Introductory Power Plant Operation

Training Course

CONTENTS
1.

INTRODUCTION

2.

BASIC CYCLE

3.

FUEL SYSTEMS
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4

4.

COMBUSTION
4.1
4.2
4.3

5.

Condensing Plant
Feed heating
High pressure and low pressure feed heaters
Direct contact feed heaters

COOLING WATER SYSTEMS

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5

8.

The atom
Nuclear fission
Control of the nuclear reaction
Fast and thermal neutrons

FEED WATER SYSTEMS

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4

7.

Composition of fuels
The combustion process
Products of combustion

NUCLEAR GENERATION OF HEAT

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4

6.

Coal fired boilers

Oil fired boilers
Gas fired boilers
Nuclear fuel systems

River or open cooling systems

Cooling tower or closed systems
Circulating water pumps
Screening plant
Cooling towers

GENERATORS
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4

Magnets
The single loop generator
Direct and alternating current
Excitation

9.

ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4

Transformers
Switchgear
Grid system and distribution
Protection

Fig.2A
Fig 2B
Fig. 3.1A
Fig. 3.IB
Fig. 3.4
Fig. 4.3
Fig. 5.1
Fig. 5,. 2
Fig. 6.1
Fig. 6.2A
Fig. 6.2B
Fig. 6.3A
Fig. 6.3B
Fig. 6.3C
Fig. 7A
Fig. 7B
Fig. 7.2
Fig. 7.3
Fig. 8.1
Fig. 8.2A
Fig. 8.2B
Fig. 8.2C
Fig. 8.2D
Fig. 8.2E
Fig. 8.2F
Fig. 9

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Block diagram of basic power cycle
Basic power cycle
Illustration of P.F. tube mill
Tilting corner burner box
Schematic arrangement of pressurized water reactor
Relationship between CO2 and O2 for combustion of coal
Simplified structure of an atom
Fission of a nucleus
Pressure volume diagram showing a simple steam cycle
Simple power plant
Simple regenerative cycle with one feed heater
Simple regenerative cycle with two feed heaters
Typical high pressure feed heater
Simplified feed water flow diagram for Castle Peak 350 MW turbine
Syphonic system
Cooling tower system
C.W. pump arrangement
Cooling water drum screen
Lines of magnetic force round a bar magnet
Single loop generator
Single loop generator
Relationship between voltage and position of coil in a single loop generator
Two phase generator
Three phase generator
Three phase voltage generation
Station electrical distribution system for a 500 MW coal fired unit

Introductory Power Plant Operation Training Course

Lesson 2
Introduction To Power Plant
1

INTRODUCTION
This lesson concentrates on showing how power plant functions. it starts with the
basic requirements necessary to generate electricity and proceeds to add some of the
refinements adopted on modern plant.
The basic cycle of power plant operation is usually one of converting raw materials
(e.g. coal, oil, gas etc.) into heat energy by combustion, this heat energy is used to
evaporate water so producing steam. The steam is then used to produce mechanical
energy in the turbine which in turn is converted to electrical energy in the generator.
BASIC CYCLE
The ultimate aim of the Power Plant Designer is to produce the maximum amount of
electrical energy from raw materials at a minimum cost. In all power stations,
electrical energy is produced by the conversion of mechanical energy in a generator.
A block diagram of the basic cycle is shown in Figure 2A. In this cycle and in all
steam engines and turbines there are three fundamental essentials
(i)
The SOURCE OF HEAT is the FUEL. This fuel is consumed in the furnace
of the boiler or the nuclear reactor and supplies heat to the water so changing
the water into water vapor or steam.
(ii)
The WORKING AGENT which is usually WATER. This changes state as it
passes round the plant and may be superheated steam, wet steam or water,
depending on the section of the plant in which it happens to be.
(iii)
The HEAT SINK into which the heat from the engine exhaust steam is
rejected. This may be the atmosphere but in all modern power station plant,
the heat sink is the condenser in which the heat is carried away by cooling
water.

The above fundamentals are illustrated in Figure 2B. It will be seen later in the lesson
that modern power plant is much refined from this basic, cycle. Refinements such as
superheating and reheating of steam and the use of feed heaters result in a better
performance of the plant in terms of electricity produced from a given amount of fuel.
In a nuclear power plant, the heat source is the NUCLEAR REACTOR. In gas cooled
reactors the heat is taken away from the reactor by the circulation of gas and this gas
in turn supplies heat to a boiler. In water cooled reactors, water is used as the heat
transfer medium.
MECHANICAL
ENERGY

BOILER

ELECTRICAL
ENERGY

STEAM

WATER

TURBINE
GENERATOR

FUEL

GRID SYSTEM

WASTE GASES
EXHAUST STEAM

FIG.2A BLOCK DIAGRAM OF BASIC POWER CYCLE

ELECTRICAL ENERGY
STEAM
HEATING
SURFACE

HEAT SOURCE

MECHANICAL
ENERGY
BOILER

TURBINE
STEAM/WATER
CIRCUIT

GENERATOR

CONDENSER
WARM WATER
HEAT SINK
FEED PUMP
COOLING
SURFACE

FIG. 2B BASIC POWER CYCLE

COOLING WATER
CIRCUIT
COLD WATER

FUEL SYSTEMS
b3.1 Coal fired boilers
Coal firing is the major method of producing heat in power stations. Prior to
1950, the majority of the coal fired boilers had moving grates on which the
coal was burnt. This type of firing limited the size of boiler which could be
constructed to around 250,000 pounds of steam per hour and so alternative
methods of firing the coal were developed.
The general method of coal firing on large boilers is by pulverized fuel (p.f.)
firing. With this method the coal is fed into a MILL where it is ground to a
fine powder. This powder is then blown into the boiler furnace where
combustion takes place, the p.f. being burned almost as if it were a gas.
There are several types of Coal Mill used for grinding and they operate in
various ways, by impact, abrasion, attrition or by crushing. The types of mill
will be discussed in more detail in Lesson 6 but shown in Figure 3.1A is a tube
ball mill which consists of a large diameter shell containing a charge of steel
balls usually about 1.5 ins. (40mm) diameter. The shell rotates at a speed of 17
rev/min and the tumbling action of the balls pulverizes the coal which is fed in
through the Raw Coal Chutes.
The powdered coal is blown out of the mill by hot air which also serves to dry
the fuel during pulverization. This air is known as PRIMARY AIR. The
coal/air mixture enters the boiler furnace through burners where it is ignited. A
Burner Box for a Corner-Fired Boiler is shown in Figure 3.IB.
In the burner the coal/primary air is mixed with SECONDARY AIR which is
bbnecessary to ensure complete burning of the coal.
It is usual to have several mills on each boiler unit. A 500 MW boiler
consumes about 200 ton of coal per hour and may have up to eight mills.
When a boiler is started up the powdered coal is ignited by means of oil
burners. Once the flame is established and there is sufficient heat in the
furnace, the p.f. flame becomes self-igniting and the oil burners can be
dispensed with. The oil burners are then only required to light-up more p.f.
burners or when shutting down a p.f. burner, in order to maintain flame
stability.

1.
2.

SELF TEST QUESTIONS

What are the functions of Primary Air and Secondary Air?
Why are oil burners fitted on p.f. boilers?

FIG.
3.1 A
ILLU
STRA
TION
OF
P.F.
TUBE
MILL

RIB
BON
CON
VEY
OR

LINWEHOT GRI
MIL BAR CLA
SPU
AIR D
L RIN SSIF
RERSDGE
TUBTYP
DRI G
IER
RIN BAR
VIN GEA G S E
E
G R
GEA
AIR
MO
R
STR
TOR
AIN
ER

PRIMAR
P.F. PRI
OUT
Y AIR
MA
LET
COALRY
PIPE
P.F AIR
AIR
MIXTUR
S DUC
E
T

PRIMAR
RA
RA
WW
Y
AIR
COA
DUCT
LL
CHU
TE
TE

FLANGE CONNECTION TO
SECONDARY AIR DUCT
FLANGE CONNECTION TO
PULVERIZED FUEL PIPE

TOP SECONDARY AIR

NOZZLE

P.F. BURNER NOZZLE

AUTOMATIC LIGHTING UP
AND LIGHT LOAD
CARRYING, BURNERS

SECONDARY AIR NOZZLE

AUTOMATIC LIGHTINGUP AND LIGHT LOADCARRYING OIL BURNER

(IN RETRACTED POSITION)
SECONDARY AIR NOZZLE

P.F. BURNER NOZZLE

FLANGE CONNECTION TO
PULVERIZED FUEL PIPE
FLANGE CONNECTION TO
PULVERIZED FUEL PIPE

SECONDARY AIR NOZZLE

P.F. BURNER NOZZLE

SECONDARY AIR NOZZLE

BURNER TILTING GEAR FOR

SUPERHEAT CONTROL

AUTOMATIC LIGHTINGUP and light load CARRYING OIL BURNER

(IN FIRING POSITION )
SECONDARY AIR NOZZLE

P.F. BURNER NOZZLE

FLANGE CONNECTION TO
PULVERIZED FUEL PIPE

BOTTOM SECONDARY AIR

NOZZLE

FIG.3.1 B TILTING CORNER BURNER BOX

3.2

Oil fired boilers

Fuel oil has two uses in boiler plant. The first use is as the sole fuel for
supplying the boiler.
The second use of fuel oil is for lighting-up and light load carrying on
pulverized fuel fired boilers.
Fuel oils are classed according to their 'reluctance' to flow. This property is
known as VISCOSITY; a thick oil having a high viscosity and a thin oil
having a low viscosity.
The viscosity of an oil varies with temperature. It is measured by the length of
time taken for a sample of oil to flow through a standard size orifice when
compared with water flowing through the same orifice. For viscosity purposes,
the fluid being tested is maintained at a temperature of 100F, the unit of
measurement being seconds Redwood No. 1.
Modern oil fired boilers burn oil with a viscosity of 6,000 seconds whilst most
p.f. fired boilers use 900 seconds oil for lighting-up. For comparison, Diesel
Oil has a viscosity of 35 seconds.
Boiler fuel oils are too viscous or thick at ordinary temperatures to flow easily
to the burner or to be converted into the fine spray necessary to obtain good
mixing with the air and hence good combustion. Consequently the oils must
be heated to the correct temperature for efficient firing to take place.
The heating of the fuel is usually carried out in two stages. Firstly the oil is
heated in the Storage Tank so that it may be handled by the pump, and
secondly in a Heating Unit to a higher temperature suitable for atomization in
the burner.
The process of ATOMIZATION is necessary because fuel oils will not burn in
bulk. Oil is atomized by applying a force to it so that it is first set in motion to
emerge from the burner as a thin film. This film is then broken up into a fine
spray by the oil pressure or by increasing the centrifugal force.
The methods used for atomization of oil are by:(a)
Oil pressure alone.

1
2
3.

(b)
By a steam jet.
(c)
Air pressure or mechanical means (Rotating Cup).
Of all the methods the oil pressure atomizer is the most common and burner
capacities up to 4 ton per hour are in use.
Initial ignition of the fuel oil in the furnace is by an electric spark or by
electric spark/gas system.
SELF TEST QUESTIONS
What is meant by Viscosity of an oil?
Why must the oil be heated before firing?
Why does the oil have to be atomized before burning?
3.3
Gas fired boiler
With the discovery of supplies of Natural Gas, the use of gas fired boilers in
power stations may be developed.
It has been estimated that a 30 in. diameter (760 mm) main would be required
to supply the needs of a 2,000 MW power station.
Natural gas consists mainly of methane and can be used in Dual Fired Boilers,
i.e. coal/gas or oil/gas. The system used in Gas Burning Plant is to reduce the
Gas Supply pressure and to control the amount of gas supplied to the boiler by
Control Valves. Ignition of the gas is by electric spark.
3.4
Nuclear fuel systems
The fuel used in a nuclear power station is Uranium. Natural Uranium is a
mixture of the following isotopes:Uranium 238 - 99.274 per cent
Uranium 235 - 0.720 per cent
Uranium 234 - 0.006 per cent.
For the purposes of heat production it is only the U235 which takes part in
nuclear fission and this U235 constitutes only 1/140 part of the metal
In gas cooled reactors, the metallic uranium or oxide fuel is loaded into a
graphite core and produces heat. The exact process of heat production need not
be described here. The heat produced is removed from the reactor by the
circulation of carbon dioxide gas which is circulated through the core by gas
blowers. In passing through the reactor the gas is heated and then flows
through the boiler sections of the plant where it gives up its heat in
evaporating water in exactly the same way as in conventional plant. The
cooled gas is then re-circulated through the reactor.
There may be up to eight boilers to each reactor and each boiler contains the
CO2 gas. The gas flows over multi-loop tube elements which contain the
water/steam system.
Gas cooled reactors are largely confined to the U.K. and France. Water cooled
reactors are the most common types of reactor now being built and operated.
These are divided into PRESSURIZED WATER REACTORS (PWRs) and
BOILING WATER REACTORS (BWRs). In these reactors, ordinary water
replaces the graphite and carbon dioxide used in the gas cooled reactor.
Fig. 3.4 shows a simple diagram of a PWR. The fuel, uranium oxide, is in the
form of pellets which are inserted into stainless steel or zirconium tubes.
These fuel rods, or elements, are mounted vertically and parallel to each other
in the reactor core. Control rods, which control the rate of the nuclear process
can be moved in and out between the fuel elements. The remaining space is
filled by water, and the entire core is surrounded by the reactor vessel, about
20 feet in diameter and 45 feet high, weighing several hundred tons. The water
in the pressure vessel circuit (the primary circuit) is kept pressurized so that it

does not turn into steam when it gets hot. It transfers its heat to another water
circuit (the secondary circuit) in a heat exchanger, sometimes called a steam
generator. The steam generator is really a boiler, in which steam is produced to
drive a turbine in the conventional manner. The rest of the secondary circuit
consists of a condenser and feed system which returned water to the steam
generator in the normal manner.
In BWRs, the heat exchanger is omitted. Boiling actually takes place in the
reactor itself, and the resulting steam is passed to the turbine. Hence only one
water circuit is used, as with an oil or coal fired boiler. However, this system
has the disadvantage that the turbine becomes slightly radioactive, which
complicates operation and maintenance procedures in this area.

STEAM TO
TURBINE
PRESSURIZER
SEPARATORS
CONTROL AND
SAFETY RODS

U-TUBE
BUNDLE

PUMP
FEEDWATER

CORE
REACTOR
VESSEL
CORE
SUPPORT
STRUCTURE

COOLANT PUMP

CONCRETE & STEEL CONTAINMENT

EMERGENCY COOLING SUPPY

FIG. 3.4 SCHEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF A PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR

SELF TEST QUESTIONS
1.
What part does the carbon dioxide gas play in the gas cooled reactor?
2.
What is the major difference between the gas cooled and the P.W.R. nuclear power
plants?

COMBUSTION
For engineering purposes heat is produced as required by the combustion or
burning of some material known as a fuel. It is essential from an economic
point of view that the maximum amount of heat be obtained from any fuel
burned.
Most fuels used in industry contain the chemical elements carbon, hydrogen
and sulphur. The fuels used to fire power station boilers, namely coal, oil or
gas, contain these elements in different proportions. The combustible
elements, that is the carbon, hydrogen and sulphur, combine with oxygen
during burning. The amount of heat produced during this combination or
burning process, is known as the CALORIFIC VALUE of the fuel. This
calorific value (C.V.) may be obtained experimentally or may be calculated
from the chemical analysis of the fuel, the C.V. is then expressed as the
quantity of heat which can be obtained from a given weight of fuel. The
theoretical amount of oxygen required for burning of the fuel may also be
calculated from the chemical analysis.
4.1
Composition of fuels
The following are typical chemical analyses of fuels used in power station
10

boilers. These analyses may be checked by the Station Chemist but with coal,
only the calorific value, ash and moisture are normally the subject of routine
tests. The full analyses of coal and oil given below (known as the ULTIMATE
ANALYSES) are less frequently made. The analyses of coal and oil are given
as a percentage of weight whilst the analysis of gas is given as a percentage of
volume.
Coal
Heavy Fuel Oil
Carbon
59.0%
Carbon
84.4%
Hydrogen
Sulphur
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Ash
Moisture

3.8%
1.6%
7.4%
1.2%
16.0%
11.0%
100.0%

Hydrogen
Sulphur
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Ash
Moisture

Calorific Value
10,420 Btu/lb

Calorific Value
18,600 Btu/lb

Natural gas is mainly composed of a number

for these are:( Methane
( Ethane
Hydrocarbons
( Propane
( Butane
( Pentane
Hydrogen Sulphide
Carbon Dioxide
Nitrogen

4.2

11.5%
3.0%
0.2%
0.3%
0.1%
0.5%
100.0%

of HYDROCARBONS. Typical figures

CH4
C2H6
C3H8
C4H10
C5H12
H2S
CO2
N2

93.3%
3.3%
0.7%
0.2%
0.5%
0.3%
1.7%
100.0%

Calorific Value
22,840 Btu/lb
1,048 Btu/ft3
at atmosphere pressure
and 60F temperature
NOTE: - The volume of a gas varies with temperature and pressure and when
defining the calorific value of a gas by volume the pressure and temperature
must be stated.
The combustion process
A combustible may be defined as a substance which is capable of combining
with oxygen to produce heat. The speed at which combustion takes place
depends on the particular attraction of the combustible for oxygen. This speed
may vary from the very slow, as in the rusting of iron to the very fast, as in the
explosion of gunpowder.
In boiler plant the oxygen requirements for burning the fuel are met by using
air from the boiler house. Air contains 23.2% of oxygen by weight, the
remainder being chiefly nitrogen which takes no part in the combustion
process and in fact is a direct source of heat loss, this loss occurs since the

11

4.3

nitrogen enters the boiler via the Forced Draught Fan at boiler house
temperature, say 30C, while the flue gases leave the boiler at a much higher
temperature, say 120C. This means that the nitrogen which as stated above is
only a 'Passenger' carries off heat to the chimney. In the same way if more air
were supplied than was necessary to completely burn the fuel this air also acts
as a passenger and increases the loss of heat from the boiler.
It is an essential of boiler operation that the loss of heat in the gases
discharged to the chimney is kept as low as possible consistent with
completely burning the fuel. In modern plant this loss accounts for
approximately 4.5 per cent of the total heat input to the boiler which is
equivalent to a loss of 9 tons of coal per hour on a 500 MW boiler unit.
The general requirements for the efficient burning of fuels may be
summarized as follows
1.
The supply of oxygen must be sufficient to assure complete burning
of the fuel.
2.
Complete burning of the fuel is not in itself efficient combustion.
Sufficient oxygen must be admitted, but if too much is supplied, then
dilution of the products of combustion will result. The quantity of air
supplied above the theoretical quantity necessary to completely burn
the fuel is known as EXCESS AIR.
3.
The air supply should be admitted at the proper time and in such a
way that the air comes into contact with the fuel and is maintained in
contact for sufficient time to permit combustion to be completed.
4.
The temperature of the fuel must be raised to and maintained above
its ignition temperature until combustion is completed.
5.
If the air enters the furnace at the opposite end from the fuel then the
prospects of the particles of fuel mixing with the required quantity of
air is remote. The more intimately the air and fuel are mixed in the
furnace, the greater is the probability that contact will occur. For this
reason the burners are designed to ensure adequate turbulence.
Items 3, 4 and 5 are known as the three Ts of combustion and may be stated
simply as Time, Temperature and Turbulence.
Products of combustion
The combustion of oxygen with the chemical elements of a fuel is in
accordance with fixed laws.

12

Carbon may enter into combination with oxygen to form either of two gases
carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide. In burning to carbon monoxide the
carbon will not produce its full amount of heat and combustion will be
incomplete. This situation may occur if the air supply is inadequate and must
be avoided in boiler operation.
If the air supply is adequate and the Three Ts of combustion are met then the
carbon will burn to produce carbon dioxide and thus releases its full quantity
of heat.
The hydrogen in the fuel burns to produce water vapor and the sulphur burns
to produce sulphur dioxide.
The percentage of carbon dioxide in the flue gases, given the theoretical
quantity of air, may be calculated from the fuel analysis. Using the analysis
given in Section 4.1 the maximum quantity of carbon dioxide in the flue gases
will be:Coal Firing
18.1%
Fuel Oil
15.8%
Gas
12.0%
Use of excess air lowers the CO2 in the flue gases by diluting the products of
combustion and, therefore, the reading given by the CO 2 instrument is a
measure of the quantity of excess air being used. The actual quantity of excess
air necessary is a matter of compromise between diluting the gases, and
thereby losing heat to the chimney, or not completely burning the fuel. The
quantity of excess air being supplied may be estimated using the following
formula: Maximum Theoretical CO2 - Actual CO2
Actual CO2

% Excess Air =
x 100
On many boiler plants the CO 2 meter has been replaced by an instrument
measuring the oxygen in the flue gas. This instrument gives a better guide to
the efficiency of combustion.
The relationship between CO2 and O2 can be calculated for any fuel whose
chemical analysis is known. Figure 4.3 gives a graph for such a relationship
when burning a coal of analysis given in 4.1.

13

FIG. 4.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CO2 AND O2 FOR COMBUSTION OF COAL

1.
2.
3.
4.

SELF TEST QUESTIONS

What is meant by excess air?
Why is the burning of carbon to carbon monoxide inefficient?
Using Figure 4.3, what is the % excess air if the CO 2 is 14%? What is the % CO 2 if
the Oxygen (O2) is 6%?
What are the "Three Ts" of combustion? Why are they important?

14

NUCLEAR GENERATION OF HEAT

5.1
The atom
The atom may be described as the smallest quantity of a chemical element
which can exhibit the properties of the element when taking part in a chemical
reaction. It is very small indeed, having a diameter of the order of a hundred
millionth of a centimeter.
Each atom consists of a NUCLEUS which is in turn made up of PROTONS
and NEUTRONS. Revolving round the nucleus are ELECTRONS. A
simplified structure of an atom is shown in Figure 5.1.

ELECTRON
NEUTRONS
PROTONS

NUCLEUS

FIG 5.1 SIMPLIFIED STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

Every chemical element has a certain number of protons and neutrons in its
atom, e.g.
Uranium 238 has 92 protons and 146 neutrons.

15

5.2

Nuclear fission
In 1939, scientists discovered that when the nucleus of a U235 atom was hit
by a neutron, two elements, Krypton and Beryllium were formed and a
quantity of energy was released. In addition, two or three neutrons were
released from the nucleus. This phenomenon is known as FISSION.
The most significant fact arising from this, apart from the release of energy, is
that one neutron hitting the nucleus of an atom provides a source of two or
three neutrons which in turn may cause fission reactions in other nuclei. This
is known as a CHAIN REACTION.
When such a reaction is controlled, a steady release of heat energy occurs. The
fission of a nucleus is illustrated in Figure 5.2.
RADIATIONS
ENERGY
RELEASE

U235
NUCLEUS
TWO OR
THREE
NEUTRONS
EJECTED

NEUTRON

FIG. 5.2 FISSION OF A NUCLEUS

16

5.3

5.4

Control of the nuclear reaction

To produce a continuous supply of energy from a nuclear fuel such as uranium
it is necessary to ensure that there are always neutrons present to cause further
reactions.
In conventional boiler plant, the production of heat is initiated by lighting the
fuel which starts the combustion process. In a nuclear reactor the starting of
the chain reaction for the production of heat depends on the presence of a
thermal neutron which is able to produce a fission reaction capable of being
maintained. A chain reaction can only take place when there is a certain
minimum amount of fuel in the reactor core. This minimum quantity is called
the CRITICAL SIZE. Once this quantity is placed in the core free neutrons are
available to start the chain reaction.
If it is required to stop the chain reaction once the critical size has been
attained CONTROL RODS must be lowered into the core. These rods which
are made from Boron absorb neutrons and thus slow down or stop the chain
reaction.
Fast and thermal neutrons
As mentioned in 5.3 above, the minimum quantity of fuel required to maintain
the chain reaction is called the critical size, but even a whole mountain of
natural uranium could not maintain a chain reaction. It is sufficient at this
stage of the course to say that the reason for this is that the vast majority of all
the nuclei contained in a block of uranium are U238 nuclei which when hit by
a neutron do not suffer fission but capture the neutron. This means that the
U238 nuclei act as a kind of fire extinguisher by capturing the fission born
neutrons and suppressing the chain reaction. The energy of the neutrons
emitted from the fission products of U235 have a speed of some millions of
miles per hour, and these are known as FAST NEUTRONS. Fairly fast
neutrons cause fission in U235 but are absorbed in the large mass of U238.
Fortunately slower or THERMAL neutrons cause a chain reaction in U235 and
the absorption of thermal neutrons by U238 is very low. Thus reactors have
been developed to produce thermal neutrons which saves the very expensive
cost of separation to produce pure U235 fuel. The slowing down of the
neutrons is achieved by use of a MODERATOR. The moderator material is
such that its density allows the neutron to pass through it with difficulty so
causing it to slow down.
In the Gas Cooled Reactors the moderator is graphite. This graphite is in the
form of blocks with channels bored out to contain the fuel elements in such a
way that the gas can circulate between the fuel elements and the core. Another
moderator which can be used is water, as in Pressurized Water Reactors, or in
Boiling Water Reactors.
SELF TEST QUESTIONS

1.
2.
3.

What is a chain reaction?

What purpose do the control rods serve in a nuclear reactor?
Why is a moderator used in a reactor?

17

6.

FEED WATER SYSTEMS

6.1
Condensing plant
A condenser is a vessel into which steam is exhausted and condensed instead
of being rejected to atmosphere. The principal object of the condenser is to
remove, as far as possible, the effect of atmospheric pressure on the turbine
exhaust, i.e. to produce a vacuum.
The condenser achieves this by receiving exhaust steam, which occupies a
large volume per pound, and condensing it to water. At a vacuum of 28 in. Hg
the reduction in volume due to condensing steam to water is about 20,000 to 1.
Provided that the condensed steam or CONDENSATE is pumped out and any
air is removed from the condenser then the vacuum will be maintained.
The reason for wanting a reduced pressure or vacuum in the condenser, is to
enable more heat to be obtained from the steam passing through the turbine
than would be obtained if the steam were exhausted to the atmosphere. This
point is very important in turbine operation and every effort should be made to
achieve the optimum condenser vacuum.

FIG. 6.1 PRESSURE VOLUME DIAGRAM SHOWING A SIMPLE STEAM CYCLE

18

The gains due to exhausting into a condenser at a high vacuum, against

exhausting to atmosphere, may be readily seen by reference to a PressureVolume diagram for a simple steam cycle. Such a diagram is shown in Figure
6.1.
The cycle considered is for steam supplied to the turbine at 900 lb.f/in 2 gauge
and 482C. Feed heating is not considered. Referring to the diagram:Condensate from the condenser at Point A is pumped into the boiler at
Point C.
Heat is supplied in the boiler and the water is brought up to boiling at
Point D. As more heat is added, steam is formed at Point E, this steam
is then superheated, from Point E to Point F, up to 482C. The steam is
then fed into the turbine where it does work on the blading and
expands down to a lower pressure. If the expansion is continued down
to a vacuum of, say 29 in. Hg, Point H is reached.
The amount of work obtained from each pound of steam is given by the area
A, C, F, H.
If, however, instead of expanding the steam down to 29 in. Hg, it is exhausted
to atmosphere, (i.e. at a pressure of 14.7 lb.f/in 2 or 0 in Hg vacuum) the cycle
is between the Points B, C, F, G.
From the diagram, it will be observed that the area B, C, F, G is much less than
the area A, C, F, H this means that much less work has been obtained from
each pound of steam supplied to the turbine. Study of the figure also shows the
effect of increasing the vacuum to obtain an increase in work done (or
machine output).
A further advantage of a condenser is that the condensate is very pure water
and is suitable for use in the boiler.
The most important type of condenser used in power stations is the SURFACE
CONDENSER. This type employs cold metallic surfaces which condense the
steam to water, the metallic surfaces are kept cool by COOLING WATER. The
condenser is designed so that the condensate and cooling water are kept
separate, because of this the cooling water need not be very clean. The cooling
water is in fact drawn from rivers, lakes or the sea.

19

6.2

Cooling water for the surface condenser is pumped through tubes which run
across the path of the steam flow. As the steam is condensed it falls to the
bottom of the condenser shell and is removed by the EXTRACTION PUMP.
In condensers it is impossible to prevent small quantities of air leaking into the
steam spaces. If this air were allowed to build up in the condenser, the vacuum
would fall. All condensing plant is provided with air extraction equipment
which draws the air out of the condenser and discharges it to the atmosphere.
Feed heating
The feed system comprises the section of plant through which the water passes
from the condenser to the boiler. A simple scheme is shown in Figure 6.2A. It
should be noted that an additional pump, the BOILER FEED PUMP is
required to pump the water into the boiler.
The boiler feed pump is one of the most important and certainly the most
powerful auxiliary in a power station. The pump is driven by electric motor,
steam turbine or direct from the turbine shaft.
Another important feature to note is the SURGE TANK. This is necessary
because the quantity of water being pumped by the extraction pump is seldom
exactly the same as that required by the boiler. To allow these variations to
take place in both directions without on the one hand flooding the condenser
and on the other starving the boiler, some form of storage tank must be
introduced. This tank is present in one form or another at every power station.
The simple scheme shown may be modified with advantage by the use Of
FEEDHEATING.
In the simple power plant shown in Figure 6.2A the steam enters the turbine,
does work in the machine and is then exhausted to the condenser. For each
pound of steam entering the turbine and thus the condenser, approximately
850 Btu is rejected to the cooling water. This rejection of heat accounts for the
major loss in the power plant cycle and amounts to something over 50 per cent
of the heat supplied to the steam.
If the cycle is now modified, as shown in Figure 6.2B, by the addition of a
feed heater, then for every pound of steam supplied to the turbine a fraction is
'Bled-Off' and used to heat up the feed water. If this bled steam quantity is

20

STEAM FROM BOLER

TURBINE

SURGE
TANK

CONDENSER

TO BOILER

BOILER
FEED
PUMP
EXTRACTION
PUMP

FIG. 6.2A SIMPLE POWER PLANT

represented by 'Y' of a pound, then the heat rejected to the condenser for every
pound of steam supplied to the turbine will be reduced to (1 - Y) x 850 Btu.
On the other hand, slightly more steam is required to maintain the same power
output from the machine, this particular fact may be readily observed in
practice by noting the increase in output of the turbine when feed heaters are
taken out of service.
The effect of feed heating can be illustrated in the following example:Consider a simple power plant (as in Figure 6.2A) supplied with steam
at 420 lb.f/in2 and 399C and exhausting to the condenser at a pressure
0.735 lb. f/in2 or 28.5 in. Hg vacuum. The condensate fed to the boiler
is at a temperature of 33C.
Assuming the stage efficiency of the turbine is 75% it can be shown
that the cycle efficiency is 28.18 per cent.

21

STEAM FROM BOLER

TURBINE

SURGE
TANK

CONDENSER
FEED
HEATER
TO BOILER

FEED PUMP
FIG. 6.2B SIMPLE REGENERATIVE CYCLE WITH ONE FEEDHEATER
If a direct contact type feed heater is fitted into the system and steam bled
from the turbine at a point where the pressure is 40.5 lb.f/in 2 and temperature
of 131C, it can be calculated that 0.154 lb. of steam is extracted for every
pound of steam entering the turbine. By bleeding steam the feed water heater
is heated from 33C to 268C, (i.e. the saturation temperature or boiling point
corresponding to the bled steam pressure).
It can be shown that the work lost by the bled steam between the tapping point
and the condenser is:30.1 Btu/lb
but the reduction in heat thrown away in the condenser which has been
utilized to heat up the feed water is:177.1 Btu/lb
The cycle thermal efficiency is now 29.88 per cent. Thus the thermal
efficiency has been increased from 28.18 to 29.88 per cent. The output of the
turbine has, however, been slightly reduced by bleeding off some of its steam.
If the turbine were initially producing 100 MW of electrical power its output
when bleeding steam would fall to 92.1 MW.
It can be shown that by increasing the number of STAGES of feed heating the
thermal efficiency of the cycle is further improved. As an illustration of the
benefits of feed heating consider a turbine with steam conditions 900 lb.f/in2
and 482C. the thermal efficiency without feed heaters is 41.2 per cent. By
using five stages of feed heating the efficiency is increased to 47.0 per cent
with the feed water supply to the boiler raised to a temperature of 196C.
This higher temperature of water entering the boiler reduces the amount of
fuel to be supplied.
6.3
High pressure and low pressure feed heaters
Figure 6.3A shows a scheme with two feed heaters. The terms high pressure
and low pressure will be noted. These refer to the position of the heater with
22

respect to the BOILER FEED PUMP. Heaters before the feed pump are known
as low pressure (L.P.). Heaters after the feed pump are known as high pressure
(H.P.).
STEAM FROM BOILER
TURBINE

SURGE
TANK

CONDENSER
HIGH
PRESSURE
HEATER
TO BOILER

LOW
PRESSURE
HEATER
EXTRACTION
PUMP

FEED PUMP

HEATER
DRAINS

FIG. 6.3A SIMPLE REGENERATIVE CYCLE WITH TWO FEEDHEATERS

23

6.4

High pressure heaters are much more expensive to manufacture because they
have to withstand the feed pump discharge pressure, up to 3,000 lb.f./in2 on
modern plant. A typical high pressure heater is shown in Figure 6.3B.
On some plants, a BOOSTER FEED PUMP is provided which discharges
water into the H.P. Heaters at a pressure of about 1/3 the full boiler feed
pressure. The main boiler feed pump is then arranged after the final stage
heater; this scheme results in lower cost feed heaters but more expensive feed
pumps.
The condensate and feed system for Castle Peak 'A' Station is shown in
simplified form in Figure 6.3C.
Direct contact feed heaters
The conventional heaters described above consist basically of a tube nest
through which the feed water flows, the bled steam flowing over the outside of
the tubes. This form of construction is expensive. Also the condensed bled
steam has to be passed to either the next lower feed heater or to the condenser.
With the direct contact (D.C.) Heater, the feed water and bled steam mix
together. Use of D.C. heaters gives good deaeration of the water and since no
tube nest
is necessary, is much cheaper to manufacture than the surface type; in
addition, the condensed bled steam mixes directly with the feed water and thus
is not passed back to either the condenser or lower stage feed heater. This
feature reduces the required size of the CONDENSER EXTRACTION PUMP
and also utilizes all the heat from the condensed bled steam.

24

RELIEF VALVE OUTLET

UPPER SECTION
OF SHELL

CONDENSING
SECTION

TUBE NEST

LOWER SECTION
OF SHELL

DRAIN COOLING
SECTION

DESUPERHEATING
SECTION

DRAINS OUTLET

BLED STEAM INLET

HEMISPHERICAL
HEADER

FEED WATER INLET

FEED WATER OUTLET

FIG. 6.3B TYPICAL HIGH PRESSURE FEEDHEATER

25

26

L.P.

10. Heater flash boxes1.Condenser5. Low pressure heaters

I.P.

9. High pressure heaters

FIG. 6.3C SIMPLIFIED FEED WATER FLOW DIAGRAM FOR CASTLE PEAK 350MW TURBINE

2.Gland steam condenser6. Deaerator

BOILER

H.P.

1.
2.
3.
4.

SELF TEST QUESTIONS

Why do we use a condenser instead of exhausting the steam to atmosphere?
What is the purpose of the surge tank in the feed system?
Why does the cycle efficiency improve by the use of feed heating?
Sketch the condensate and feed system of power station, showing arrangement of
feed heaters, feed p umps, deaerator etc.

27

7.

COOLING WATER SYSTEMS

As discussed in the previous section a considerable amount of the heat content in the
steam, which cannot be converted into mechanical energy in the turbine, must be
rejected to the cooling water in the condenser.
The cooling system is, therefore, a very important part of the plant, involving large
quantities of water; 48 million gallons per hour for a 2,000 MW power station.
Power stations may be divided into two main groups according to the cooling systems
used. The first group consists of riverside or seaside stations which have the
advantage of being able to draw on considerable supplies of cooling water. The
second group consists of inland stations where supplies of water are limited and
where the main bulk of water is recirculated after passing through Cooling Towers.
The two systems are shown in Figures 7A and 7B.
In some cases combinations of the two systems are used. This is where availability of
cooling water is widely variable.
7.1
River or open cooling systems
With this system water is pumped from the river (or the sea) and is returned to
the same source after passing through the condensers. As the water is returned
to the same level as it was originally taken from, the only pumping power
required is that to overcome the friction in the pipes and condenser tubes. This
system is known as a SYPHONIC SYSTEM.
7.2
Cooling tower or closed systems
In the closed system warm water from the condenser is passed through the
cooling tower where it is cooled by coming into contact with the atmosphere.
A disadvantage of this system is that pumping power is required to circulate
the cooling water through the condensers and up to the cooling tower spray
nozzles.
This type of system is used on all large modern inland stations due to the fact
that the rivers would be completely unable to support the cooling water
requirements of an open system.

28

SCREEN
HOUSE

TURBINE HOUSE

C.W.
PUMP
HOUSE

NORMAL
LEVEL
CONDENSER
TO CONDENSER

RIVER
RIVER
BED

COARSE
SCREEN
SECONDARY EXPANSION
SCREEN
JOINT

DISCHARGE
DUCT

DISCHARGED AT POINT
LOWER DOWN RIVER

NOTE-NO LIFT REQUIRED FROM PUMP

FIG. 7A RIVER SIDE SYSTEM

COOLING
TOWER
TURBINE HOUSE
STACK

SPRAYS

LIFT REQUIRED
FROM PUMP

CONDENSER

TO CONDENSER

POND

C.W. PUMP
FROM CONDENSER

FIG. 7B COOLING TOWER SYSTEM

29

7.3

7.4

Circulating water pumps

The trend on modern stations is to provide one pump for each generating set
but with means provided so that any combination of pump and generating unit
can be provided.
For a 500 MW unit, the C.W. requirements are 12 million gallons per hour. An
illustration of a pump of this rating is shown in Figure 7.2. This pump is used
on a closed circuit cooling system. The pump impeller is driven at through a
reduction gearbox by an electric motor.
The pump impeller is kept flooded with water at all times. In the pump shown,
the shaft is arranged vertically. Pumps with horizontal shafts are also
manufactured.
Screening plant
All water used for cooling, and particularly river water, contains considerable
quantities of debris such as, polythene, driftwood, leaves and so on. If this
debris were allowed to enter the station cooling system it would either damage
the pumps or block tubes in the condenser or coolers.
This debris must be removed at the point of entry to the system, firstly by a
fixed coarse screen or grid and secondly by a fine moving and self-cleaning
screen driven by an electric motor.
The fine screen takes the form of a band or a disc screen. The band screen
consists of a number of sections of grid so connected as to form an endless
belt extending from the bottom of the water entry chamber to above the water
level. As this screen is rotated the debris collected on it is removed by water
sprays and is then deposited in a collection or trash pit. This type of screen is
used where wide variations in water level are experienced.
Shown in Figure 7.3 is a drum screen. The mesh screen panels are located on
the circumference of the drum which is driven by a pinion gear to a rack
around the outer circumference of the screen.

30

31

OIL SUPPLY LINE

MOTOR BEARING

+38-6O.D.LEVEL
GLAND
GEARBOX
MOTOR
GEARBOX
GLAND
THRUST
DRAIN
OIL PUMP
EMERGENCY
SUCTION
BEARING
OILCOOLER
PUMP PIPEC.W.
OVERFLOW
STRAINER

PUMP
GLAND
DISCHARGE
OIL
GEARBOX
OILSTRAINER
COOLER
IMPELLER
SEAL
SEALING
OIL
FROM
C.W.
COOLER
WATER
MANIFOLD
GEARBOX
REGULATING
FILTER
DRIVEN
OIL
VALVES
PUMP

FIG. 7.2 C.W. PUMP ARRANGEMENT

CIRCULAR RACK
FOR
SCREEN DRIVE

PERFORATED PLASTIC
SCREEN PANELS

DIRECTION OF
ROTATION

SCREENED
WATER

UNSCREENED
WATER

WATER
LUBRICATED
BEARING

RIM SEAL

RIM SEAL

UNSCREENED
WATER

7.5

SCREENED
WATER
PUMP
SUCTION
CHAMBER

FIG. 7.3 COOLING WATER DRUM SCREEN

Cooling towers
Cooling towers are a familiar landmark of all large inland stations. The outer
shell of the tower is constructed of reinforced concrete and is supported at the
base by legs. These legs allow air to circulate up through the tower and out at
the top.
The shape of the cooling tower is determined by the necessity to promote a
strong upward current of air through the interior of the shell. Such a tower is
known as a natural draught tower.
Warm water from the condensers enters the tower at a height of 30 to 40 feet
above the pond level where it flows into a distribution system. This
distribution system consists of numerous spray devices which break the water
up into small droplets. These droplets then fall through the tower packing and
are cooled by the air passing upwards.

32

1.
2.
3.
4.

SELF TEST QUESTIONS

What is the purpose of C.W screening plant?
What would happen in an open circuit C.W. system if the discharge from the station
were allowed to recirculate to the intake?
Why are cooling towers unnecessary on seaside stations?
Why is it necessary to check and clean screening plant?

33

8.

GENERATORS
Electrical power is mainly produced by 'Generators' which are rotating machines
driven by some form of prime mover. In the case of power station plant, the prime
mover is usually a steam turbine. In the generator, electrical energy is produced with
the aid of a MAGNETIC FIELD and it is essential that before discussing electrical
machines, a clear concept of what is meant by the term magnetic field is gained.
8.1
Magnets
A magnet is a piece of iron, steel, cobalt or nickel possessing the properties
outlined below:1)
A magnet attracts small pieces of iron, steel, cobalt or nickel. These
metals together with a number of alloys containing iron are the only
substance capable of being strongly magnetized. These metals are
known as Ferro-Magnetic metals.
2)
The center of attraction are near the ends of the magnet and are
known as POLES.
3)
When suspended so as to be free to rotate about a vertical axis the
magnet sets itself in a specific direction which is roughly North and
South. The pole of the magnet which points towards the north is
known as the NORTH POLE and the other as the SOUTH POLE.
4)
When a magnet is freely suspended and the North-South Poles of
another magnet are brought in turn to each of the two poles of the
suspended magnet it is found that similar poles, (i.e. North to North or
South to South) repel each other, whereas dissimilar poles, (i.e. North
to South) attract each other,
5)
A magnet may be used to confer its properties on other ferro-magnetic
materials.
The reason that a magnet can attract small pieces of ferro-magnetic materials
and that two similar poles repel each other, is that the space around a magnet
is not in its normal state. If a magnet is laid on a bench, a sheet of cardboard
placed to cover the magnet and iron filings sprinkled over the card, the filings
will arrange themselves in curved lines as shown in Figure 8.1. It is this
unusual state of space which is known as a MAGNETIC FIELD.

34

8.2

FIG. 8.1 LINES OF MAGNETIC FORCE ROUND A BAR MAGNET

It is impossible to produce an electric current without also producing a
magnetic field. When a current flows through a wire not only do things happen
in the wire, but changes occur in the surrounding space. If the wire is straight
the magnetic field produced by the current is very weak. If the wire is bent to
form a circle or coil the magnetic fields around the coil interact with one
another. These fields are of considerable importance in electrical machines.
Whenever a piece of ferro-magnetic material, (e.g. an iron bar) is placed in a
magnetic field it becomes a magnet while it is in the field. How strong a
magnet it becomes will depend on the strength of the magnetic field. On
removal of the magnetic field there is a tendency for the piece of material to
retain some of its magnetism. Permanent magnets are made in this way.
The magnets used in large electrical machines must be capable of having their
magnetic fields controlled and must also be very powerful. These magnets are
obtained by winding coils of wire round a ferro-magnetic core. This coil of
wire is called a SOLENOID and the magnets so produced are known as
ELECTRO-MAGNETS. It is possible to produce by such an electro-magnet a
magnetic field many thousand times more powerful than would be produced
by a solenoid alone.
In 1831 Michael Faraday found if a magnet is moved near a coil of wire, it
causes a current to flow through the wire. This discovery is the basis of large
scale electricity generation.
The single loop generator
A dynamo or generator is a machine in which the magnetic field is cut by
rotating coils or conductors. An electrical voltage is generated.

35

Consider a very simple form of dynamo as shown in Figure 8.2A. This

consists of a single rectangular loop of wire which is rotated between the poles
of an electro-magnet. The ends of the loop are brought out to two metal rings
S1 and S2, known as SLIP RINGS. These rings are fixed to and insulated from
the rotating shaft which carries the loop. Bearing on these rings are two carbon
BRUSHES B1 and B2 which may be connected to some external circuit.
The magnetic field will extend up the left hand magnet arm across the airgap
North to South and down the right hand frame. In the position shown in Figure
8.2A the top and bottom limbs of the loop will be embracing nearly all the
magnetic field passing between North and South, but in that part of the
revolution near the position shown, the wire will be 'Slipping Along' parallel to
the magnetic field but not cutting across the field. In this position, the induced
voltage will be zero. When the loop reaches the position shown in Figure
8.2B, however, the loop will be moving at right angles to the magnetic field,
cutting the field at the maximum possible rate thereby obtaining the maximum
induced voltage. A complete revolution of the loop will give a voltage record
of the type seen in Figure 8.2C, a waveform of this shape is known as a SINE
WAVE.
The above arrangement is an elementary single phase generator. It is the
simplest type of generator and in principle all other types are modifications or
adaptations of the same basic idea.
If further separate loops are added it will produce two or three phase
generators. Each coil will produce a single phase current similar to Figure
8.2C but the two coils shown in Figure 8.2D will be out of phase by 90. In
the case of the three coils shown in Figure 8.2E, the coils will be out of phase
by 120, these coils will produce voltage waveforms as shown in Figure 8.2F.
In British practice the three phase type of generator is standard, each phase
being known by a color, i.e. red, yellow, blue. In Hong Kong, the phases are
colored red, white and blue respectively.

36

EXTERNAL
LOAD

EXCITER

FIG.8. 2 A SINGLE LOOP GENERATOR

EXTERNAL
LOAD

EXCITER

FIG.8. 2 B SINGLE LOOP GENERATOR

37

INDUCED
VOLTAGE
REVS OF COIL
ONE CYCLE
FIG.8.2 C RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VOLTAGE AND POSITION OF COIL
IN A SINGLE LOOP GENERATOR

FIG.8. 2 D TWO PHASE GENERATOR

38

FIG.8.2 E THREE PHASE GENERATOR

RED PHASE

BLUE PHASE
YELLOW PHASE

FIG..8.2 F THREE PHASE VOLATGE GENERATOR

8.3

Direct and alternating current

An electric current that flows in one direction only along a wire is called
DIRECT CURRENT (or d.c.). This is the current which flows in an electric
torch or any other battery circuit.
The other kind of current flows first in one direction, then in the other. This is

39

8.4

called ALTERNATING CURRENT (or a.c.). An example of a.c. supply

produced by the Single Loop Generator is shown in Figure 8.2C. For each
revolution of the generator, a voltage waveform is produced. It will be
observed that the voltage changes direction twice for each revolution, these
two changes of direction are known as ONE CYCLE. The number of cycles
completed in a given period of time is known as the FREQUENCY, the
frequency of the supply is determined by the speed of rotation of the generator
and in Hong Kong is standardized at 50 cycles per second (50 Hz or 50 Herz).
Excitation
In order to produce a strong magnetic field in the generator it is necessary to
supply electric current to the coils of the electro-magnet. This current is
supplied from the EXCITER.
In the practical power station generator the loops of wire in which the
electrical power is generated are stationary in the part called the STATOR. The
electro-magnet is rotated within the circle formed by the loops and is called
the ROTOR.
The exciter is itself a small generator its output being controlled to produce the
required amount of magnetic field in the main generator rotor.
In the older power stations the exciters produce Direct Current which is
supplied to the generator rotor slip rings. This Direct Current is produced in
the exciter as Alternating Current and then changed to Direct Current by
means of the Exciter COMMUTATOR. As machine outputs have increased,
the commutator has been replaced by stationary RECTIFIERS. This
equipment became standard on all new machines, but is now being superseded
by systems in which the rectifiers are actually mounted on the rotating shaft,
doing away with the need for slip rings on the generator rotor.

SELF TEST QUESTIONS

1.
2.
3.
4.

Which properties of magnet are of particular importance in electricity generation?

Sketch your understanding of Direct Current alongside Figure 8.2C.
How is the voltage waveform shown in Figure 8.2C produced? What will be the effect
of increasing the speed of the coil?
Why do we need an Exciter?

40

ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS
As stated in Lesson 1, a power station contains only a few generating units and the
generator itself is basically a comparatively simple machine. The operation of the
plant, however, depends upon a large amount of auxiliary plant. Items which come
readily to mind are the C. W. pumps, feed pumps, boiler draught plant etc. All of these
auxiliary services are vital to the running of the plant and rely mainly on electric
motors for their power supply. It is of great importance that a reliable source of
electrical power is always available inside the power station.
The supply for station auxiliaries is obtained from the Station Electrical Distribution
System which operates at various voltages to suit the auxiliary motors being supplied.
As an example of a Station Distribution System, Figure 9 shows the layout of a unit in
a 2,000 MW station.
9.1
Transformers
The transformer provides means of changing the voltage of an alternating
current supply and as such plays a very important part in the Electricity
Supply Industry.
Figure 9.1 shows the general arrangement of a Transformer. The primary
winding P is connected to the supply. This may be a generator or simply a
cable or transmission line. The secondary winding S is connected to the load.
This may be a power station distribution system or cables to a housing estate.
The alternating voltage applied to winding P circulates an alternating current
through P and as this current passes through the coil an alternating magnetic
field or flux is produced in the Iron Core. The path of this flux around the iron
core is represented by the dotted lines.
This alternating magnetic field in the Iron Core produces an alternating
voltage in the Secondary Winding or Coil which can be used to supply
electrical power.
It can be shown that if the number of coils of turns on the secondary winding
is twice the number of coils or turns on the primary, then the voltage produced
at the secondary terminals will be twice the voltage input at the primary
terminals. This may be shown simply as:-

41

FIG. 9 STATION ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM FOR A 500 MW COAL

FIRED UNIT

Voltage On Primary Wi nding

Turns On Primary Winding
Voltage On Secondary
Turns on Secondary
=
Assuming no losses occur in the Transformer, and transformers are in practice about
98% efficient, then the power output must be the same as the power input. This means
that if 30 amperes current at 6,600 volts is put in, then the output is about 500
amperes at 400 volts. Again this can be shown simple assPrimary voltage X
=
Secondary voltage X
Primary current
Secondary current

42

LOAD

SECONDARY
WINDING
FLUX LINKING
BOTH COILS

IRON CORE

PRIMARY
WINDING
P
SUPPLY

FIG. 9.1 TRANSFORMER PRINCIPLE

Modern transformer windings are almost always immersed in oil. This oil
provides a way of keeping the transformer cool and on transformers connected
to large output generators, special oil pumps and coolers are fitted. The oil is
heated by the small loses of electrical power in the windings and iron core. In
a 500 MW Generator Transformer with an efficiency of 99.6%, the losses
which cause heating of the oil would be in the region of 2,000 kilowatts (2
MW).

43

9.2

9.3

Switchgear
This term defines a piece of electrical equipment which is capable of safely
interrupting a circuit. The Household Tumbler Switch is a simple example,
whilst a switch suitable for interrupting a current of several thousand amperes
at 132,000 volts is shown in Figure 9.2. Switches capable of handling heavy
currents and high voltages are known as CIRCUIT BREAKERS.
In a power station or sub-station, switchgear is divided into four classes: air
break, oil break, vacuum break and gas break. This term defines the method
used to extinguish the sparking (or ARC as it is correctly termed) at the
contacts of the switch when it opens or closes. In the oil break type the
contacts are immersed in an oil tank. In the air break type the arc is
extinguished by a blast of compressed air or in smaller sizes by the normal
atmosphere. In vacuum breakers the contacts operate in a vacuum, and in gas
breakers the contacts operate in Sulphur Hexafluoride gas (SF6) .
Grid system and distribution
The electrical power generated in the power station must be able to reach the
consumer. At the same time the voltages at which power is generated are too
low for transmission over long distances. This is because the cable required to
carry the very large currents would be too heavy to support on the overhead
lines. Another reason for using the higher voltages for transmission is that the
power loss due to the electrical 'RESISTANCE' of the line is proportional to
the square of the current flow. This means that if the current flow in a line is
doubled the loss of power, in the form of heating of the conductors is four
times the previous figure. This power is lost into the atmosphere between the
sending and receiving stations and therefore cannot be sold. When
transmitting large quantities of power, the use of a high voltage reduces the
current flow for a given power and hence the power lost. Consider the two
examples given below
To pass 2,500 watts of power along a wire.
power
=
current x voltage
(watts)
(amperes) (volts)
Example (a) at 250 volts
power
=
current x voltage
2,500
=
10 x 250

44

RED PHASE
YELLOW PHASE
BLUE PHASE
CONTACTS

OPERATING
MECHANISM

INSULATORS

FIG. 9.2 DIAGRAM OF COMPLETE THREE PHASE

SMALL OIL BULK CIRCUIT BREAKER

45

9.4

Example (b) at 500 volts

power
=
current x voltage
2,500
=
5 x 500
In example (b) the current is lower and the losses would be reduced.
A further electrical factor is the voltage drop along a conductor and this is
directly related to the current flow in the conductor. It is sufficient here to say
that the greater the current the greater the difference in voltages between the
receiving and transmitting stations. On a high voltage line with lower current a
drop of a few hundred volts in 400,000 is negligible, whereas in the 200 volt
domestic supply a drop of 20 - 30 volts may be sufficient to render a TV set
inoperative. On the other hand, the transmission voltages are too high for
domestic use and transformers are used to change the supply voltage to that
required for its specific job.
The power stations in CLP are interconnected by the Transmission System and
power is supplied to the consumers via the Distribution System.
In order that the most efficient of CLP's generators can supply the bulk of the
power demand the Transmission System is used to transmit power between
stations and from area to area.
The Transmission system enables the amount of running reserve plant to be
reduced. As it became necessary to transmit large amounts of power the 132
KV system, operating at 132,000 volts, was constructed. As power demands
increased further it became economic to increase the voltage to 400,000 volts.
Each of these 400,000 volt lines is capable of carrying a current of 2,600
amperes which corresponds to a power greater than 1,000 MW. A diagram of
the 400,000 volt system is shown in Figure 9.3.
Protection
In the home if a section of wiring or an appliance, say an electric fire, becomes
faulty, danger to human life and also further damage to the equipment is
prevented by the use of fuses. Fuses act on overload or excess current flow
only.

46

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48

SHATIN

TUEN MUM
LEI
MUK SHUM
CASTLE
PEAK
P/S
KWAI CHUNG

YUEN LONG

400 KVYUEN LONG

TAI PO

400KVTAI PO

FANLING

SHEK WU HUI

KILOMETER

P / SHOK UN

P / STSING YI

LINK

TSZ WAN SHAN

LAI CHI HILL

KOK
HAMMER
400 K V SUBSTATION POWER
STATION

FIG. 9.3 DIAGRAM OF 400,000 VOLT TRANSMISSION SYST (COMPLETION PLANNED 1986)

With the large power and complexity of power station, transmission system
and distribution plant, electrical faults may cause serious disruption of
supplies. In addition the faults may not show up immediately as an overload
but may be earth leakage or in the case of transformers may initially cause
breakdown of the insulating oil. With these types of fault, fuses are not
suitable. In their place systems of relays are used which detect the fault and
cause either an alarm to sound in the Control Room or the circuit breaker
associated with a faulty circuit to open.
Relays are arranged to detect the current flow in various parts of the electrical
circuit; should a fault develop the current flows will change and cause the
relays to operate.
All modern generators have a form of protection fitted which measures the
value and direction of current flowing at each end of the generator windings.
Under normal conditions the value and direction of these currents will balance
but should a fault develop the system will not balance and this will cause the
protection gear to operate and disconnect the faulty generator from the supply
system. This system was developed by Merz and Price and all modern systems
are developments of the original. Various other forms of protection are also
provided which protect against overload, unbalanced load insulation
breakdown (earth fault) etc.
Protection equipment has become very complex and requires the services of
specialist engineers to maintain it. On the latest generators two independent
sets of protective gear are fitted. Both sets of protection have to operate before
the machine is tripped from the system. This scheme avoids the possibility of a
fault on the actual protection gear causing the machine to be unnecessarily
shutdown.

1.
2.
3.
4.

SELF TEST QUESTIONS

Why is cooling equipment necessary on a transformer?
Draw a diagram of the transmission connections to your own power station.
Why do overhead transmission lines operate at very high voltages?
Name the four types of switchgear. Which types are used in your own power station?

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