Introduction to Prokaryotes, Eukaryotes

Microorganisms and all other living organisms are classified as prokaryotes

or eukaryotes. Prokaryotes and eukaryotes are distinguished on the basis of
their cellular characteristics. For example, prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus
and other memoranebound structures known as organelles, while eukaryotic
cells have both a nucleus and organelles (Figure ).

The important cellular features of (a) a prokaryotic cell (a bacterium) and (b)
a eukaryotic cell.
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are similar in several ways. Both types of
cells are enclosed by cell membranes (plasma membranes), and both use
DNA for their genetic information.

Prokaryotes include several kinds of microorganisms, such as bacteria and

cyanobacteria. Eukaryotes include such microorganisms as fungi, protozoa,
and simple algae. Viruses are considered neither prokaryotes nor eukaryotes
because they lack the characteristics of living things, except the ability to
replicate (which they accomplish only in living cells).
Classification of Fungi
Division Zygomycota. Members of the division Zygomycota are known
aszygomycetes. Zygomycetes
produce
sexual
spores
known
as zygospores (Figure 1), as well as asexual sporangiospores.

Figure 1
Sexual reproduction in the mold Rhizopus stolonifer. Plus and minus mycelia
produce sexually opposite hyphae that fuse and give rise to zygospores,
which germinate to form new mycelia.

Introduction to Fungi
The fungi (singular, fungus) include several thousand species of eukaryotic,
sporebearing organisms that obtain simple organic compounds by
absorption. The organisms have no chlorophyll and reproduce by both sexual
and asexual means. The fungi are usually filamentous, and their cell walls
have chitin. The study of fungi is called mycology, and fungal diseases are
called mycoses.
Together with bacteria, fungi are the major decomposers of organic materials
in the soil. They degrade complex organic matter into simple organic and
inorganic compounds. In doing so, they help recycle carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorous, and other elements for reuse by other organisms. Fungi also
cause many plant diseases and several human diseases.
Two major groups of organisms make up the fungi. The filamentous fungi are
called molds, while the unicellular fungi are called yeasts. The fungi are
classified in the kingdom Fungi in the Whittaker five-kingdom system of
classification.
Slime Molds
Slime molds have characteristics of both molds and protozoa. Under certain
conditions, the slime mold exists as masses of cytoplasm, similar to
amoebae. It moves over rotting logs or leaves and feeds by phagocytosis.
The amoeba stage is called the plasmodium, which has many nuclei.
The amoeba stage ends when the plasmodium matures or encounters a
harsh environment. At this point, it moves to a light area and develops
fruiting bodies that form spores at the ends of stalks. The spores are
resistant to environmental excesses. They germinate when conditions are
suitable to form flagellated swarm cells, or amoeboid cells, which later fuse
to again form a multinucleate plasmodium.

Classification of Protozoa
All protozoa species are assigned to the kingdom Protista in the Whittaker
classification. The protozoa are then placed into various groups primarily on
the basis of how they move. The groups are called phyla (singular, phylum)

by some microbiologists, and classes by others. Members of the four major

groups are illustrated in Figure 1 .

Figure 1
An array of protozoa showing representatives of the four major groups.
General Characteristics of Algae
Algae are eukaryotic organisms that have no roots, stems, or leaves but do
have chlorophyll and other pigments for carrying out photosynthesis. Algae
can be multicellular or unicellular.
Unicellular algae occur most frequently in water, especially in plankton.
Phytoplankton is the population of freefloating microorganisms composed
primarily of unicellular algae. In addition, algae may occur in moist soil or on
the surface of moist rocks and wood. Algae live with fungi in lichens.

According to the Whittaker scheme, algae are classified in seven divisions, of

which five are considered to be in the Protista kingdom and two in the
Plantae kingdom. The cell of an alga has eukaryotic properties, and some
species have flagella with the 9plus2 pattern of microtubules. A nucleus
is present, and multiple chromosomes are observed in mitosis. The
chlorophyll and other pigments occur in chloroplasts, which contain
membranes known as thylakoids.
Most algae are photoautotrophic and carry on photosynthesis. Some
forms, however, are chemoheterotrophic and obtain energy from chemical
reactions and nutrients from preformed organic matter. Most species are
saprobes, and some are parasites.
Reproduction in algae occurs in both asexual and sexual forms. Asexual
reproduction occurs through the fragmentation of colonial and filamentous
algae or by spore formation (as in fungi). Spore formation takes place by
mitosis. Binary fission also takes place (as in bacteria).
During sexual reproduction, algae form differentiated sex cells that fuse to
produce a diploid zygote with two sets of chromosomes. The zygote
develops into a sexual spore, which germinates when conditions are
favorable to reproduce and reform the haploid organism having a single set
of chromosomes. This pattern of reproduction is called alternation of
generations.
Introduction to Lichens
An alliance between kingdoms
Lichens are unusual creatures. A lichen is not a single organism the way
most
other living things are, but rather it is a combination of two
organisms which live together intimately. Most of the lichen
is
composed of fungal filaments, but living among the
filaments are algal cells, usually from a green alga or a
cyanobacterium.
In many cases the fungus and the alga which together
make the lichen may each be found living in nature
without its partner, but many other lichens include a
fungus which cannot survive on its own -- it has become
dependent on its algal partner for survival. In all cases though, the
appearance of the fungus in the lichen is quite different from its morphology
as a separately growing individual.