Marin Mersenne ¥ HARMONIE UNIVERSELLE THE BOOKS ON INSTRUMENTS translated by ROGER E. CHAPMAN Creer) i 4 4 Breen iz MARTINUS NIJHOFEF / THE HAGUE/ 1957SECOND BOOK OF STRING INSTRUMENTSA List oF THE Propositions I 73 To explain the figure, the parts, the pitch or the tuning and the temperaments of the lute and the theorbo, 1 7 To explain the method by which the lute and pandora ought to be constructed, and all the other instruments which they resemble, as it ought to be shown to perfection, and how one can recognize whether the strings are good. mL 82 To explain the method of dividing the fingerboard of the lute, and where to place all the frets necessary to play in perfection: in which one sees more curious observations on strings and the difference of their sounds. IV 84 To explain the genres and species of music proposed by the Greeks and all the best that they had in their practice and theory. v 86 To show how the system of Aristoxenos is used on the lute, and on the other instruments with fretted fingerboards, and in what way it is defective or disadvantageous, VL 90 To explain the temperament of the lute, and consequently, of the viol and of the other instruments with fretted fingerboard; and to show how each consonance and dissonance is altered, that is to say, how it is derived from the just intervals of the Perfect System: in which will be seen the three genres of music in their perfection. VIL 4 To show that the major and minor tone, the octave and all others intervals can be divided into twelve or more equal parts; whence it follows that one can divide the octave into twelve equal semitones: in which will be seen the method of finding one or two mean proportionals between two given lines, of doubling the cube, of placing the frets on the neck of the lute and other instruments, VOL 99 To determine whether the diatonic genre of music, which is in use now is the Synton of Ptolemy, or the Diatonic of Pythagoras, of Architas, of Aristoxenos, or of some new genre: in which is seen all the different species of the diatonic, of the chromatic and of the enhar- monic, which was proposed by the Greeks. Ix, 104 To explain the method of playing the lute perfectly, and of placing or moving each hand and each finger as is required to play well.72 SECOND BOOK OF STRING INSTRUMENTS x 110 ‘To explain the signs and the characters of tablature, and more remarks and particular observations. XI 44 ‘To teach the method of tuning the lute in all sorts of ways. XI 116 To explain the universal tablature of the lute, and all its tunings with a new figure and with examples. XII 130 To explain the shape, tuning, tablature, and the particular way of playing the Mandore. xIV 134 ‘To explain the shape, tuning, tablature, and the playing of the guitar. xv 138 ‘To give examples of French tablature for the guitar and explain that of the Spaniards and Italians. XVI 140 To explain the shape, parts, tuning, range and use of the cittern, and the method of dividing its neck to mark on it ail the frets. XVII 44 To explain the shape and tuning of the colascione,Proposition I To explain the figure, the parts, the pitch or the tuning and the temperaments of the lute, and the theorbo. The two figures that follow (figures 7a, b) show so clearly all that pertains to the lute and the theorbo, that it is almost unnecessary to explain them, as this will not help those who have never seen them. As to the different names that can be given these instruments, such as giguwv€, yous, Testudo, Cithara, etc., I leave the dispute to the grammarians, and there can be consulted Athenaios,? Pollux,* Aristides,* and the other Greeks, for since we possess the instruments and explain their reality, the names serve for very little and are unimportant for signifying all that one wishes, as I have shown elsewhere. The first figure on the right (7b) is nothing but a lute augmented with a new neck a, B, 8, which serves to give a greater range to the last four strings, that is to say, to the eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh, which have a sound as much lower in pitch as they are longer, and as much louder as they are thicker. This lute with two finger- boards is called the theorbo, which often has only a single string for each course, although this one has all its courses double, except that of the highest string, which is single.t The number of these fingerboards could still be increased, although these two suffice, But it ought to be remarked that the Italians begin to count the courses of strings from the greatest, so that they end with the treble string, which is the one we start with; otherwise one would not understand their tablatures, of which Vincent Galilei has made a volume,® and of which I shall speak later.* The lute otherwise has only six courses of strings, but there can be added four or five others lower down, that is to say the seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh courses, so as to form the bass, although one marks the tablature only in six lines or parallel rulings, as I say later.’ Some have wished to place fifteen or twenty courses of strings upon the lute, but the sounding board is so burdened that it is often forced to split and burst, so it is not proper to use more than ten, eleven or twelve courses. The nut of the lute is ordinarily of ivory, although it could be made of other material equally hard, so as to withstand the strings that lead upward and continually press it, as is seen on the nut of the second neck, fv, which limits the length of the last four courses of strings, for the remainder of the neck which holds the pegs does 2 The Deipnosophists (Cambridge, Mass., 1937), trans. C. B. Gulick # Onomasticon (Leipzig, 1900-37), ed. Eric. Bettre. Aristides Quintilianus, De musica. Trans. Rudolf Schafke, 1937. ‘ In his listing of the printing errors, he observes, p. 77, of the Seventh Book of Percussion Instruments, “I have called the second figure on the right a Theorbo, which the Italians call ‘Arciliuto', and which ought rather be called a lute with double neck, because aside from the fact that the Theorbo is much larger, it has gnly one string to each course, and it was only about thirty or forty years ago that Bardella invented it at ‘lorence”. ® Op.cit. # See Prop. XII, infra, p. 116. 7 Loe. cit.PROPOSITION I 75 not enter into the length of the lute or theorbo; [this length] extends from the bridge to the preceding nut for the four strings which are without frets, or up to the other nut for the seven other courses. The number of pegs is equal to the number of the strings, as can be seen at 8 and «, where they begin. Now this instrument is composed of three parts, like the others, that is to say, of the sounding-board, 9, v, 1, %, %, 4 which is of fir, cedar, or some other wood proper for resonance; of the body, which is ordinarily made of nine or more staves similar to the three that are seen at &, 0, @. The thickness of these sides is of one-twelfth of an inch, like that of the sounding- board, which is glued onto the edges of the said sides or staves. The ring at the middle of the sound-board is called the Rose, and gives entry and exit to the sounds. As to the third part of the lute, it consists of the neck, which has nine frets made of gut strings. The letters of the fret of the theorbo show the place where the fingers are placed to press the strings and those of the lute show the same frets, or the strings which cross and determine the nine different lengths of the strings, so that the neck of fretted instruments can serve as a monochord. One does not ordinarily place the fingers of the left hand upon the frets, but a little above, so that their sound may be clearer: for example, the finger is not placed upon the b or the c of the lute, but opposite to the b and the c of the theorbo, which has 21 strings, whereas the lute has only 19, But I shall amply explain further on all that pertains to the frets of the lute, and the method with which each finger must be moved to produce a perfect harmony. It must still be observed that a small pulley is used on the peg of the highest string, so that it does not break so often; this is done because one is forced to draw it very much tighter than the others in proportion to its thickness, because it must make the highest sounds, and because there is trouble in raising it up to the nine- teenth; as I shall say in speaking of the tuning of the lute, one often proceeds from a fifth lower than the second string. As for the tuning of the lute, I have given it in three 6400 Ami late fashions, that is to say, by letters, by numbers, and by fourth . notes, so that those who know music theory only by the aw E mi la numbers will see the intervals of the pitch of each string through the numbers which are on the strings of the major third theorbo; those who know only the letters of the scale will 3880 Gre sol understand the same tuning through the letters C, D, etc., fourth which are opposite each number upon the same theorbo; 2160 Dare sol and those who understand the science of sound only fourth through the notes will grasp the same tuning expressed , 1620 Ami lare by the notes that are at the side of the lute, opposite its minor tone fingerboard. Now the notes signify all the strings which 1458 G re sol are explained by the letters of the scale and by the major tone it fa numbers, the intervals of which are written in between. major semitone Whence it is seen that the first six strings of the theorbo 05 E mi la follow through conjunct degrees from the ut of C sol to major tone the La of A mi la, which extends a major sixth. But it 1080 D la re sol must be observed that this tuning is called the old pitch, minor tone which is used even now in concerts and which serves as 972 C sol ut faa foundation for all the other tunings that have been16 SECOND BOOK OF STRING INSTRUMENTS practiced or invented since this ancient tuning, which was used in Italy and elsewhere, and which has been marked by the above-mentioned notes. Now although it begins here with the Ut of C sol, so as to represent the tuning of our theorbo, it is easy to leave this Ut in order to take the Re that follows, and which represents the tenth or the last string of the lute, to which there can be added as well an eleventh course, as in the theorbo. I have given the three sorts of clef that are used in this tuning through notes, so that it will be known how to intone them. The clef below and that above signify the same thing, and differ only in the figure, for they both mark the same B-flat, or the F ut fa. The second character which goes above signifies the natural keynote, and the third that of B-natural. Now the extent of this tuning is a twentieth, and if cone hears the first Ut, it will form a nineteenth: But it cannot be marked by any lesser numbers than those which are above the theorbo. It must be noted here that I have not given the G re sol upon the sixth string, as many do, inasmuch as I had less to indicate the tone made from the seventh to the eighth string, by the letters of the Harmonic Hand,* for if one take the G re sol, on the sixth, the F ut fa is found on the seventh and consequently the E mi la on the eighth, which makes only a major semitone with the said F ut fa, so that it would be necessary to place a new letter which should mark the sharp, a semitone lower than the said E mi la is, to make a tone from the seventh to the eighth string; but this difficulty does not arise in the numbers and is of no importance. I shall explain the fourth method by which is marked the tuning of the lute by the characters of its tablature, when I show how ordinary music must be placed in the lute tablature, for it is necessary now to see of what its temperament consists, and that of the other instruments with fretted fingerboards. Now temperament is the name of the alteration made to both consonant and disso- nant intervals, the true ratios of which I have explained, as well as the just propor- tions, in the books of theory; ® and in this proposition, I have explained the tuning of the theorbo as if it were just and in its perfection. This temperament is marked at the side of the theorbo, and consists of twelve equal semitones, into which the octave is divided, and is found by dividing the open strings of the lute between the nut and the bridge into 100,000 parts, of which the b, that is to say, the first fret on it has 94,444; the second 89,298, and in the same way the others up to the ninth or tenth fret, following the numbers of this temperament, of which the thirteenth, ot 50,363, represents the middle of the string, although this number is 363 too great, since 50,000 is one-half of 100,000. That is why I give the other row of num- bers, which list semitones much more just than the first, as can be seen in a compari- son of the two. But the other rows of numbers that are along the left side of the lute show the distances of the frets in their greatest perfection, the first of which has only 13 numbers to mark the twelve semitones that form the octave of the lute; and the second row shows that 19 frets are needed, following the 19 numbers, which can serve for the three genres, as I have written in the books on theory,’? from which can be drawn some other methods for dividing the neck of the lute. Many makers of instruments divide the length of the lute or the open string into * 1.¢.,the Guidonian Hand. ® Livre Premier des Consonances, XL,, 108-109, 10 Livre Troisiesme des Genres de la Musique, VI, 158-159.PROPOSITION IT a7 18 parts, of which the seventeenth forms the first fret; and then they divide the test of the string into 18 parts, of which they again take the seventeenth to make the second semitone, and in the same way until they have 8 or 9 semitones. From this it can be concluded that these semitones are less than the major semitones, which are ¥/,,, and greater than the minor semitones, which are */z,, and that they approach the latter more than the former. The string might similarly be divided into 17 parts, in order to take 16, or in many other ways much more exact and better, of which I shall speak after having shown what the Greeks had that was better in their music, and in particular all that Ptolemy taught, so that all those who play the lute may know whether they are using the temperament of Aristoxenos, or that of some other genre, species, or system, and that they may not be all ignorant of all that can bring them pleasure or profit and of all that can give them influence among the illustrious people among whom they find themselves. But before opening this discourse, it is necessary to explain the method of constructing the lute, and to give the figure of the pandora, the tuning and number of strings of which is similar to that of the lute. Proposition IT ‘To explain the method by which the lute and pandora ought to be constructed, and all the other instruments which they resemble, as it ought to be shown to perfection, and how one can recognize whether the strings are good. This treatise on the lute would not be perfect (it seems) if I did not explain its construction, which will be of use in understanding that of the mandore, and of all the other instruments which imitate the lute, which some of us write as Leut, and the foreigners call Laud, Lauto, etc. Now one ought first of all to have a form or a mould of the very shape and size of which one wishes to make the body of the instrument, which is begun with the slats at the middle of the base, or of the back: for it [the first slat] must be bent around and attached to the thick end of the aforementioned mould with a wooden pin, and then glued to the lesser edge at the top upon the piece of wood, which is ordinarily called the block, or the heart of the lute, and which forms the point of the mould. In the second place, the other slats must be arranged on either side of the preceding one, the number of which can be 6, 12, etc., according to the wish of the lute makers; and in arranging them, one ought to glue them lightly one against another, in applying them to the back of the mould, like the first. In the third place, it is necessary to bracket them in front by the thick end, that is to say, they must be surrounded by another piece which would be of the length of the sound-board, so as to bind them and hold them in the position that they have taken upon the mould; afterwards it {the mould] is removed from within the body, after the pins are cut by which the slats are attached thereon, In the fourth place, it is necessary to bind and brace within the same extremities of the slats another slat which is placed opposite that above, and which the manufacturers call the fausse, or the contrebragne. There must also be pasted in little slices of vellum or paper on the joints on the inside. In the fifth place, a false sounding-board is placed inside the body of the lute to hold it in place, so as to apply it upon a board completely straight, and to erect it in such a way that it will not warp at all; and when it is prepared perfectly, one fixes it uponEy SECOND BOOK OF STRING INSTRUMENTS the board of which the sounding board must be made, which is cut exactly to the size and to the length of the body which will cover it. In the sixth place one adds a bar to the board by dividing it into eight equal parts, so as to glue its six braces upon the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh parts, for the neck begins at the eighth part at the weak side of the sound-board. As for the Rose, it must be so situated that its middle is found in the fifth part, upon which the fourth section is glued. But there are used also two or three other small pieces which are placed at the side, when the sound-board is weak; now, all the sections cross the board, and end in the slats of both sides. They are of the same material as the sound-board, although they can be of other wood, and have one or two lines of thickness and can be up to a half inch. When they are glued upon the sound-board, it is fixed upon the edges of the slats, upon which it is stuck. But it must be observed that the manufacturers add still other small strips lower than the first of the large ones, or in other places according to the weakness of the different boards, or depending upon experiments that they make, to give a better harmony to the lutes. As for the bridge, to which are attached all the strings, it is placed between the first and the second part of the table, for after having divided these two parts into three other equal parts, the said bridge is glued upon the second part which is situ- ated above. Now it must be noted that the goodness of the lute depends particularly on the supporting bar, which ought to be neither too strong nor too feeble. For when it is too much fixed, the sound is not agreeable, and the treble strings cannot mount so high on this table, as they can on the weaker ones, which vibrate and shake more easily, even though the distances between the bridge and the nut be equal, the reason for which is not easy to find, since the manufacturers maintain that this Securrence cannot be related to the different placements of the bridges, or nuts, or pegs. But it is difficult to develop the perfection of the support without long experience and a great number of observations, because of the difference of the sounding boards, for which some desire a firmer support, and others a weaker one depending upon their material, their thickness, and many other aspects that the manufacturers can observe. ‘All this being done, one adds the neck, which is stuck on the bracket, after it has been cut obliquely, or on the bias. Now this neck is nothing but a piece of wood which should support the fingerboard that is pasted upon it, and which is of the same length. Finally the head is glued at the end of the neck, which serves as the keyboard for the lute, since it holds all the pegs which are used to raise it and to put it in tune. But it must be observed that the neck or the fingerboard ought to be of the same length as the interval from the beginning of the sound-board to the middle of the rose: that is to say that the neck ought to be of five parts and the board eight, so that it makes the proportion of the minor sixth with the said neck; and this not found save in the lute that is harmonic. It is now necessary to explain the method by which the lute is mounted, that is to say how the strings must be attached, arranged, and tied, and the frets applied and adjusted to render them ready to finger and play. ‘As to the strings with which the lute is mounted, they ought to be proportionate to its size: that is to say that they ought to be as much thicker or thinner as the lute is longer or shorter. Now I shall give some tables in the treatise on the spinet thatPROPOSITION IT 19 will show the proper proportion that the strings ought to keep for each instrument.? ‘That is why it is enough here to furnish some examples, although they may not be necessary for those who understand the proportion of the notes that mark the tuning of the lute, inasmuch as the strings will be perfectly proportioned among themselves when they follow the ratios of the said notes. It is easy to conclude from this that if the largest, or the eleventh string on the theorbo or on the lute is one line in diameter, then the seventh, which stands at the fifth, need be only */y of a line in its diameter; and because the fourth string is placed at the twelfth, its diameter need only beone-third ofaline; and finally, the second string which follows the treble line, and which is tuned at the seventeenth to the greatest string ought to have its diameter as one fifth of a line, since the ratio of the seventeenth is 5 :1, as I haveshownin the books of theory. Tnow come to the choice of the strings, which depends on the eye, the hand, and the ear, since one can know whether the strings are good or bad, depending on whether they rend the air equally, after they are drawn with one of the fingers, while two hands hold them stretched out; and when they vibrate unevenly, and interfere with their vibrations, with this unevenness and some irregular movements, they are called false. This can be seen in these two figures, of which the first shows the good, and the second a false string (figure 8). Figure 8, The vibration of good and bad strings. 11 Third Book of String Instruments, Tables 20 and 21, 174-175. % Livre Premier des Consonances, XL, 108-109.80 SECOND BOOK OF STRING INSTRUMENTS There are those who have no use at all for looking at them, and are content with touching and handling them with the fingers, which they run and pass along the length of the string, and claim the string good and even when it has no unevenness at all and is like a cylinder. But if it occurs that these two senses are mistaken, the ear judges the goodness or the falseness of each string as the last resort. As soon as some good strings are hit upon, the lute is mounted with the thickest, which is attached first of all to the bridge by means of a straight and running knot, as is shown in the figures (7a, b); and then it is twisted round one of the pegs of the neck, which is turned until the string is tight enough and makes the pitch it ought to have ac- cording to the range of the lute. And then one continues to attach and pull the other strings, until they produce the tuning that is called the old or the new pitch, de- pending upon the different pieces of music that one wishes to play, or the desire of those who string the lutes, which are capable of all sorts of pitches and tunings. As for the frets, they can be made fixed or movable; the first can be of wood. of ivory, or of copper, as they are on the cittern, of which I shall speak later,!® and will show the method of placing the frets in their proper places. But I wish to explain here the easiest possible method of all for placing all the frets in their proper places, whether one wishes to make them fixed or movable; although it is much better that they be movable so as to be able to raise or lower them now on one side and now on the other to make up for the falsity and other defects that occur perpetually in the strings, in which the part below is often different from that above, and in which one of the frets can be exact and the other unequal and bad; so that the placement of the frets depends upon the goodness, the judgement, and the delicacy of the ear. ‘We must then assume that all the strings are good, and that we wish all the inter- vals and tunings of the lute to be perfect, so as to understand the placement of the frets of which I am now speaking, although it can be of use for all kinds of strings which are used, and for all sorts of temperaments, because they are so close to the correctness of the harmony that the frets that I mark can serve in raising or lowering them as little as one would wish. Now although there are only nine frets on the neck of the lute, which cause each string to rise from the pitch that it makes un- stopped, up to the major sixth, and each is divided into nine semitones; never- theless I shall show in the proposition which follows the method of further adding three frets so as to make the said strings rise up to the octave. This will serve for all sorts of other fretted instruments as well. But before passing on, the figure of the pandore must be given (figure 9), since it has the same number of strings, the same range, and the same tuning as the lute, but is no longer in use, although this instrument is quite agreeable, and has its sounds resonating for longer than those of the lute, because of the brass strings, which vibrate a longer time. But one is wounded more easily in the fingers of the right and left hands, because of the hardness of the strings. This fact has perhaps made it neglected; and then, the gut strings have a softer and more charming sound, but they do not hold their tuning for so long a time. Whoever would wish to return the pandore to use can make use of all I have said of the lute, and of the other instru- ments, and he can string a lute with strings of gut and brass if he gives it two sound- 19 See Prop. XVI, infra, 140-144.PROPOSITION IT 81 boards, of which the lower one would bear the brass strings, and the one above the gut strings, or vice versa, for if they are in unison, those that are touched will vibrate and sound those which are not touched. Now ABC shows the shape of the neck, and its frets; D is the rose, and EF shows that the bridge is mounted obliquely, so that the treble string can rise up higher: although it would be more fitting to make it straight, otherwise the frets would not be just for all the strings which are of bronze, and consequently the frets ought to be of brass or copper, like those of the cittern. As for its back, it is flat, or at least it is not so convex as that of the lute; its sides are 2, 3, or 4 fingers in thickness, depending on the wish of the manufacturer; and there is no need of a mould to construct it, but only a pattern for cutting out the sound-board, to which it is easy to apply the slats, as in making the guitar, of which I speak in another place. Corollary On the different kinds of knots. It must be remarked that the makers and those who play the lute ought to learn to make the knots which are necessary for attaching the frets on to the neck, and the strings to bridge, so that they hold Figure 9. The Pandore. tight without pulling off. And conse- quently it is necessary to learn to make the straight knot, both simple and double, which is often joined with a single or double running knot, be it horizontally or vertically. There are many other knots which can be of use on different occasions. For example the weaving knot, which is one of the strongest; the Gordian knot, which is considered the most beautiful of all; the brush knot which is used to knot the mane of horses, which make the fiddle bow-strings; the sailors’ knot, by which he ties his ropes; the knot made of two straight ones drawn one against the other;82 SECOND BOOK OF STRING INSTRUMENTS the knot of the brush and the crossbow, and many others which are all different and which serve many uses that can be applied to new instruments. Proposition III To explain the method of dividing the fingerboard of the lute, and where to place all the frets necessary to play in perfection. In which one sees more curious observations on strings and the difference of their sounds. One of the principal parts of the lute consists of its fingerboard, for if the frets are not placed at the points where the shortening of the strings ought to make the degrees and the intervals of the sounds in their justness or in the harmonic temper- ament, the lute hurts the ears of the listeners. That is why those who string it ought to have the understanding of the division of the monochord, of which the finger- board of the instruments is an abridgement. But since none of the manufacturers care to take the trouble of instructing themselves on the said monochord, I wish to assist them in teaching them a very easy method of dividing exactly all sorts of finger-boards, whether of lutes or of other instruments, so that they can place all the frets in their proper places. And for this matter, we must draw the two lines AC and BD to represent the open strings, and thus the distance between the bridge and the nut of the lute. Let CD be the bridge, and AB the nut. I say, first of all that we will have the first fret, n ,by dividing the parallelogram AD into two equal parts at the point n, which will produce the octave above compared to the open string. Secondly, the seventh fret h will be located, which makes the fifth above the open string, by dividing the parallelogram AD into three equal parts, of which the one taken descending from the nut towards the bridge gives h. Thirdly, one divides the line AC or BD into four equal parts, of which the one marked off in lowering from the nut gives the fret f, which forms the fourth above the open string, But although up to now the string has been divided into two equal parts at n, now nA must be divided into two other parts, so as to place the aforementioned f in the middle. In the fourth place, the line Ac is divided into five parts, of which the one marked off de- |= scending from the nut gives the fret e, which forms the major third > against the open string; and if one cuts off three parts [of the five], one will have the ninth fret k, which makes the major sixth against the open string, and which is the last of the lute. In the fifth place, one would have the third fret d, if one divides the line Ad into six equal parts, for the sixth part being marked off down from the nut, one has d, which makes the minor third against BD. And then one divides Ad into eight parts, the three parts being marked off down from the nut, give the eighth fret i, which makes the minor sixth compared to AC, so that we have found ‘the seven frets, which make the seven consonances of the octave, that is to say N, H, F, E, K, D, I. There must now be found the five other stops, which make the disso- nant intervals, of which the principal one is the tone, or the major second, which is obtained by dividing AD into nine or ten parts, since the tenth tlt part marked off gives the second stop, ¢, which will make the minor tonePROPOSITION III 83 compared to AD, and the ninth part will give the c which forms the major tone. And because already AD has been divided into five parts, it is necessary only to divide the last part into two to have the whole string divided into ten. As for the first fret b, it can be found by dividing AD into sixteen parts; but inasmuch as the last eighth part of the division that was made can be divided into two parts, the sixteenth part marked off gives the b, which forms the major semitone compared to AD; nevertheless it can be found in many other ways by means of the frets which form the consonances: although it would be rather useful and easy to find it as I have said, inasmuch as the sixth stop is found by this means, for Db being divided in four, the fourth part being marked off gives the sixth stop g; and if the same Db is divided into three parts, the last part being marked gives the eighth stop i, against which cD forms the fifth, as it makes the fourth against g. So that there is further only the tenth and eleventh fret to mark, that is to say | and m, the first of which is found by dividing dD into three parts, since the third marked gives |, which makes the fifth against D and if eD is divided into three equal parts, the third being marked off gives the eleventh stop m, against which it also makes the fifth. I omit many other methods which can be used in placing the stops in their proper places, because it is not possible to understand what I have said of the monochord in the Fifth Propo- sition * and elsewhere without knowing all the methods which can be used for placing and arranging the frets of the lute, and all the other instruments, whether it is wished to employ the chromatic, as is ordinarily done, or the enharmonic. I shall remark solely on behalf of those who make lutes and who play them, that the fret C makes a minor tone compared to the open string, and that if they wish to make the major tone, it is necessary to raise the fret up to the dotted line which is over the line c, for Bc is the ninth part of the string BD. But from A to the dotted line, there is only a tenth part of the chord AC, so that the major and minor tone differ by only a ninth and tenth part, but these two parts differ by a ninetieth part of the line BD divided into 90 parts, for the ninth part of BD contains Js) of the said line; and the tenth part of the same line contains only %/gg, so that it can be said that the major tone only surpass the minor tone by a ninetieth part, as is seen from the fret c up to the dotted line; and consequently that the ear recognizes a ninetieth part of the line AC or BD, or the string instrument, so that it can discern the major tone from the minor. But the tone of instruments being neither major nor minor, it is between the fret c and the dotted line, since the temperament causes the minor tone to increase by half a comma, by which it diminishes the major, so as to make one of the two, as I have already shown in another place.'* It is easy to find how much each other interval is greater than the others, and which semitones are marked by these stops. For example, the major is from A to b and the minor from b to the dotted line, and the mean is from b to c, since the major tone contains these semitones. Finally as to that which concerns the strings of the lute, it must be remarked that aside from that I have said up to now both in parti- cular and in general, they make other sounds than those which are heard ordinarily, and which are called natural, since the finger that touches them fills the function of a bridge, so that there is heard a false sound which follows the length of the string M First Book of String Instruments, pp. 30 &. 18 See supra, I, pp. 76 ff84 SECOND BOOK OF STRING INSTRUMENTS taken from the bridge or nut to the finger that touches it. For example, if the string is touched at one foot from the bridge, and the string is four feet long, the part which lies between the bridge and the finger will make the fifteenth, and the part Which lies between finger and nut will make the fourth against the whole string. But although one does not ordinarily notice these sounds, because the natural sound of the string covers and extinguishes them, nevertheless, if the fingernail is placed against the string so that it trembles, they are heard, and particularly that 6f the longer part of the string, whether from the nut to the finger, or from the bridge; so that it comes to the same thing as on the monochord, in which with the bridge passing from one end to the other, the string makes all sorts of intervals on one side and the other. ‘There can still be considered the difference of the tones of each string, according to the different places where they are touched, for aside from the fact that they make 2 softer sound when they are struck at a distance from the bridge and a harder tone as they are struck closer to it, it seems that they have a little sharper sound when they are played vigorously, although it is almost impossible to tell the difference. Proposition IV ‘To explain the genres and species of music proposed by the Greeks and all the best that they had in their practice and theory. Although these matters pertain to the viol and mandore as well as to the lute, nevertheless I place them here, because the lute has gained such an ascendency over the other stringed instruments, whether because respectable people have given it this advantage or because it has acquired it through its excellence and perfection. Still it does nothing that the others do not, unless it is because of the extraordinary ‘excellence of those who play, enhance, and make it commendable. But although this be so, the lute merits these discourses, and those who play it are clever enough to understand them providing they are studious enough to read them; and because Ptolemy is the most knowledgeable of all those who have taught us Greek music, it seems to me that I can do no better than to explain what he says in his first two volumes. He asserts in the Second Chapter of the First [Book of his Harmonics] that the action and aim of the musician consists in keeping the law of canon, or of the har- monic rule, which does not repel the senses at all and which are accepted by the greater part of mankind. To this he adds that reason is more just or more exact than the senses and that it belongs to the scholars and to those who know theory to show that all the things of nature are made with a beautiful order, and that it is not by chance. This is observed particularly in the objects of the two senses that are called reasonable, that is to say, sight and hearing. ‘And because it seems that the disciples of Aristoxenos have yielded too much to the ear, and that those of Pythagoras have abandoned the experience of sentiment to follow only the reason of numbers, he blames both, because true reason ought to be in accord with performance, and perception with the senses. This is true, and shows that evidently he did not apply himself to practice or that he did not have as good and delicate an ear as our organists, our makers of instruments, and thePROPOSITION IV 85 other practitioners, who recognize and easily sense the interval of the comma, though Ptolemy believed that it was not sensible to the ear. In the Fifth Chapter, he says that the Pythagoreans rejected the eleventh from among the consonances, because its ratio of 8 to 3 is an improper fraction, for it is twice the ratio 4 to 3, and that it is only the multiple ratios, and the two largest superparticulars, that is, the sesquialtera and the sesquitertia, of which the double ratio is composed, which are proper for the consonances. This he refutes in the Sixth Chapter, inasmuch as none of the simple intervals which form chords change their species or their goodness when the octave is added below or above them, be- cause the two sounds of the octave gave equal power and are so similar that they only appear as a single sound. Thus he concludes that the twelfth has the same ratio to the eleventh that the fifth has to the fourth, and that the fifteenth has the same relation to the twelfth as the octave to the fifth, inasmuch as 4, which is the greater term of the fifteenth is sesquitertia of 3, which is the greater term of the twelfth; and that 3, which is the greater term of the fifth is sesquialtera of 2, which is the greater term of the octave; from this he concludes further that the fifteenth is as much softer and more harmonious than the twelfth as the octave is sweeter than the fifth. I am not dwelling on this point, because it is easy to see that it is true or false in these positions, if one understands what I have said in speaking of the good- ness, sweetness, and the predominance of the consonances." In the Seventh Chapter, he divides the harmonic intervals into three species: into those whose extreme terms are to be understood in the same way as if there were only one of them, that is to say, the octave, fifteenth, twenty-second, etc.; into those that form chords, that is to say simple fifths and fourths and those compounded with the octave; and into those that are fit for singing, that is to say those whose improper fractions are less than the sesquitertia, such as the major and minor tones, etc. In the Eighth Chapter he asserts that there is no better way of examining the harmonic intervals than with the monochord. As for the four chapters which follow, he uses them to explain the methods the disciples of Aristoxenos used to establish the ratios of the consonances and other intervals, and blames them in the Ninth Chapter for measuring the consonances by their intervals where they ought to be explained by their sounds, For example, they say that the [whole] tone is composed of two parts or of two equal intervals similar to the five intervals with which they build the fourth which they say are similar to the twelve intervals or parts of the octave. But he wishes the tone and other intervals to be expressed otherwise, that it be the ratio of two sounds called the sesquioctava, and the same for the others. Thus it does not suffice to say that the tone is the excess or the distance of the fifth from the fourth, otherwise one would not be able to make it heard, nor place it ‘on the monochord, if one would just place on it the two intervals of which it is the difference. In the Tenth Chapter he touches upon more difficulties, which are explained in the proposition which follows, so that this one may not be too long; otherwise they could be joined together and make one out of the two. ™ Livre Premier des Consonances, I, 1 ff.Proposition V “To show how the system of Aristoxenos is used on the lute, and on the other instruments with fretted Bnger- Boards, and in what way it is defective or disadvantageous. Ptolemy adopts the ratios of the consonances that the Pythagoreans have given in order to refute the Atistoxeneans, and consequently he composes the Ditone, or the major third, of two major tones, and the minor third of a major tone and the Pythagorean semitone, which is called Limma, that is to say, the residue, or the pyeePvhich remains for making the fourth; this being less than the half of a major tone, it follows that the fourth does not contain two and a half tones, nor does the th’ contain three and a half tones, as they say. This he shows through the smallest tite Corsi” that can be chosen for this effect, the first of which is 1536, to which 1708 is the sesquioctave, just as 1944 is sesquioctave to 1728; from this it is easy ta conclude that he makes the major Pythagorean third with 1536, the sesquitertia te Which ic 2048, and that the limma is the fraction 2048/1944. Now the ratio of these two last numbers is greater than that of the two preceding, for the excess of 2187 above 2048 is greater than their fifteenth part, and less than their fourteenth; but the excess by which 2048 surpasses 1944 is only greater than their nineteenth part, and less than their eighteenth, as can be seen clearly in the table which follows. Sileus demonstrates by another method in the Twenty-fourth Chapter of his Fourth Book # that the fourth is greater than two tones and a half, when of two Toor ne ie major and the other is minor, and consequently that the fourth exceeds Tees ce snajor third by more than half a major tone; for if the tone A, or the number 1920, and the tone B, or the number 1440, produce the fourth; and if the tone D, of the number 1800, forms the major third with 1440 down below; 1536 snd if C or 1536 makes the same third with 1920 above, and E or 2048 major tone forms the fourth with C. below, as is seen in the table which follows, eee in which there are four equal major semitones, that is to say EB, BC, ace DA. and AF, it will follow then that there is a fourth from B to A, ial and that EB and AF are the two amounts by which it exceeds the 2048 major third, that these two excesses are greater than the major tone, Adsteine that is to say, that the two sesquiquindecimas exceed the sesquioctava 2187 of the same interval, in which the diesis exceeds the comma, that {S to say, the minor comma, as is seen in the following numbers. For the major tone is less than two major semitones by the ratio 2048 E 1350 to 2025, which is same amount by which the fifth from 2025 to 1350 elise is less than the interval from E to F. See To this Ptolemy adds that one cannot divide the sexquioctaval ‘A 1920 ratio into two equal ratios inasmuch as of the two ratios which come A 1920 Closest to this mean, the sesquiseptendecima is, too small, and the sesquisexdecima is too great, so that the mean of the tone is so con- cealed between these two ratios that it is impossible to express it in either whole numbers or fractions. And because the fifteenth part is less than the sixteenth of Using the syallest numbers here means that instead of taking the umber 2 to represent {he core, he can, Using the srt So thatthe ratios that represent all the intervals smaller than the octave can be ‘expressed in whole numbers rather than fractions. 30 Francis Salinas, De Musica libri septem, 1577.PROPOSITION V 87 243, and because it is greater than the seventeenth, if 15 be added to 243, one will have the semitone of 258 to 243, which would be the middle of the interval. That is why the limma of Pythagoras is less than this semitone, in the ratio of 258 to 256, or 129 to 128, which he considers so small that the ear is insensible to it. He also reproves them for taking the major third at 81 to 64, inasmuch as the comparison of these terms is too difficult to make out. Actually the true ratio of the major third which is 5 to 4, is much easier and much sweeter, as ] have shown elsewhere. He demonstrates in the Twelfth Chapter that the octave does not contain six major tones and that they are too great by the ratio of 65 to 64. There, he also ob- serves that the sounds made by two strings equally-stretched but different in thick- ness have the same ratio as their circumferences, or the distance around the said strings, and consequently that it is necessary to draw the thicker one as much tighter than the lesser to bring them into unison as the latter is finer than the former. I speak so fully of this in the book of strings that it is unnecessary to say more on it here.!® Lastly he explains in the Twelfth Chapter the three genres of music according to the division of Aristoxenos, after having remarked that the least of the conso- nances, that is the fourth, is composed of three intervals suitable for singing, and that the two extremes are called fixed because they are in sesquitertial ratio; some variety is found between the two terms in between. Now the diversity of the genres comes from this variety of intervals, which fill out the fourth and which make the difference in the species of each genre, for if the first of two intervals at the bottom are less than the third, which completes the fourth, one has the chromatic and en- harmonic genre; and one has the diatonic when no interval is greater than the other two. But to understand the Aristoxenean division perfectly, it is necessary to notice that he would divide each tone into two, three, four, or eight parts, and that he would call the fourth part “harmonic diesis”, the third “chromatic diesis”, and the fourth part joined to the eighth, that is "/y tone, the “chromatic sesquialtera diesis"”. This will be more easily understood if one divides the tone into 24 parts which are equal, so that each semitone has twelve parts, each enharmonic diesis six, and each chromatic diesis 8. To this I add another diesis of 9 parts which forms the sesquialtera of the preceding. He puts together six sorts of fourths from the preceding intervals: two diatonic, three chromatic, and one enharmonic, as is shown in the following table, each number of which signifies the parts of the tone contained in each interval (table 7). For example, the first number at the top of the enharmonic fourth, that is 48, signifies the last interval of this fourth contains two tones, each of which has 24 parts; and 6, which is the second number, signifies that the second interval in this same en- harmonic fourth is composed of six parts of the tone, and in similar fashion the others.2° It is easy from this to conclude that he divides all the intervals of the fourth into sixty parts, since the numbers of each of the six genres assembled all add up to sixty. On this point Salinas remarks that hexameter verse is divided into two unequal parts, of which one contains two and a half feet, as one sees in this portion of verse 49 First Book of String Instruments, XVI, 57-60. * Cf. H. 8. Macran, The Harmonics of Aristoxenus, (Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 1902), 249.88 SECOND BOOK OF STRING INSTRUMENTS ‘Arma virumque cano, and the other contains three and a half, Troia qui primus ab oris, just as the (interval of the] fourth contains two and a half tones, and the fifth three and a half; and that the tone is divided into two or four equal parts just as the spondee into two long syllables or four short. But I have explained in the First theorem of the Second Book of the Harmonie Universelle all the relations of metric rhythm with the consonances.* Taste 7. Table of the 6 Fourths, or Tetrachords, of Aristoxenos. Enharmonic Chromatic (flat) 48 44 6 8 6 8 Chromatic (hemiolic) | | Chromatic (tonic) 42 36 9 12 9 12 Diatonic (flat) Diatonic (sharp) 30 24 18 24 12 12 Now the lute, the viol, and the other similar instruments maintain this division in their temperament; hence all the makers of these instruments can be said to be disciples of Aristoxenos, who by this means has reduced all music to the equality of parts, to avoid the great diversity of intervals which is found in the ratios that I have deduced elsewhere in speaking of the perfection of the diatonic genre. There are still others who believe that this division of Aristoxenos ought to be preferred to all the others. This Vincent Galilei has endeavored to prove in behalf of his Ari- stoxenean friends, because this system is easier than all the others and the judgement of sounds depends entirely on the ear, without which the mind simply cannot know whether any sounds exist and to which it always has recourse when it wishes to judge their differences and properties. Otherwise the octave being always made up of five tones and two semitones in each diatonic species, if each tone were divided into two unequal semitones, many of these semitones would be useless in music, whether we consider them separately or joined with other intervals. For example two parts never sound the minor semi- tone in singing together, and nevertheless it is found between the sharp of D la re sol and the B of E mi la, and between the sharp of G te sol and the B of A mi la re. Now he maintains that this semitone is never practiced either alone or with other intervals. = Not Harmonie Universelle, but Traité de I'Harmonie Universelle, (Paris, 1627) p. 306. 38 Dialogo della musica antica e moderna, (Florence, 1581).PROPOSITION V 89 He says the same thing of the interval by which the false fifth exceeds the triton of that by which the major seventh exceeds the minor; of that by which the minor ninth exceeds the augmented octave; of those by which the intervals between the sharps of D and of F exceed the tone; of that by which the diminished fourth exceeds the major third, and of that by which the minor sixth exceeds the augmented fifth. In this way there occur a great number of thirds and augmented and diminished sixths, and consequently a great disorder and strange confusion in music. And this disorder would be still further increased if one were to use different tones with strings of fixed length, although they would be possible among those of variable length. That is why I conclude that Aristoxenos chooses the sharp diatonic, which has all its tones and semitones equal, after having considered that the other systems could not continue to exist, inasmuch as Pythagoras would place the major semi- tone above and the minor below, while Didymus would do the contrary in placing the major below and the minor above. The tritone of the former would exceed the diminished fifth in the former, and for the latter it would be less, etc. From this he takes occasion to compose all the intervals of the diatonic and chromatic genre of equal semitones. For example the fifth of seven semitones, and the tritone and the diminished fifth of six [semitones], of which the former occurs between four strings and the latter between five. Now Galilei says that this interval is in the same ratio as the side of the square to its diagonal. The minor sixth is composed of eight semitones, the major of nine; the minor seventh of ten, the major of eleven, and the octave of twelve. It is easy to conclude from this that the division of Aristoxenos is the simplest and that it has no interval which is not placed in practice. To which he adds that sound is a continuous quantity and not discrete, and consequently that it must rather follow the lines than the numbers, since no interval can be divided into two equal parts by means of them, except the fifteenth and its repetitions, but only by means of lines. And since he says the unison represents the center of the circle, and the octave its circumference, there are only these two inalterable consonances, since they cannot be even so little augmented or diminished that they do not hurt the ear, while the others, like the fifth and the fourth suffer all sorts of alterations which are accepted easily. Now this author is not blamable for having defended his friends, since after having rendered them this good office, which has made him say that fifth of the lute, being between the just fifth, the ratio of which is the sesquialtera, and the fifth of the keyboard instruments, which is too much diminished, is the most agreeable, he confesses himself in favor of the truth that the Pythagorean fifth is more agreeable than the Aristoxenean, and that nature has no regard for our convenience. So it does not follow that the system of Aristoxenos, in which the fifth contains seven-twelfths of the octave, is more perfect than that in which it is just. Now if one understands what I have said of the consonances and dissonances, he will have no need of any other enlightenment to recognize that it is not true that the division of Aristoxenos is easier than that which follows just intervals, which T have explained in many places; * and this will demonstrate that of all the systems possible, the latter is the easiest to sing and most natural, which follows the harmonic % E. g.in the Livre Premier des Consonances.90 SECOND BOOK OF STRING INSTRUMENTS numbers, as one experiences when some good voices sing many parts togethers they seinot do all that is marked in compositions of simple or shortened counterpoint, cain is used ordinarily, if they do not observe the distinction of the major and weet tone, and the major, minor, and mean semitone, and many others that I have explained. erhie Joes not hinder one from using equal tones and semitones on the lute, This is dong for the reason of convenience, and to avoid embarrassment and the multitude ipo that are necessary to find and make all the just intervals on the fingerboard. Grad it were as easy to mark the just consonances as the imperfect ones, there is rot Joubt that the performers would do it, since they come as close to them as they won by raising and lowering the stops more or less according to the goodness and securacy of their ears. Now it is still necessary to explain how many consonances accrRconances are altered on the neck of the lute, and consequently what its temperament is. ‘That I shall do in the proposition which follows, although it can seybined to this one, just as this can be with the preceding one; but I am separating thom so that the reader can draw his breath and take the rest that gives him new Strength. T wish to remark once and for all that I do not explain all that I promise seca proposition, for 1 ordinarily place the remainder in those that follow, unless T have already discussed the material in question more fully. For example, I announ- sae the Fifth Proposition that one could expect the explanation of all the music Cf the Greeks. although I have explained only the First Book of Ptolemy in the Skcoud and ‘Third Proposition, because the rest is found in the Book of Disso- nances,** and elsewhere* Proposition VI “To explain the temperament of the lute, and consequently of the viol and of the other instramnsus with Fee ne ace 'and to show how each consonance and dissonance is altered, that is to say. ‘bow fb derived from the just intervals ofthe Perfect System: In which will be seen the three genres of music in theit perfection. It is necessary to take for granted here what I have said of the perfect system, which bee 25 tones, or 24 degrees to the octave, otherwise it is impossible to under” eect what T shall say of the temperament of the lute in this proposition, inasmuch sath depends on the accuracy of the intervals and on the perfection, in which it participates as much as it can. That is why T am repeating here the oftave itself [table 8), which begins a semitone lower than F ut fa, that is to say E mi la = se that (aoe Tove the lute, and those who make it or who enjoy hearing perfectly of roost The diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic genres consist, which are included we ee tave of 25 notes, since the capital letters E, F, G, A, B-natural, C, D, E ‘how the diatonic notes, with B-flat as well as B-natural, although the B-flat applies tothe chromatic genre, inasmuch as the diatonic has only 8 letters, or nine, coun- ting the two D's, which are only different by a comma, This will be easily under tterd by the numbers that are along side of the notes to signify the rank they hold + Pst, 138 Livre Second des Dissonances, 132 ff 1% Big. Livre Troisiesme des Modes de ta Musique, 141 ft.PROPOSITION VI 91 in this octave, and for showing those that pertain to each genre, so they can be understood each in particular or all together, just as one likes. It is evident, then, that the numbers 1, 3, 8, 11, 16, 18, 21, 22, and 25 pertain to the diatonic genre, which serves as base and foundation to the two others, since these nine numbers correspond to the nine letters, or diatonic notes, which are only 8 in the scale, in which is recognized only one D la re sol, because no distinction is made of the major and minor tone, although it is used in singing, as I have shown gy elsewhere2” This diatonic genre is expressed by the radical numbers which follow, the intervals of which are written between 24 S€ (table 9). Tape 8. Notes of the three genres. % Taste 9. The intervals of the Diatonic genre, given in harmonic number an E mi la 72 major tone ar major tone Amik 108 D la re sol 80 minor tone 20 comma G re sol 120 Dia re sol 81 major tone oo) minor tone F ut fa 135, C sol ut fa 90 major semitone 38 major semitone E mi la 144 t B mi 96 7 As for the chromatic genre, it has 16 letters, and as many notes, if the diatonic ones are included, but in reading them, there are only 7 notes proper, that is to say 4, 5, 9, 14,15, 19, 4. and 24; for all the tones of the diatonic genre are divided into 2 unequal semitones by means of the chromatic genre, insucha 35 way that the tones are all divided into major semitones and minor. So that throughout, the minor semitone is the smallest interval of the chromatic, just as the major is the least of the #1 diatonic, although the other semitones, such as the major and the mean, pertain to the same chromatic, as many times as they 7° occur among the two places of the major diatonic semitone (table 10). But because there are three major tones in the diatonic, it is necessary for a comma to be left over after their division into major and minor semitones. That is why there are three commas in the chromatic genre, of which that which is between the two D's applies to the diatonic. Now the letters and the whole numbers which follow will better show what concerns the chro- matic than a more tiresome discourse would. From this it is evident that there are only seven chromatic strings which divide the five tones of the diatonic into semitones, that is to say the 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, and 15, for which can be found 7 new dictions to embellish the scale, or the harmonic hand of iesme Livre des Genres, Ill, pp. 150 ff we weaunan awe92 SECOND BOOK OF STRING INSTRUMENTS Guido d’Arezzo and to teach to children what Salinas has proposed, which seems only for scholars. Tasuz 10. The intervals of the Chromatic genre, given in harmonic numbers. 16 Emile 1440 8 Bia 2025 minor semitone major semitone 15 x 1500 7 Amila — 2160 major semitone major semitone 14 Dare sol 1600 6 x 2304 comma minor semitone 13 Dare sol 1620 5 Gresol 2400 major semitone major semitone 12 x 1728 4x 2560 minor semitone comma 11 C sol ut fa 1800 3 x 2692 major semitone minor semitone 10 B mi 1920 2 Futfa 2700 minor semitone major semitone 9 Bia 2000 1 Emile — 2800 comma Now as the diatonic was invented for the division of the consonances into major and minor tones, and into major semitones, and the chromatic to divide the said tones into major and minor semitones, in the same way the enharmonic has been arranged to divide the major semitones into minor semitones and into dieses; so it is necessary to divide all the minor tones into 2 minor semitones (which will be separated by the diesis, which always occurs in the middle, so as to find the major semitone below as well as above) and all the major semitones into minor semitone and diesis. This is seen so clearly in the table that follows that there is no need to explain it (table 11). In it are 12 minor semitones, five dieses, five commas, and 2 semi-commas, which I call minor commas. ‘Now many excellent analogies can be observed among these three genres, and particularly that the chromatic begins where the diatonic ends, by adding a zero, for the two extremes of the diatonic octave are 72 and 144, and those of the chro- matic 1440 and 2880, at which the enharmonic begins, the extremes are 28800 and 57600. Thus all the chromatic numbers are multiples of twenty of the diatonic, as are the enharmonic of the chromatic. Salinas concludes from this that the diatonic is like the line, the chromatic like the surface, and the enharmonic is similar to the solid, because if one takes the first from 1 to 2, the second will be from 2 to 4, and the third from 4 to 8; and consequently the third contains the two others as the solid contains the surface and the line, and as the reasonable soul contains the sensitive and the vegetant. And then the nine tones of the first, the 16 of the second and the 25 of the third are three squares, which are successive, and which are produced by the three roots 5, 4, 3, multiplied by themselves, of which the first yields the last two as well and is the diagonal of the right triangle whose sides are 4 and 3. ‘And if the number of the strings of each genre are taken in comparison with their intervals, the 9 tones of the diatonic will make a major tone with its 8 intervals, the 16 tones of the chromatic will form the major semitone with its fifteen intervals,PROPOSITION VI 93 Tape 11. The intervals of the Enharmonic genre, given in harmonic numbers. E mila 28800 : 40960 minor semitone comma 4 30000 . 41472 diesis minor semitone . 30720 A mi re 43200 minor semitone minor semitone Dlare 32000 . 45300 comma diesis Dlare 32400 4 46080 minor semitone minor semitone i 33750 G re sol 48000 diesis minor semitone x 34560 oI 50000 minor semitone comma C sol ut 36000 = 50625 diesis semi-comma = 36864 x 51200 minor semitone comma Bmi 38400 * 51840 minor semitone minor semitone B fa 40000 Futfa 54000 comma diesis Bra 40500 v 55296 semi-comma minor semitone Emi 57600 and the 25 tones of the enharmonic will form the minor semitone with its 24 inter- vals, so that the proper interval for each genre occurs in the same genre; and it can be said that the tone is proper to the diatonic, since it has taken its name from the tone, and has five tones; and it can be said that among the tones, the major is more natural to it, since it has three of them, and it has only 2 minor ones; that the major semitone is more proper to the chromatic, since it has 7 of them and only 5 of the minor; and finally that the minor semitone is proper to the enharmonic, since it has 12 of them, whereas it has only 7 dieses. This being admitted, the temperament of the lute must be explained, which consists of dividing the octave into two equal parts, each of which makes the tritone, composed of three equal tones, of which each is greater than the tone of the organ and the spinet, by the sixth part of a diesis, which must be imagined to be divided into 12 equal parts, so as to understand the alteration of each interval and each stop of the lute. Now since each tone is increased by a sixth part, the major third is aug- mented by a third of a diesis, and each semitone is too great by a twelfth part of the same diesis. But since this temperament depends upon the division of the octave into 12 equal parts, there must be explained the method by which one can divide the double ratio into twelve equal ratios, whence one can easily conclude how much each consonance is less or greater than it ought to be in order to be perfect.Proposition VIL “To show that the major and minor tone, the octave and all other intervals can be divided into twelve oF more sesh ter whence follows that one can divide the octave into twelve equal semitones in which will be cue rar of nding one or two mean proportionals between two given lines, of doubling the cube, Mir placing the frets on the neck of the lute and other instruments, Those who know no geometry and who use only ordinary arithmetic believe and conclude that the tone cannot be divided into two equal parts. Thus it comes that they divide the major tone into two parts, of which one is named Apotome, and the tthee Limma by the musicians who follow the tradition of Pythagoras and Plato, ote be seen in Ptolemy 2 and in the other Greek authors, of which I have spoken, 8 en Bosthius®? Faber, and Glareanus. The others divide it into two, unequal aoe sa ones, of which one is called major and the other mean, when the tone is major} Seriihen the tone is minor, the second semitone is similarly minor. But it is easy to aresde both tones, and all sorts of intervals of music into two equal parts as into wo unequal parts. For if one stretches a string which would be the mean propor, tee tT holween two strings which form the tone, the octave, or some other interval, the said tone or other proposed interval would be divided into two equal parts, so thet the first semitone of the major tone will be exactly equal to the second semitone, “As to the other divisions of the octave or of the tone into 3, 4, or more equal parts, it fea little more difficult, and there are even some certain divisions which can be None neither geometrically nor mechanically. Let us see first of all those which sre made geometrically, the first of which is that which divides each interval into Jequal parts through the mean proportional. The second division is that which divides through the device of all the other mean proportionals, that are found among the terms of the proposed intervals. Now there can be found 3, 7, 15, 31, 63, ete, tnean proportionals between two given lines, and consequently one can divide each Interval, for example the tone, the octave etc., into 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64 equal parts. ‘That is why the musician ought to know how the mean proportionals between two given lines are found. It will be shown K by this figure, in which AB and EF, being the two given lines, which, for example, represent the octave, since AB is double EF; I say that CD is the mean proportional, which divides the double ratio of AB to EF into two equal ratios of CD to EF and AB to CD (figure 10). G I ‘Now, to find this mean proportional —————— 3B or some other one that is desired, the —— two extreme lines which are_given must be joined so that they form a Figure 10, Geometrical solution ofthe mean proportion. single line, for example GH and HI, —F op. cit. 3 De institutione musica. 40 Stapulensis Faber, Elementa Musicalia, (Paris, 1496). 1 Heinrich Loris Glareanus, Dodecachordon, (1547).PROPOSITION VII 95 which are equal to BA and EF, and then the middle of the line GI must be found, and from the point L as center the circle GKI must be described. Then the perpendicular line taken at the point H, where [the perpendicular] joins the two given lines, to the point of the circle K, that is to say, the line HK, will be the mean proportional CD. If it is wished“still to divide each of these intervals, such as that from AB to CD and that from CD to EF into two other equal intervals, there must be found a mean proportional between BA and CD, and between CD and EF. This will be done in the same way as CD was found, since the method is a general one for finding an infinity of others of them. And if one prefers to make the right triangle GRI rather than the circle, he will produce the same mean pro- portional in taking the line KH from the right angle K perpendicular to the line GI so that the triangles GHK and KHI are similar, then through Proposition 8, of the Sixth [Book],® it follows that GH to HK has the same ratio as KH to HI. This always occurs with the segments of the diameter GI, from whatever point one can draw a perpendicular upon the line GI, to the circle GKI. There are some other divisions which can be done geometrically, although mechanics furnishes more means for making them, of which it is necessary now to speak. ‘The first is geometric and mechanical, for after having found a mean proportional between two given lines, there can be found by mechanics two mean proportionals between the two extremes and the mean, for dividing the interval given into six equal parts by the formation of five mean proportionals. This occurs similarly if one first finds two mean proportionals and then another proportional between them; then one will have eleven mean proportionals, which will divide the given interval into 12 equal parts, and consequently one can use this invention on the fingerboard of the lute and the other instruments in which the octave is wished to be divided into 12 equal semitones, as I shall say later on. And because one can describe a mean proportional among all the said lines, there can be found 23, 47, 95, etc., mean proportionals; and consequently one can divide each interval into 12, 24, 48, and 96 equal parts. ‘The third method of dividing each interval into many equal parts uses again the sole invention of two mean proportional, for eight of them are found, if one finds two means among the two first means and the extremes. And if one does the same thing among all the preceding, he will have 18, and then 38, 78, and so of the others up to infinity. From this it appears that each interval given can be divided into 3, 9, 19, etc., equal parts. And if one adds the formation of a mean proportional be~ tween each pair of the said two mean propottionals, he will have 13, 27, 55, etc., mean proportionals. If one takes a mean proportional among the 8 means, one will have 17, 35, etc., and last of all, if among the 17 one takes 2 means, he will have 53 and so with the others. With respect to the other divisions which assume 6, 10, or 12 mean proportionals repeated one or more times and mixed together, the geometers have not yet found the method, and consequently neither the tone nor any other interval can be divided into 7 or 13 equal pats, etc. From this it is easy to conclude in how many equal parts each interval can be divided, geometrically and mechanically. That is why it is unnecessary to give any examples of the tone or other intervals, since that depends on geometry, and this division is not in use in the true harmony. * Of Euclid’s Elements.96 SECOND BOOK OF STRING INSTRUMENTS Nevertheless since Aristoxenos and his disciples have divided the tone into 2 semitones that are equal, the semitone into two dieses, and the octave into 12 equal semitones, and many employ this division still on the fingerboard of the lute and viol, I wish to show here the practice of this division. Hence, let the two strings A and C be in sesquioctaval ratio, to make the major tone; I say that the line, or the string B, will divide it into 2 equal parts, which form the two semitones of Aristo- xenos, inasmuch as it is the mean proportional between A and C. And if another u A H: G F E pt © * mean is found between AB A and then between B and C, 3-—_______———__ there will be three mean ¢— —___ proportionals which will divide the tone into four equal dieses. As for the octave, there must be found eleven mean pro- portionals between the two lines, or strings AB and AN, if one wishes to divide it into 12 semitones that are equal. This can be done in two ways, that is in finding first of all the three mean proportionals AL, AH, and AE; and then two mean proportionals between AN and AL, between Land AH, between AH and AE, and between AE and AB. But the second method is easier, for one has need only of two mean pro- portionals, which must first of all be found between the two lines or strings ‘AN and AC, which forms the octave, that is to say AI and AE. As for the other nine lines, they are found in the manner which I have explained for finding the mean proportional, following this order AM, AL, AK, AH, AG, AF, AD, AC, and AB. And if one takes still a mean proportional between each line, he will find 23 mean proportionals, which will divide the octave into 24 equal parts, which can be called 24 dieses. This way it can be seen that the musicians can divide the other intervals of music, for example, the fifth, the fourth, or the third, etc., in as many equal intervals asthey wish, by finding the mean proportionals between the two given strings. Now, should it be wished to apply the twelve preceding semitones to the fingerboard of the lute, or some other instrument, it is necessary only to take the double, the triple, or the quadruple of all the said lines, to transfer them onto the neck. This will be done easily by means of the equilateral triangle, the base of which will represent the length of the neck; and the line BN applied parallel to the base of said triangle, the lines which are described from the peak to the base, through the points of the line BN, that is to say, through B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, and M will divide the neck into similar parts, and in consequence into 12 equal semitones. But since this division cannot be made without the invention of two mean proportionals between the 2 given lines, some methods must be explained here, of which the first is the simplest and the easiest, but it is not used to find the two means when the two extremes are in double. ratio, such as the two strings which form the octave; and consequently it serves to find the mechanical duplication of the cube up to a 329th part. Then let the two lines AB and AC be given in double ratio, one to the other; that is to say let AB be double CB ~I say that if the mean pro- portional BE is found, and if the line AD equal to the line EC is subtractedPROPOSITION VII 97 trom the line AB, that the line AD will be the greater of the 2 mean pro- 7B portionals, and consequently that BF, mean proportional between BC and BD will be the least, the cube of which is double the cube BC; for although many have demonstrated that this method is not geometric, they avow never- theless that it is not bad for mechanics, and that the error is not very per- ceptible, which does not hinder the ear of the musician from being satisfied with this division. The second method is fitting for finding two mean proportionals between two given lines, which Molther explains in this fashion in a book he has purposely written on it” Let two lines BH and GA be given, between which one will te have the two mean proportionals AC and DB, of which AC is the greatest, and DB the least. Now to find these two lines, a line of indefinite length must be drawn, GE for example, upon which must be taken and marked F three times the least of the given, that is to say GA, which is repeated three te times on the line GE at the points AG, AI, and IO; that is to say it is neces- > sary to draw a three-fold length GA, and then there must be drawn a triangle on AG, and another on HO, so that the compass may assume the opening of a half of the greatest line BH divided at the point C into two parts that are equal, to mark the two parts of the circle in F and D, where the two triangles end. Itis still necessary todraw a line from point Atopoint F, to have the triangle A AOF; and finally a line must be drawn from point D, which so cuts the lines AF and AO that the part from B to C, that is to say the part included between the two lines AF and AO is equal to a half of the greatest of the given lines, that is to say to a half of CH, for, this construction being completed, one will have the two mean proportionals, DB and AC, as I have said. From this Molthée concluded the tri- section of the ratio, because the ratio of GA to DB is the third part of the ratio GA to BH, of which it is the inverse third, inasmuch as although the sizes are continually proportional, the ratio of the first to the second is half of the ratio of the first to the third, a third of the ratio of the first to the fourth, a fourth of the ratio of the first to the fifth, and ad infinitum. From this it is easy to conclude that it is the same thing to divide the ratios by 2, 3, 4, etc., as to find the simple ratio the repetition of which the said ratios are composed. Pp % Johann Molther, Problema deliacum de cubi duplicatione, (Francofurti, 1619)98 SECOND BOOK OF STRING INSTRUMENTS : 0 me of us have demonstrated the method of finding two mean proportionals through the means of a parabola, with which they will one day inform the public, if it pleases them. That is why I am not speaking of it at this time. Corollary The two mean proportionals can also be found by means of numbers, if the size of the two given lines is known; for example one will have the number of the means between the two lines preceding (GA and BH) if one multiplies GA (which I assume to be 100 feet and BH 200) by itself, and if one then multiplies the product, that is to say 10,000, by BH, that is to say by 200, one will have 100,000 of which the double is 200,000, of which the cube root 125.9928 or 126 which gives the length of the lesser of the mean proportionals. And one will have the greatest if he multiplies first of all BH by itself, and then the product by GA; thence if one finds a number which is to 126 as 100 is to 125, or a line which is to DB as GA is to DB, this is easy to find by the Eleventh [Propo- sition] of the Sixth [Book] of the Elements. Corollary The easiest of all the possible means, which can be used to divide the neck of the lute into equal semitones consists of first marking the minor sixth on the fingerboard, which is done by dividing the length which is between the bridge and nut into 13 equal parts, of which the last five form the minor sixth against the first eight. Now this minor sixth being marked on the fingerboard will give the 8 stops for the 8 semitones, and for the 8 letters b, c, d, e, f, g, h, and i. For if one finds a mean pro- portional between the two strings which form the minor sixth and then two other mean proportionals between the preceding and the two extremes, and finally a mean between all the preceding, one will have seven mean proportionals, which divide the said sixth into 8 intervals, equal and geometric, because the nine lines, the least of which of 5 parts, and the greatest of 8 form the minor sixth are contin- ually proportional. And because one has no need of two mean proportionals be- tween two given lines in this division, which is entirely geometric, it is much better and easier, although the 8 equal semitones of this sixth are different from the semi- tones of the diapason, which we have divided into 12 equal intervals by means of eleven proportionals. Those who desire some other methods for dividing the octave and the neck of the lute and viol into 12 equal semitones can see Zarlino in the Fourth Book of his Supplement, Chapter 30, where he applies this division to the neck of the lute; and Salinas, his contemporary, in his Third Book, Chapter 31, so that it has been almost sixty years since the invention of the equal semitones of Aristoxenos has been revived by these two musicians. Now I shall give still another means for dividing the octave and the entire keyboard in the treatise on the organ, and in other places. 44 Probably refers to Descartes’ Geometry, published 1637.Proposition VIII To determine whether the diatonic genre of music, which is in use now is the Synton of Ptolemy, or the Diatonic of Pythagoras, of Architas, or Aristoxenos, or of some new genre: in which is seen all the different species of the diatonic, of the chromatic and, of the enharmonic, which was proposed by the Greeks, The Italians are very exercised over this question, and particularly Zarlino and Galilei. But if one considers the poverty of this genre, following the description Ptolemy has given of it, it is evident that our music, which has all its consonant thirds and sixths and which uses the mean semitone, the minor and many others, is not the synton of Ptolemy nor any other of those the Greeks proposed, as I have made clear through the enumeration of all their classifications, of which it is un- necessary to speak, if one is contented with the systems that I have already proposed, of which each is more perfect than all those of the Greeks; but because many be- lieve that the classification of Ptolemy and the others that he related, are not 50 perfectly understood, and because they imagine that there are great secrets in the depth of his doctrine, the deprivation of which has robbed us of the experience of partaking of the marvelous effects of their harmony, this matter must be investi- gated, so that the too great respect borne by some of us for the ashes of the Greeks may not throw us into a perpetual distrust of our proficiency and in despair at arriving at as great a perfection of harmony as that which they practiced, according to what can be’ conjectured of it from the books they have left on it. The three most celebrated species of the diatonic have been those of Pythagoras, of Didymus, and Aristoxenos, as Galilei has observed in his reply to the Supplement of Zarlino** That which was practiced at the time of Pythagoras, and which has lasted up to Glareanus, according to the opinion of all those up to his time, is called Diatonée, because all its tones are major, although this diction can be proper for the diatonic which Ptolemy calls Synton in the first chapter of his second book of music, and which is attributed to Didymus, since it has as many tones as the other, although there are 2 species of it, that is the major, like that of Pythagoras, and the minor, of which the ancients did not speak, as is seen in Plato, Aristotle, and the others, who only recalled the major tone, which they called sesquioctava, because of the ratio of 9 to 8, which is between its 2 extremes. As to the diatonic of Aristoxenos, which is called sharp, it has always been in use on the stringed instruments, upon which it is still practiced, for the lute, the viol, and the other instruments with neck it seems, have all their tones and their semitones equal, and their twelve semitones form the octave, although some other species can be used on these instruments, if one take the trouble. Let us see now the different species of the three genres, the first of which pertains to the diatonic genre is the most ancient, used by Plato to explain his thoughts. _ 192 Tt has two major tones, and a semitone, which can be called major tone Pythagorean, as is seen in this first table. It is not necessary to 216 give the entire octave of this species, since it contains only an- major fone other fourth similar to this one, but which is seperated by a ce major tone. There is no other difficulty in comprehending the ee sharp diatonic of Pythagoras. The second species contains the major tone, the minor, and 3 Op.cit.100 SECOND BOOK OF STRING INSTRUMENTS the major semitone, the ratio of which I have given elsewhere.* and is attributed to Didymus and to Ptolemy. This fourth is used on the perfect 2 instruments and in our vocal music; now this species is applied major tone in the second table which follows. 80 ‘The third kind of fourth, which they called peaceful and equal, canes because it arouses leniency, is composed of a minor tone, or a major semitone S@8quidecima, and a sesqui-undecima, as is shown in the third 6 table. Actually there is no kind of fourth which has its three intervals or degrees so equal, nor one that can be expressed by such small numbers, as this. This is worthy of notice. But another fourth can be added to this, which would be composed of the same intervals 9 by continuing the numbers up to 18, which makes an octave minor tone with nine, although those who are rather curious can try on the bY instruments whether this fourth, or the intervals which can be sesquidecima found up to 18 to complete the octave, have a good effect. These intervals are between 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 The octave in the other direction can be found, by continuing from 9 down to 6, to have the intervals, which are between 9, 8, 7, and 6; and to test the effect of the songs which can be made in this octave composed of two different kinds of fourth, the last of which has only 2 intervals. The fourth species is called flat diatonic, and is composed of the three intervals that follow. It is difficult to explain why they ate called flat, sesquiduodecima 12 168 for if one considers its two greater intervals, it ought rather major tone be called sharp; but perhaps they have only considered the 189 semitone, which is much less, and consequently softer and Cn sweeter than the semitones of the other species. Now it must se 5 not be thought that the voice can sing this interval, if it does sesquivinatseptiesme 04 Jearn the instrument upon which it will be marked. The same must be understood of the other species of fourth which are not in use. The fifth species is composed of the ratios which follow in the fifth table, but it is worth much more to explain the general method of dividing 63 the tetrachord, or the fourth in three intervals, such as one sesquiseptima would wish, than to entertain oneself by reporting the different _ 72 fancies of the Greeks, from which we can only retire in con- ae fusion or indecision, since we do not find that Ptolemy or the others were knowing enough or daring enough to determine what species the voice uses, in spite of the fact that they have proposed their different species only to find the means of con- serving the harmonic rule and to accommodate it to the sentiments of the ear, and to the ordinary intervals of the voice, which follow the perfect diatonic, which T have already explained many times in different places. "As for the instruments, one can mark them with an infinity of different inter- vals, For example, if the terms of the fourth are multiplied by 4, one has three species of fourth, actually. If one multiplies them by 5, he will have six other sorts sesquivingtiesme 38 Livre Second des Dissonances, 116.PROPOSITION VIIT 101 of fourths, to which can be given whatever name that one 12, 13, 14, 16 would wish, as is seen in this second table. It is esay to find 15, 16 twelve other species of fourths, if one multiplies its extremes 12, 14, 15, 16 by six, and so consequently by 7, 8. 9, etc., up to infinity. For although three intervals complete and compose the fourth, ie 1G ie. 29 One will have what the multipliers of the species and genres 15, 16, 19, 29 desire. If one wishes to see more particularly the species of 17 19, 20. the diatonic, the chromatic, and enharmonic genres of the 15, 17, 19, 20 ancients, he can find them on the 1894th page of the Comment- 15, 18, 19. 20 aires sur la Genese®* and in the Third Volume of the Verité des sciences, Theorem 5.38 For it is enough here to show our music at other intervals than the Synton of Ptolemy, as is evident in the thirds and minor sixths which are made major by raising them by a minor semitone, which is from 24 to 25, whether in rising or falling, and by the mean semitone, and by others the necessity of which I have shown in other places. I know they [the Greeks] wished the chromatic genre to be sung with two consecutive semitones, and with the sesquiditone, which we call the minor third, by which they completed their tetrachord, and that the enharmonic be sung with two dieses, and then with the major third, which would serve as a single interval. This I have explained so clearly and fully in the 17th Theorem of the First Book of the Harmonie Universelle,** that it would be like throwing light on the sum to add more; and the systems that I have explained in the Theory? include the three genres of music as perfectly as can really be desired, for composers can use such chromatic and harmonic degrees as they like in the said systems. But it must not be thought that one ought necessarily proceed by the single degrees of these genres when one takes the liberty of using one of their intervals, for the melodies would not be graceful and would be too constrained. That is why the musician ought to reserve complete liberty to employ sometimes the enharmonic diesis, sometimes the chro- matic semitone, and then the diatonic degrees in the same song, following his own design and according to the effect he would wish to produce. And there is no doubt that the Greeks, who practiced it, did the same thing, if they were judicious and skill- ful. As to the diatonic of Aristoxenos ,I have already spoken of it in discoursing on the division or on the temperament. I shall say here only that the octave of Ari- stoxenos does not have all its tones equal, if it follows the numbers which Ptolemy proposes in the Second Book of his Harmonics, chapter 14, as is seen in this table (table 12). ‘Whence it must be observed that there are two rows of numbers for each genre, the first of which contains the ratios of each interval; but I do not know whether the second can be explained indirectly or in some sense that one can grasp it, for although the second row of the minor diatonic of Aristoxenos is composed of 70, this remains 8 times, and this number seems to signify that all the tones of this genre are equal, nevertheless it is evident that the first numbers of this genre do not contain any equal intervals. If in place of 76 and 111, there were placed 75 and 110 or 115, there wre 15, 16, 17, 20 ounuNne & * Paris, 1623. Paris, 1625. ‘This reference is to his book Traité de I' Harmonie Universelle, 90-146. Exg,, Livre Troisiesme des Genres de la Musique, 141 ff102 SECOND BOOK OF STRING INSTRUMENTS Tawre 12, The Diatonics of five musicians. Archytas | —, | Arisjreyos | Bratosthenes | Didymus E 60)70 60/70 60/70 60|70 60/70 D 67(30 70\70 68\70 67/30 67/30 Cc 79 76\70 76\70 75/56 75\70 B 8070 80\70 80{70 80\70 8070 A 9070 sol70 so}70 9o|70 9o|70 G 101/15 101/70 101|70 101/15 110}15, F 115\43 111)70 113)70 113/41, 112/30 E 120\70 120)70 120/70 120/70 120|70 would be some equality between the differences of the numbers, although the difference of one would be 10 and the other 5; but otherwise the speculation on it would be useless. The second row of the other diatonics are explained in the same way: for example the sharp Diatonic or the Synton of Aristoxenos has the same 70 throughout, although the first numbers do not follow the progression of those of the genre preceding. Now since I have given these diatonics, I wish still to add those that Ptolemy proposes (table 13). Tape 13, Five Diatonics of Ptolemy. 60|70 60|70 60|70 60/70 60|70 68134 67/30 67) 3 66]40 66/40 76|11 77\.9 75|56 75\70 73}20 80/70 80|70 80|70 80}70 8070 90/70 90}70 90 102\81 | 101|15 | 101/15 | 100\70 } 100\70 1iji7 | 115)43 | 113/51 | 112}30 | 110/70 12070 | 120\70 | 120\70 | 120\70 | 120\70 70 90|70 90)70 Hap woUn It should be observed that all these species of diatonic have the major tone in the same place. This shows that they have all recognized and accepted the justness of the fourth and the fifth, and consequently that this tone is common to all the species, and that they have only sought the other intervals tentatively, without being able to hit upon the true intervals of nature that we use today. Thus it seems one can conclude that we understand the theory better than they, or at least the practice. This has not happened because of too little time and diligence, which they have employed in this art. inasmuch as they have produced so many volumes and have proposed so great a multitude of species of each sort of genre, as is seen in the dia- tonics and in the two tables which follow, of which the first contains the eight chromatic species and the second the five of the enharmonic which Ptolemy pro- poses and reports in the same place (tables 14, 15). If these genres and species can lead to some usefulness, I should correct some numbers with the Greek manuscripts of the Bibliotheque du Roy as I have done in the next-to-last [number] of the first row of the chromatic of Didymus, which I have put 111, according to the manuscripts, in place of the printed 114; but these species being useless and badly set up, time would be lost by stopping here anyPROPOSITION VIIT 103 longer. That is why I add here only their species of the enharmonic genre (table 15). ‘Now one can remark in all these tables that they would not give the same degrees to the tetrachord below that they do above, although in any other place they would form only a single genre of tetrachord or fourth for each genre, or each species of genre. From this one can conjecture, it seems to me, that all these tables are full of errors. But even so, they can serve as neither true theory nor practice, else I should have taken the trouble to reduce all these species into a single system composed of whole numbers as I have done with the system of Fabius Colomna. Nevertheless this discourse is not useless, for it serves at least as a faithful history, which shows the industry of the ancients, and makes clear that we have no means of believing Tape 14, Eight species of the Chromatic genre. Chromatic of ; The Hemiolitie] The tonic of Architas | f Atistoxenos | oF Aristoxones | Aristoxenos 60/70 60)70 60{70 60/70 73) 7 70\40 74h0 270 77/70 77\20 77/70 76) 5 30\70 80{70 30|70 8070 90/70 90/70 90/70 90/70 106|41 11270 111/70 108|70 115/43, 116/70 115)30 114/70 120|70 120/70 120/70 120170 Chromatic of Eratosthenes} of Didymus | of Ptolemy | —Synton of _|_ Protemy 6070 6070070 60\70 72{70 no fi 7270 70\70 70\70 75\70 ‘ 77,9 76|22 80/70 80/70 80}70 80/70 90/70 90/70, 90/70 90/70 108/70 108/70 108/70 115/70 114/70 111/30 115}70 111/33, 120/70 120/70 120170 120}70 ‘Tanux 15, Five species of the Enharmonic genre. ‘Architas | Aristoxenos | Eratosthenes | Didymus Ptolemy 60/70 60|70 60/70 60/70 60/70 73)\70 76|70 7470 75/70 75/70 77,8 78/70 77\70 78/30 78)15 80/70 80/70 80\70 80/70 80/70 90/70 90/70 90/70 90/70 90/70 106|30 114l70 114}70 11280 1120 1543 1770 117)30 1iglis 117s 120/70 12070 120,70 120170 120/70104 SECOND BOOK OF STRING INSTRUMENTS in the effects of their harmony, which were not much indicated, if they had no other fame than that which issues from their science and writings, in which one should have more belief than in some trifling statement, perhaps hasty, as is made by the historians and those who have not forgotten to praise their nation, blamed for exaggeration by St. Paul, I have nothing further to say on the subject. T have placed the 8 ordinary letters of the practice opposite each number of the diatonic species beginning with E mi la, because they begin all their fourths with the semitone on the bottom, so that if one wishes to sing all these species or experi- ment on instruments, one begins each octave with E mi la, but only the fourth and the fifth will be found perfect, which are in all the species, this one as well as the chromatic and the enharmonic, from 120 to 90 and 80. For Ptolemy makes use of this number 120 for all the species of each genre, as is seen in the preceding tables. This has perhaps brought about his use of the second numbers for some reason that he has not expressed, and he has not wished to render the intervals of each species in their exact form, so as not to be forced to find numbers too great, which he would have had to use to explain the true proportions without fractions. Proposition IX To explain the method of playing the lute perfectly, and of placing or moving each hand and each finger as is required to play well ‘The art or the science and industry of the hand is so great that many have called it one of the principal instruments of wisdom and of reason, by which it sends the thoughts and resolutions throughout the world by means of writing, and through which it explains the conceptions as well as does the tongue, as one experiences with deaf people and mutes, who write in the air with the single movement of the hands and fingers, by means of which they can make a great discourse and entire harangues as quickly as with the tongue. But without stopping on all the excellent works, it is enough here to consider its movements on the lute, and on all the other instruments, for they are so marvelous that the reason is often embarrassed to admit that it is not capable of understanding the lightness and speed, which surpasses the quickness of the liveliest imagination that can be encountered, as is experienced when one wishes to count the number of tones that it makes, or the strings that it plays, or its strokes in the time ot one measure. But since the practice is never better understood nor explained than by those who teach lute playing, I wish to give the treatise that Mr. Basset has made on the subject at my request, whose praise and virtues I should describe here, if his modesty did not keep me from it, and if they were not so well known in Paris, where he teaches according to the method contained in this proposition and in the two others which follow. The Art of Playing the Lute In which will be found the method of holding the hands well, and of making the tablature intelligible enough that it will be heard without difficulty; the diversityPROPOSITION IX 105 of the ornamentations, and their use, will be explained as well with examples both useful and curious. Article I: On the requisite conditions for whoever would learn to play the lute. The greater part of those who have treated of the arts and sciences impose three conditions for acquiring perfection, namely, the nature, discipline, and exercise, without which one cannot reach the goal proposed. Now, by the word Nature must be understood the inclination and the natural disposition that we have toward certain sciences, and towards the particular arts, as happens when some are attracted to painting or sculpture, and others to architecture, to geometry, etc. The discipline means the method and the instruction of the good masters; and exercise is nothing other than the practice of their precepts. Now these last two parts can replace the lack of the first, as the most unproductive earth is made fertile through the care and diligence of the laborer, so that those who believe themselves to be incapable of understanding this art ought to be assured that they can surmont the defects of nature and the inclination by setting into practice the lessons that we give them. And if it were necessary to point out some examples, I should furnish a great number, but this truth ought to be recognized without contradiction by the experiences that one has every day; that is why I am going on to things which are more useful, and say first of all that it is necessary for whoever wishes to give himself over to this noble exercise so as to receive perfect satisfaction to know a little of music, so that he will understand the value of the measures contained in its tablature, although men do exist who have so delicate an ear that they can (being taught) play, and string the lute with as much precision as the greatest musicians of the world; but it is unnecessary for those endowed with these rare natural qualities to ignore this art, without which nature is imperfect and blind. Tadd, nevertheless, that mere delicacy of ear is not sufficient, for it is still necessary for the equality of the two hands to conform to the precision so that they go both together in the same tempo, otherwise great imperfections will be noted in the playing; this happens from bad teaching of those who play the lute, but those who have the two hands equal and so adroit that they are capable of executing all that can be imagined, delight the listeners and force me to remember the opinion of Anaxagoras who would establish human wisdom in the hands, although men are not wise because they have hands, since they do have them, rather because they must be wise so as to execute what art and reason dictate to them. IL. The position of the right hand, and how it must be used. ‘After having spoken of the excellence and the equality of the hands, it is necessary to show the place where they ought to be placed upon the lute, for this placement serves as the first fundamental because one cannot play ... [the lute] without great stiffness and unsatisfactory demeanor if the hands are not well placed. I begin then with the right hand, so as to imitate the more skillful of the time, and say to start with that the lute, leaned against a table or another body, must be supported by the weight of the right arm, although one can hold it without this prop by means of two smail buttons of ebony or ivory. In the second place, the upper part of the hand ought to be seen as much on the side of the little finger as on the side of the thumb, which ought to be extended toward the rose. Thirdly, the first finger which follows and which is called the Index ought to be far removed from the thumb, and the second and third, which are called Medius and Medicus ought to be quite close to106 SECOND BOOK OF STRING INSTRUMENTS the first and bend as close as possible to the little finger. In the fourth place, the little finger ought to be propped on the sounding board of the lute, close to the bridge and the treble string, since those who place it behind the said bridge contract a bad habit which changes later on into second nature. So it is difficult for children whom one accustoms to this bad practice to change it when they are older. That is why they must have made for them small lutes, so that the distances of the strings may conform to the size of their hands, and they play it at once like the large ones. Now I have observed that one ought to show the upper part of the hand on the side of the little finger as well as on the side of the thumb, so that it is situated as we have just said, because the fingers ought all to be equally close to the strings. That is why I come to the use of the fingers, and first of all to that of the thumb, the joint of which close to its extremity must not be flexed, because it is necessary that it be quite as extended as if it were without bending, since one could not easily play the tenth string at the same time one plays the fourth, because of the great distance which would exist from the thumb to the tenth, if one had it bent while touching the fourth string. The first finger next to the thumb and which ought nevertheless to be quite far when one uses it, ought to play the strings by the corner of the tip nearest to the thumb rather than the middle; this must be carefully ob- served so that its action may be free to pluck or strike again the strings. Now when one plays only a single string with the first finger, it must be released from below while holding the finger tip quite firm. But when three or four are played, as occurs often, the tip must be held more loosely so that the finger be able to run more easily over the strings to be released or beaten. As to the second and third fingers, they must also lift the strings from below; and when they are not used they must be supported loosely next to the little finger. ‘The hand being held in this way, one must take care, while making the fingers operate, that the upper part of the hand is not thrown outwards, so that one can see that the hand is working only through the movement of the fingers. III. On the position of the left hand. There is no one who does not desire or seek to have good grace in everything that he does, as one experiences in all the honest actions he is obliged to expose to the eyes of others. From this it comes that one does not greatly esteem the professional horseman who makes the horse go well to the right and to the left, at a walk and at a gallop, if it is not straight and done with force. For it is freedom of action that gives a good grace to the action. Now so that one may play entirely with this liberty, which consists of the position of the left hand and of exercise, the thumb must be placed above the first fret close to the end of the fingerboard on the side of the treble string, in such a way that its tip is placed on the said fret and turned toward the head of the lute. And the point ought to be slightly raised so that the tip may be quite close to the string. As the the first finger, it ought to be placed a little to the side towards the head of the lute. But when it is placed at the same fret as the second, for example, if it is necessary to play two e’s, one with the first and the other with the second finger, ‘then the first finger must be straightened out. One ought also always to separate the first finger from the second when they are not at the same fret; but if there must be made a trill on the open [string], all the fingers must be joined one to the other, so as to increase its strength.PROPOSITION 1X 107 The second finger being placed over the fret of the lute ought to be almost straight, that is to say it ought to bend as much on the side of the bridge as towards the head of the lute. The third and fourth finger ought to be bent around and have their tips close to the strings, when they are not used, so that they may be ready in position. And if the hand descends one or two frets, the thumb ought to follow in place, for example, if one makes the e on the treble with the second finger (the thumb being placed below the first fret), and it is necessary to play the 8 with the second finger, it is necessary also to lower the thumb a fret. This must be observed always, wherever the hand will raise or lower. IV. On the ornamentations, Although the past centuries have produced very excellent men in all sorts of arts and sciences, and particularly in this of which we are writing, it can nevertheless be said that they perfect themselves all the more as they go on ahead. This is easy to Prove by the use of the ornamentations, which have never been so frequent as they are at the present. Thus the playing of our predecessors had none of the delicacies or the gracefulness which embellish ours, nor the diversity. But since the ornamentations are different in their effects as well as in their names, I shall attempt to make them understood, and to distinguish them through the characters which I have expressly invented for this subject, for each names the mand figures them just as the pleases. Now the one which is formed in this fashion: , is called “shake” ordinarily, and most people use no other character to express all the different sorts; that is why Thave not wished to change it, since it is familiar to everyone, so as not to use any novelty if it is not useful. But there are still other otnamentations which they call accens plaintifs, martelemens, verres cassez, and battemens, as we shall see at the end of this treatise. As for the first marked by this comma and used on the open string, it is necessary to consider two things for executing it well, that is, that the finger tip of the left hand, which ought to make this ornamentation, be well upon the string on which it is to be made and that the finger not be lifted from above the said string so that one perceives only that it has been played by the right hand, It must still be remarked that one may be in doubt whether one ought to place the finger at the fret of the b or the ¢ when this ornamentation is made on the open string, that is why I place a small dash above the character as follows: > when it must be made at the b fret, and if it is at the fret of the ¢ I place nothing over it. If this ornamentation is found at another letter than an a as is seen here, the first finger of the left hand must t-4-, be placed above the fret d, as the number shows which precedes the d, (since the numbers which precede the letters in the tablature signify the fingers of the left hand, which must be placed; for example unity signifies the first finger, 2 the second, etc.) and form the ornamentation of the little finger above the fret f. It still must be remarked that wherever this character is found, there ought to be an equal distance from the finger which marks the letter and that which makes the trill, as that in the preceding example. That is to say there must always be two frets’ distances between the two fingers. But if it is accompanied by a little Ld-5 dash above, as one sees, it is necessary to put only one fret’s distance between the finger which the letter marks and that which makes the trill. That is to say, that at the place where the trill is made above the fret f, it must be made above the fret e; this must be similarly observed in all the places and in all sorts of ornamentation with which the said sign is used.108 SECOND BOOK OF STRING INSTRUMENTS. V. On the ornamentation called Accent plaintif. Although the action of the left hand may not be used to make any ornamentation of the string for executing this delicacy, I have not wished to change the name given it ordinarily, and I figure it in no other way than the preceding, except to add a small point before, so as to distinguish it from the first, as is seen: -e-» Now this ornamentation is never made on an a; that is why it must be made on a b; one ought to play the open string as if it were an a, and after the sound of the string is half passed away, the finger must be let fall from above on the fret of the b with- out making any trill. But if it must be formed on an c and there is a little dash above the character, as one sees here ~e-s the first finger must be placed at the fret of the b, and after having touched the string with the right hand, the second finger of the left hand must be let fall onto the fret of the c, as was done on the preceding b. But if there is no dash at all above, as is shown “e-», it must be formed as the aforesaid b. And if it is ata d that it is necessary to make it, without any small dash above, one places the first finger at the fret of the b, and let the fourth finger fall at the fret of the d, as we have said above. But if it is accompanied by the dash, the second finger must be placed at the fret of the c, and let the fourth finger fall onto the fret of the d, as has been done with the other fingers. In some places that this ornamentation is made, if it is not at a b, there must always be a finger placed above that which the letter ought to mark. And then an equal distance must be kept between the two fingers of the left hand (whether the dash be shown or not) as that guards against the observation of the first ornamen- tation, of which we have spoken above. VI. On two sorts of Martelements, and ornamentations that some call Verre Casés or souspir. I mark the figure of this ornamentation with a small cross, as is seen: «, for example if it ought to be made on the b of the second, the first finger of the left hand must be placed on the second string at the fret of the b. And when one plays the second string with the right hand, he ought to make it trill with the left hand, and finishing the trill, the finger must be brought down firmly at the same place it was before, so that the string, after the ornamentation is achieved, will have the sound of a b. Now this ornamentation is only made on a b and ac and this with a single finger of the left hand. There is still another species of martelement, that I indicate with this character A, and it is different from the preceding one only in the number of fingers of the left hand, for only one was necessary in executing the former, whereas this one always needs two: for example, if it must be performed on a d of the second string in this fashion: —4,, two fingers must be placed, one on the fret of the b and the other at that of d; and when the string is played by the right hand, the finger which is placed at the fret of the b ought to remain fixed in this place, while the other which is placed on the fret of the d makes the trill; and when it is ended, it must be firmly replaced on the said string, in the same place that it had earlier, as we have said in the preceding ornamentation. And if this ornamentation is accompanied by a small dashed line above in this way: