et al. 1990).
The distribution of the solid and free sky elements and
their amount in the upper hemisphere are required for the
estimation of the radiation flux density of the upper
hemisphere. These elements can be attributed to a pixel map,
e.g. of a fish-eye photograph (Fig. 2) or a rendered image of a
vector model. Each pixel, pi, in Fig. 2 corresponds to an
angle factor Fi located at the azimuth angle i and the zenith
angle i. The angle factor is weighted by Fi 1=pN 2 =
4sinz i =z i , where i is determined via z i x2i
y2i 1=2 p=N by the pixel distance xi and yi of pi from
the centre of the NN pixels sized image in the x and y
direction, respectively. Pixels with i > /2 (i.e. below the
horizon) are ignored. Summing up all Fi values results in the
sky view factor fsvf. Tmrt is obtained via Eqs. 1 and 2 together
with the short- and long-wave radiation flux densities.
Estimation of global radiation
The global radiation Go for undisturbed conditions (free
horizon and no clouds) can be estimated as follows
(Jendritzky et al. 1990; VDI 1994, 1998):



r
G0 0:84  I0  cos z  exp
0:027   TL = cos z
r0

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Int J Biometeorol (2010) 54:131139

For the direct radiation I on a horizontally oriented

surface, the formulation is (Jendritzky et al. 1990):

r
I I0  cos z  exp
TL  d r0  mr0 
r0


N
 1

8

if the sun is not masked by an obstacle. Io is the irradiance

of extraterrestrial solar radiation on the plane normal to the
direction of incidence for the current solar distance (W/m2).
N denotes the degree of cloudiness in octas, op the vertical
optical thickness of the standard (Rayleigh) atmosphere,
and mr0 the relative optical air mass, which considers the
extended optical path through the atmosphere for zenith
angles >0 with respect to vertical incidence. Kasten and
Young (1989) provided an equation for the relative optical
air mass


mR0 1= sin g 0:50572  g 6:07995
1:6364

with the solar altitude angle g 90
z. The optical

thickness can be calculated (Kasten 1980) by
d R0 1=0:9mr0 9:4

for zenith angles <85 (i.e. >5). For higher values of

(gazing incidence), an approximation according to Table 1
with linear interpolation for intermediate values satisfies. If
the location of interest is in the shade, then I=0.
According to Valko (1966), the diffuse radiation can be
composed linearly of the two extreme values for cloudless
(N=0) and overcast (N=8) conditions:



N
N
D D0  1

D8 
8
8

D0, in turn, comprises an isotropic (Diso) and an anisotropic

(Daniso) component, D0 Diso Daniso . It holds that

Fig. 2 Fish-eye photographs under the canopy of a group of trees

(upper) and for a semi-open place (lower) in Freiburg. The circle in
the upper image marks an opening in the tree crown

with the solar radiation flux density I0 (W/m), the zenith

angle () of the sun, the local atmospheric pressure
p (hPa) relative to the normal pressure p0 =1,013 hPa at sea
level, and the Linke turbidity factor TL. However, for reallife applications this assumption is barely adequate. A
better approach for G is the sum of the direct and the
diffuse solar radiation, I and D, respectively, which both
take horizon limitations and cloudiness into account.

Diso G0
I N 0  1
t  fsvf

where t I N 0=I0 cos z is the transmittance of the

direct solar radiation represented by the exponential term in
Eq. 4. fsvf allows for horizontal limitations due to the topo-

Table 1 Vertical optical thickness r0 for gazing incidence; intermediate values are interpolated linearly

R0

0.0548

0.0519

0.0491

0.0463

0.0435

0.0408

Int J Biometeorol (2010) 54:131139

135

Fig. 3 Measured and simulated

global radiation for 1619 July
2006 in Freiburg, Germany

graphy, surrounding buildings, etc. Since the anisotropic

radiation tends to concentrate in the vicinity of the sun, the
calculation is discriminated depending on whether the sun is
directly visible. Thus, no fsvf is taken into account in
Daniso G0
I N 0  t

for the case where the sun is not hidden by the horizontal
limitation, otherwise Daniso =0. Finally, the (fully isotropic)
overcast component is approximately
D8 G0  1
0:72  fsvf 0:28 G0  fsvf

10

Estimation of atmospheric radiation

For the (long wave) atmospheric radiation, we used the
Angstrom formula because it uses only general atmospheric
parameters (air temperature and vapour pressure) and the
Fig. 4 Comparison between
measured and simulated Tmrt
for the period 1719 July 2006
in Freiburg under the canopy of
a group of trees [ (MS) is
difference between measurement
and simulation]

mean cloud cover in octas without distinguishing between

different cloud types and layers (Falkenberg and Bolz 1949;
Monteith 1990; Oke 1987; VDI 1994):
As

Ta4

0:0945Vp

 0:82
0:25  10

2:5 !
N
1 0:21 
8

11
Here, the air temperature Ta in K, the vapour pressure Vp
in hPa and the degree of cloudiness N in octas are the
required variables.
Estimation of the long-wave radiation flux density emitted
by solid surfaces
Furthermore, the long-wave radiation E being emitted from
solid surfaces can be expressed by
E "  s  Ts4 1
"  A

12

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Int J Biometeorol (2010) 54:131139

Fig. 5 Comparison between

measured and simulated Tmrt for
the period 1719 July 2006 in
Freiburg in a semi-open place
[ (MS) is difference between
measurement and simulation]

The first part of the sum represents the thermal emission

from a surface with temperature Ts (K). The second part is
the non-absorbed (thus reflected) fraction of the incident
long-wave radiation, which is dominated by the atmospheric
radiation A in first approximation. The surface temperature
can be initially estimated using air temperature and subsequently calculated (Oke 1987) via:
Ts Ta

QB



6:2 4:26  vwind  1 B1O

13

with the net all-wave radiation flux density Q, the soil flux
B=0.19 Q if Q>0 and 0.32 Q if Q<0, the wind velocity
vwind and the Bowen ratio Bo. Since Q ak G A
E
incorporates E, both values E and Ts can be calculated
iteratively with Eqs. 12 and 13. All energy flux densities
are given in W m2.

In the following comparison, we used the fish-eye model

since it is much easier to insert despite being the more
complex means of estimating Tmrt.
Comparison of global radiation
Figure 3 presents the measured and simulated global
radiation for four days in July 2006 (1619) in Freiburg.
The measured data are taken from the urban meteorological
station Freiburg (Matzarakis and Mayer 2008) located on
the roof of a tall building at 52 m a.g.l. in the northern part
of the city of Freiburg. The simulated values for global
radiation shown in Fig. 3 fit the measured values very well.
Usually, the differences between modelled and measured
global radiation range from 20 to +20 W/m2 during
sunshine hours and can be explained as an effect of
turbidity. Thus, for the estimation of Tmrt, it is important
to know the turbidity conditions. The differences increase

Results
70

Validation of the model

RayMan has been tested in different environments, especially for studies with urban morphologies. It can be used
for a range of purposes. In the following section, two tests
of the RayMan model on different data sets are outlined.
The surroundings can be modelled basically in two
ways: (1) by importing fish-eye photographs, and (2) by
detailed description of obstacles such as buildings and trees
by their geometrical properties (see Matzarakis et al. 2007).
The vector model utilizes much more detailed information
of the surroundings, which all has to be determined and
declared.

Tmrt,sim (C)

60
50
under a tree canopy

40

y = 1.2x - 7.7
r = 0.96

30

open space

y = 1.06x - 6.2
r = 0.95

20
10
10

20

30

40
Tmrt,meas (C)

50

60

70

Fig. 6 Correlation between measured and simulated Tmrt values for

the sites described in Fig. 4

Int J Biometeorol (2010) 54:131139

to more than 20 W/m2 (modelled) in the afternoon when

clouds affect the measured global radiation. The one small
negative peak in the morning hours (about 10:30 CET) is a
result of the effect of the rope of the mast of the station.
Measured and modelled mean radiant temperature
in urban areas
The accuracy of simulations of the mean radiant temperature Tmrt was tested over a period of 3 days in July 2006.
The experimentally based determination of Tmrt used a
combination of a pyranometer and a pyrgeometer according
to Hppe (1993) and Matzarakis et al. (2007). Here,
measured and simulated Tmrt are compared in two different
environments. The fish-eye photos of the two points are
shown in Fig. 2. The first point is under the canopy of a
group of trees. Direct solar radiation, which can affect Tmrt,
passes the tree canopy only between 11.00 and 12.00 CET
(marked by the circle in Fig. 2). The second point is about
30 m away from the first point and is a semi-open location
surrounded by buildings and trees. This measurement
location is not affected by any obstacles between 8.00 and
17.00 CET. Thus, the comparison is better for time periods
with direct solar radiation. When the sun is very close to the
edges of obstacles (buildings), small error or variations by
the fish-eye pictures and exact time influence the results
exorbitantly. This leads to a pronounced scattering of data
points at the times mentioned. Figure 4 shows the daily
courses of the measured and simulated Tmrt under the tree
canopy; both patterns are similar. The mean difference
between measured and simulated Tmrt is less than 2C. For
the semi-open location (Fig. 5), the mean Tmrt difference
shows a similar behaviour, with lower differences during
times of high sun angle (between 10.00 and 15.00 CET
from 6.4 to 6.1) with the highest measured value of 69.2C.
The highest differences occur at low sun angles in the
morning and afternoon (8.3 to 7.9C). In general, the
coefficient of determination, r, between measured and
simulated Tmrt (Fig. 6) for the semi-open place is 0.95
[root mean square error (RMSE)=3.7 K] and for under the
tree r is 0.96 (RMSE=0.7 K).

Discussion and conclusion

Comparison of Tmrt between measurements carried out at two
locations in Freiburg (under trees and in semi-open space)
shows that the differences under the tree canopy are low on
average (less than 2C). Only at low sun angles are the
differences a little higher, particularly in the afternoon. This
indicates that reflected radiation from vertical surfaces is not
considered by the use of fish-eye photos. These effects
become even more evident in the semi-open location, where

137

differences during high sun angles are lower than in the late
morning hours, during which the differences are higher
(measured values are higher). This is because of the effect of
the buildings and trees in the northern part of the space,
which reflect radiation components. The additional reflection
of these buildings (based on fish-eye photos) cannot be
considered in the RayMan model, but these effects can be
considered by the importance of their geometrical properties.
On the one hand, short-wave radiation flux densities in
complex environments are highly influenced by the reflection of obstacles. These effects can be seen in the morning
hours and sometimes during midday in the semi-open space.
Thorsson et al. (2007) found similar effects in their
comparison. On the other hand, the simulated data for global
radiation and also for the Tmrt closely resemble the measured
data (for both simple and complex environments with
regards to global radiation properties).
Based on the comparison results it can be concluded that
the RayMan model (based on fish-eye photos and geometrical properties of the surroundings) is a suitable tool for the
simulation of radiation flux densities and Tmrt, which are
required for thermal comfort studies and related studies.
Another advantage of the model is the short running time in
comparison with other models. Note also that, in semi-open
locations, the differences between measured and simulated
Tmrt are lower if the surroundings are based on truly
geometrical properties.
The development of the RayMan model is not yet
complete. It is planned to continue the development of
RayMan, especially with regard to the import of computeraided design (CAD) files and digital atlas data, which will
allow a more straightforward calculation of the geometrical
properties of urban structures and obstacles.
In general, there is a strong demand for humanbiometeorological and urban climate models, not only in this
research area itself, but also from urban planners and architects.
The end users of the model obviously prefer easily understandable models that require only limited input data. RayMan
is available for general use under (http://www.urbanclimate.
net/rayman) and has an easy user-friendly interface.
Acknowledgements Thanks a million to RayMan users for their
suggestions and validations. Both represent the basis for further
development of the model.

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