Factors that Affect Normal Functioning

of the Older Persons

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Factors that Affect Normal Functioning of the Older Persons

1. DEMOGRAPHICS OF AGING
Shifting demographics have catalyzed new priorities, policies, and plans.6
Americans are living longer and staying healthy into their later years. The
expanding over-65 population reflects the increasing diversity of our society.
And older Americans live on both sides of an economic gapsome in
financial comfort and others on limited incomes. Consider these
demographic trends:
DEMOGRAPHICS
OF AGING
a) Longevity

The population worldwide is aging due to falling fertility

(fewer births per woman) and rising longevity (longer
lives).
Average life expectancy at birth rose from 47.3 in
1900 to 76.9 in 2000.
In a 2006 study, 80 to 90 percent of participants
age 65 to 75 and approximately 60 percent of those
over age 85 reported excellent or good health.7
The over-65 population numbered 35.9 million in
2003, an increase of 3.1 million (9.5 percent) since
1993. Among this population, 18.3 million people
were age 65 to 74, 12.9 million were 75 to 84, and
4.7 million were 85 and older.
The number of centenarians (age 100 and older)
has increased in the past several years, from about
37,000 in 1990 to more than 50,000 in 2000. About
80 percent of centenarians are women.
The over-65 population is projected to be twice as
large by 2030 as in 2000, growing from 35 million
to 72 million, or nearly 20 percent of the total
population.
The over-85 population is projected to increase
from 4.7 million in 2003 to 9.6 million in 2030.

b) Diversity

In 2003, 17.6 percent of the over-65 population was

African American, of Hispanic origin, or Asian or Pacific
Islander. This percentage is expected to increase to 26.4
percent in 2030:
African-Americansfrom 8.2 percent to 10 percent.
Hispanic origin (of any race)from 5.7 percent to
11 percent.
Asian or Pacific Islanderfrom 2.8 percent to 5
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percent.
In 2000, 13 percent of the over-65 population spoke a
language other than English at home; among them, more
than one-third spoke Spanish.
c) Income

Statistics on the current and projected wealth of older

Americans indicate a continuing chasm between the
haves and the have nots:
The median income of people over 65 in 2003 was
$20,363 for males and $11,845 for females. For
one-third of Americans over 65, social security
benefits constitute 90 percent of their income.
Households maintained by people over 65 have a
higher net worth ($108,885 in 2000) than all other
households, except for those maintained by people
in the 55-to-64 age group.
People age 50 and older control more than 50
percent of the total U.S. discretionary income.
The estimated annual spending power of baby
boomers (born between 1946 and 1964) is more
than $2 trillion. Each household spends about
$45,000 a year.

d) Education

Older adults are better educated than they were in the

past, and this trend is expected to continue:
In 1950, 17 percent of the over-65 population had
graduated from high school, and 3 percent had at
least a bachelors degree. By 2003, 72 percent
were high school graduates and 17 percent had at
least a bachelors degree.
The future older population is likely to be even
better educated, especially when baby boomers
start reaching 65. Increased education levels may
lead to better health, higher incomes, and more
wealth, and consequently higher standards of living
in retirement.

e) Retirement

People now in their 50s are predicted to work longer than

members of prior generations.
In 2012, more than 60 percent of men age 60 to 64 are
projected to be in the workforce, up from about 54
percent in 1992.
A 2005 study revealed that more than threequarters of baby boomers expect to keep working
past age 65, in part to increase their retirement
income but also because they know they will live
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longer.

2. THEORIES OF AGING

THEORIES OF
AGING
1. BIOLOGICAL
THEORIES

FATE Internal (Nonstochastic)

Program theories of aging (Genetic)
Genetically programmed events cause cellular damage
that accelerates aging of the organism
CHANCE External (Stochastic)
Error Theories (Environmental)
Random events cause cellular damage that accumulates
as organism ages

2. PROGRAMMED
THEORIES

Programmed Longevity
- Genetic clock (Hayflick limit)
- Human genome
Neuroendocrine & Neurochemical Theories
Immunological/ Autoimmune Theory
- Changes in immune function with aging
- Diminishing
function

of

thymus,

impaired

immunologic

b. ERROR THEORIES
Cross-Linking Theory

- Loss of flexibility, diminished functional motility

Wear & Tear Theory

- Effects of stress
-

Stress

causes

structural

&

chemical

changes
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resulting in irreversible tissue damage

Free Radical Theory

- Oxygen radicals, antioxidants
- Lipofuscin
- Nutrition theory

Somatic Mutation (DNA Damage) Theory

Radiation Theories
- Decreased function & efficiency of cells & organs
- Solar elastosis old age type of skin wrinkling

3. PSYCHOLOGICAL
THEORIES

- Disengagement theory
- Activity theory
- Continuity theory
- Developmental tasks
- Erik Erikson

2. SOCIOLOGICAL
THEORIES

Social & Psychological Models: Dynamic interplay

betweens gains & losses
Disengagement Theory
- As individuals age, they inevitably withdraw
from society
- Society withdraws from them
- Separation mutually agreed upon
Activity Theory
- Continue
existence of old age

middle-age

- Life satisfaction:
interests, hobbies, roles, and
relationships
- Volunteering:
connected to community

one

lifestyle;

involvement

way

deny

in

new

retirees

stay

Continuity Theory
- Values & personality
- Goals & individual characteristics
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- Psychological patterns
- Successful adaptive strategies
- Values, morals, & behaviors

3. SPIRITUAL
THEORIES

C. SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS OF AGING

Socioeconomic status (SES) is often measured as a combination of education,
income and occupation. It is commonly conceptualized as the social standing or
class of an individual or group. When viewed through a social class lens, privilege,
power and control are emphasized. Furthermore, an examination of SES as a
gradient or continuous variable reveals inequities in access to and distribution of
resources. SES is relevant to all realms of behavioral and social science, including
research, practice, education and advocacy.
SES Affects Our Society
SES affects overall human functioning, including our physical and mental health.
Its effects can be observed across the life span. Variance in socioeconomic status
such as disparities in the distribution of wealth, income and access to resources
mitigate social problems that ultimately affect everyone.
1. Retirement and Income
The majority of older adults do not work and/or have fewer options for
continued income. They are at risk for rising costs of living, which may place
them at an economic disadvantage and potentially at lower levels of SES.
About 86 percent of older adults with income receive Social Security
income (U.S. Census Bureau, 2006). For 21 percent of these older
adults, Social Security is their sole source of income (Social Security
Administration, 2006).
By 2030, it is projected that 25 percent of older persons will be from
ethnic minority groups. Up to 23 percent of older African Americans
and 19 percent of older Hispanics live in poverty (Fleck, 2008)
compared with the estimated 8.9 percent older White Americans
who live in poverty (American Psychological Association Task Force
on Socioeconomic Status, 2006).

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Regardless of race, older women are more likely to be poor. Recent

data reveal that women age 65 and older are nearly twice as likely
to be poor compared to older men (Lee & Shaw, 2008).
Older individuals in the highest wealth decile can attribute the
majority of their wealth to pensions, housing and other assets,
which are generally absent among those of lower SES (Butrica,
Toder, & Toohey, 2008).

2. Health and Economic Status

Recent studies indicate that the quality of care afforded to older adults with
medical conditions is substandard (Wenger et al., 2004). Furthermore, older
adults who work are less likely to maintain employment as their health
declines.
About one in 10 persons age 50 and older who report that a
disability has reduced or eliminated their ability to work are assisted
by Social Security Disability Insurance (Fleck, 2008).
In 2002, 20 percent of health care costs for persons 65 years and
older were not covered by Medicare, the federal program for older
adults and/or disabled persons who qualify for Social Security (APA,
2005).
Older individuals of lower SES have increased mortality rates
(Bassuk, Berkman, & Amick, 2002), higher stroke incidence
(Avendano, et al., 2006), higher incidence of progressive chronic
kidney disease (Merkin et al., 2007), lower health-related quality of
life (Huguet, Kaplan, & Feeny, 2008), smaller social networks and
lower quality of social relations.
Older individuals of lower SES have been found to be exposed to
substandard prescription practices, such as receiving excessive
amounts of prescription drugs for the same ailment and being
prescribed combinations of drugs that may lead to potentially
harmful interactions (Odubanjo, Bennett, and Feely, 2004).
3. Psychological Health and Well-Being
SES has been found to affect the psychological health of aging individuals.
Poverty is considered a risk factor for declines in mental health among older
people. Those at the lower levels of socioeconomic status are often most
likely to be afflicted with a psychological disorder.
Of older adults, 20-25 percent may meet criteria for some form of
psychological disorder (Administration on Aging, 2001). An
estimated 15 million older adults will experience mental health
problems by the year 2030 (APA, 2004).
Older persons with less than a high school education are at greater
risk for depression (APA, 2003).
Low educational achievement has consistently been associated with
a higher incidence of Alzheimers disease later in life. Blue collar
work has also been associated with Alzheimers and dementia.
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(Fratiglioni, Winblad, & von Strauss, 2007; Karp et al., 2004;

Fratiglioni & Rocca, 2001).
Although good social networks have been shown to buffer stress
(Krause, 2001), older persons living in poor neighborhoods are more
likely to have underdeveloped (Feldman & Steptoe, 2004) and
poorly integrated social networks (Black & Rubinstein, 2000).

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