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A Text-Book of Mining Geology For The Use of Mining Students and Miners 1000107300
A Text-Book of Mining Geology For The Use of Mining Students and Miners 1000107300
-BOOK
TEXT
GEOLOGY
MINING
FOR
OF
THE
USE
MINING
OF
STUDENTS
MINERS.
AND
BY
JAMES
PROFESSOR
DIRKOTOK
MEMBER
MEMBER
OF
OF
OF
OF
THE
FELLOW
OF
INSTITUTION
THE
CHARLES
GEOLOGICAL
OF
OF
OF
AND
MINING
OF
GEOLOGY
SCHOOL
INSTITUTE
PRESIDENT
INSTITUTE
MINING
AND
UNIVERSITY
AMERICAN
LATE
TOftb
MINING
OTAGO
THE
PARK,
OF
NEW
METALLURGY
MINING
OF
SOCIETY
THE
MINIS
ENGINEERS
LONDON
ZEALAND
ENGINEERS.
MINING
Jlluetrationean" 3 platee.
78
GRIFFIN
EXETER
"
COMPANY,
STREET,
STRAND.
1906.
[AllRigkt%Reserved.]
LIMITED,
Fa?
Digitized
by
PREFACE.
It
as
of
is
only
of
sufficient
in
recent
importance
distinct
academic
when
career
able
to
relation
academies
always
occupied
The
issued
lectures
exhaustion
of
to
the
present
The
the
in
matter
and
Valuation
of
requirements
in
Mining,
The
in
forms
the
genesis
of
the
been
and
in
its
In
the
has
the
added
form.
cally,"
Economi-
"The
to
the
author
enlarged
and
of
The
1902.
Considered
for
was
series
of
and
Valuation,"
have
no
geology
encouraged
Minerals
his
place.
end
revised
curriculum
new
tion
Examinawith
comply
the
associate-diplomas
Geology.
ore-deposits
problems.
is that
"
Mines
Metallurgy,
perplexing
teacher
of
Ore-
industry.
the
has
this
and
Ores
on
"Mine-Sampling
and
in
subject
comprises
at
in
Nature,
economic
pages
as
possessing
in
the
respected
publication
"
chapters
new
Europe,
form
matter
same
of
part
time
of
treated
was
most
at
occur
mining
following
little
that
the
and
Bulletin
in
bearing
of
prominent
they
as
Continental
of
mining,
dignity
Colleges
it
undergraduate,
true
economics
mining
of
young
the
and
the
for
regarded
the
to
long enough
taught
ore-bodies
of
grasp
the
to
the
Schools
Mining
For
been
elevation
its
principles
the
to
personal experience
least
the
subject, being
introduction
an
in
has
Geology
warrant
communities.
subordinate
Mining
to
department
English-speaking
as
that
years
The
is
chief
to
surrounded
by
difficulty encountered
generalisations
sufficientlydefinite
subject
have
be
not
yet been
many
by
the
crystallised
universally accepted
first
as
principles.
The
on
The
publication
of
Genesis
of
the
late
Professor
Ore-Deposits
1
^fil
'/'O
in
Posepny's
1888
may
classic
be
paper
said
to
PREFACE.
VI
have
marked
economic
has
the
beginning
geology. Since
been
of
the
in
era
new
historyof
the subject
the literature of
that date
S. Herbert
The
the
by
American
School
has
endorsed
not
the
views
extreme
of
respect to Mine
hard
no
and
English,and
has
all
been
were
within
fast rules
German
associated
in mine
agreed
to
as
small
certain
experienceand
Students
and
be
can
Valuation,it is manifest
laid down.
the
American,
Of
whom
mining engineerswith
author
the
although differing
prime essentials,
limits in matters
Differences in minor
in
Sampling
details must
of
procedureand
always
exist where
routine.
men
vary
temperament.
readingfor
advanced
in such
work
and
excellent
will find
honours
works
of Ore-Deposits,
publishedby the American
Tlie Genesis
as
Institute
of
Mining
Survey of
through
the United
the
Transactions
Engineers,of
Institution of
Institute
author
in many
of these
of
are
States ; and
the
the valuable
of the
Institution
American
of
papers
Institute
scattered
of
Mining
Mining Engineers, of
due
to
placesfor
the
writers
much
of
valuable
these
papers
assistance
and
in the
to
friends
preparation
pages.
THE
Univeksity, Dunedin,
March
the
N.Z.,
1906.
Digitized
by
AUTHOR.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I.
Introductory.
The
and
Scope
Re-forming
Rocks
Plutonic
"
of
Classification
"
Classification
Classification
of
Basis
The
Gold
Deposits"
Beaches"
Sand
blowing
Gold
Placers
Bog
Gypsum
"
Age
"
Inclined
Dykes
and
Varieties
of
Unstratified
Deposits
"
and
of
Effects
"
of Utah"
Lake
and
Formation
of
Deposits
Coprolite
of
Replacement
"
Gash
Volcanic
Beds
Deposits
Veins
"
Seams
"
True
"
"
Shales
Copper
Beds
Gypsum
Origin
"
Intrusive
"
of
Prussia"
"
Beds
Bedded
Copper
of
"
Occurrence
Faults
Mansfeld
Sandstone
Lead
Superior
Veins
of
posits
De-
of
of
Examples
"
Sand
Borax
"
Dip
Irregularities"Bending
Reefs"
Iron
"
and
Mode
"
Tin
Massive
Salt
"
Dry-
"
Alluvial
of Stream
America
Waters
Extent
"
of
Sapphire"
Beds
of
"
"
and
Black
"
Placers
Origin
"
Deposits" Strike
Banket
Rand
Deposits
Contact
"
"
Descending
Superficial
"
Associates
Tin
Ruby,
Faulting
Position"
Sandstones
Silver
"
of
graphy,
Petro-
of
Placers
Cement
Gold
Russia
Thickness
Origin
Coal
Classification
Lacustrine
Stream
in
of
"
Igneous
Influence
Deposits.
Victoria"
"
Stratified
Beds
their
Conglomerates
"
Action
of
Coal"
"
"
Iron"
Inclination
Deposits
Gold
Platinum
"
Sulphur"
"
of
Alluvial
of
Placers, Diamond,
Gem
"
"
"
Placers
Platinum
"
Forms
of Alluvial
Origin
"
Leads
Deep
Placers
Mineral
Placers"
River
of
The
Importance
"
Morphological
Placers"
Time
II.
of
"
The
"
"
Rocks
Rocks
CHAPTER
Destroying
Alteration
"
Igneous
Igneous
"
Geological
Overflow
Igneous Rocks"
of
Bosses
in
in
Earth
Sedimentary
Contents
Origin
Minerals
and
Metals
"
Dykes
Rocks
Dyke
"
mostly
Fossil
"
of Water
Action
Crust
"
Life
Distinctive
by
Rocks
The
"
Earth's
The
"
of the
Geological Structure
"
Sedimentaries
of
Alteration
marked
Geology
Geological Time
of
Beginning
and
of
Purpose
Stockwork
Fahlbands
Fissure
"
pregnations"Segrega
Im-
Veins,
"u
t
Digitized
^by
VU1
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
Ore
Veins"
III.
their
Wall
Movements,
page
"
"
"
"
"
"
Condition
of Metallic Contents
Shoots
Position of Valuable
"
Wall
Contents
of
Pay
Vertical
Distribution
of Ores
Country Productive Zones
Veins
of
Enrichment
of
Veins in
Secondary
Impoverishment
Indicator Beds
Depth
Paragenesis Temperaturesin Deep
Rock
Mining" Recording
Temperatures"Limits of Deep Mining
Metasomatic Replacement,
"
Gold
"
Bonanzas
"
"
Movements
Influence
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
59
......
IV.
CHAPTER
The
Definition of Faults"
Faults
Trough
GraphicMethod,
"
Dynamics
with
parallel
Faults
Faults
"
Beds.
Bed"
Dip
Lodes
Faults"
Step
Zimmerman's
"
93
.......
CHAPTER
Ore
and
Lodes
of
Deposits
V.
Genetically
Genetic
Classification"
Considered.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
CHAPTER
Theories
EruptiveProcesses Theory
Summary,
"
of
VI.
Vein
Formation.
Secretion
of Lateral
"
Ascension
of Solutions
"
Digitized
by
.129
CONTENTS.
IX
CHAPTER
Ores
Minerals
and
VII.
Economically.
Considered
page
Alum
"
Aluminium
Antimony
"
Arsenic
"
Asbestos
"
Asphaltum
"
"
Cement"
Borax
Chromium"
Coal" Cobalt
Baryte8"Bismuth
Copper Cryolite Diamond
Fireclay Fluorite Gold Graphite
Iron
Lead
Gypsum
Magnesite Manganese Mica
denum
MolybNickel
Petroleum
Oil Shale
Phosphate RockPlatinum"
Slate
Quicksilver Silver
Sulphur Talc Tin
.142
Tungsten" Zinc,
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
CHAPTER
Mine-sampling
"
"
"
VIII.
Ore-valuation.
and
Record of Samples
Sampling Equipment Sampling Intervals
Breakingthe Sample" Sampling Reduction of Sample Assay of
Samples" CalculatingValue Future Prospects Sample Values
and Mill Values
SamplingDumps and Heaps,
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
CHAPTER
The
Valuation
of Metal
Examination
Mines
of Alluvial Ground,
Index,
Valuation
and
Mine"
.
IX
Developed Mines
"
Classification of Ore in
and
Valuation
of
Mines.
Going
of Coal
Concerns
Areas
"
"
tion
Valua.196
.214
Digitized
by
186
Digitized
by
MINING
GEOLOGY.
CHAPTER
I.
INTRODUCTORY.
The
:
Earth
Contents
"
the
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
The
and
Scope
geology is undertaken
Purpose
by two
who,
patientinvestigator
hope of material gain,is
composed
of
mineral
of the
investigation
of
Geology."
The
classes of student.
study
There
of
is the
matter, but
extends
and
origin,
composition,
his researches
structure
to
the
of the rock.
who
views a mineral
from a commercial
utilitarian,
and is willingto undergo a special
of
course
standpoint,
valuable
order
t
he
from the
to be able to distinguish
trainingin
Then
there
base and
The
is the
worthless.
science may
therefore
be divided
into Theoretical
Geology,
knowledgeof
to understand
should
the fundamental
the
prepare
course
systematic
of the
principles
himself
for
his
firstis necessary
mining student
professionby going through a
reason
every
in Gfeneral Geology.
that many
of the
eminent
most
to observe
satisfactory
guished
mining engineersin Europe, America, and Australia are distinmodern
anatomy is to the
geologists.What
surgeon, so
is geology to the mining profession.
It is
GEOLOGY.
MINING
Geological Structure
Earth."
of the
The
of the
crust
earth
is the
occur.
mineral-deposits
of
Geologicaltime
Geological Time.
Beginning
conditions which
back to the firstbeginningof the physical
"
the earth.
prevailupon
Accordingto
celestial bodies
of
mass
and
astronomers
at
the
of its
now
necessary
the earth,like
physicists,
present time,
glowingincandescent
the radiation
clear,it will be
this
the evolution
tp trace
To make
dates
gases
existed
once
as
many
nebular
swinging through
By
space.
of countless
course
crust
itself to
thicker
crumpled and
a
and
rucked
up into
ridgesand
like
valleys,
the skin
of
dried-up
apple.
In the
became
scarred
and
vapours
hollows,and formed
the
the
of time
course
cool
the firstseas
that
ever
watery
settled in the
existed on the face of
globe.
restless waters of the new-born
at once
seas
began to wear
the dry land,and the streams
to deepen
the valleys
draining
The
away
and widen
their channels.
without
beds
denuded
material
spreadout
was
on
rockyfloor of the seas, thus marking the
beginning of the conditions of sedimentation that have existed
in
and
layers
The
interruption
up
sediments
The
the
Action
were
to the
water
presentday. These ancient fresh-
the firstrecords of
of Water
in
time.
geological
"
From
that date up tillnow, water
has continued
to be the most
a
nd
in
the
surface of the
powerfulagency
sculpturing
modifying
earth.
In wasting and erodingthe dry land, in transporting
the
eroded
material,in sortingand
spreadingit out,
unceasingthroughoutall time.
portionof the originaligneous crust,or even
the
action
of
has been
water
No
formed
sediments,has
ever
been
stillexist,buried beneath
may
The
the
fixed
of matter
a
forming the earth is practically
quantity; hence it is evident that all the depositsand beds now
forming the surface of the earth must have been derived from the
amount
destruction
of
rocks
sedimentary
later date.
Digitized
by
of
INTRODUCTORY.
beginning of geologicaltime
since the
appearedre-sorted
has
have
denudation, or
in different
easy to understand
It is now
geological
ages.
the
been
removed
by
entirely
isolated
represented
onlyby
are
forms, in
how
some
this
lasting
ever-
remnants
of small extent.
mostly Sedimentary."
Crust
Earth's
The
An
tion
examina-
that
fossil contents, shows us
gradualdepositof sediments on
some
accumulation
called
sometimes
are
the
and
Water
valleysand
The
on
some
our
or
main
of
lake, in
they
factors,
namely,
the cementing
as
"
induration,alteration,or
fair
meta-
subjected.
the same
transporting,
eroding,
all time
what
the
growth and
the
clastic rocks
character
shores is
sea
by
we
see
now
example
in
going on
of what
took
our
placein
time.
geological
shales ; while
shores
the
formed
sands
The
of
amount
sortingpower, and
gravelson
borne
material, the
through
possessed
has
and
earliest
the
to which
morphism
"
the
of
texture
medium,
have
or
sedimentary
is dependenton three
of
structure
physical
formed
been
the floor of
from solutions,
or
by
by precipitation
of animal or vegetableorganisms.
cases
The
have
they
the
Alteration
conglomerates;the
sandstones ; the
littoral shell-beds
distant
more
and
of Sedimentaries.
been
formed
muds
"
later movements
water-
became
stones.
lime-
older sedimentaries
which
have
affected
of the
the crust
earth.
weight of
and altered by the simultaneous
entanglement in great earth-folds,
thermal
action of pressure, heat, and circulating
Thus
waters.
limestones
have been changed to marbles, sandstones to quartzite,
mudstones
Fossil
and
Contents.
existingstrata
remains
of
shales to slates
"
contain
plantsand
schist.
or
Examination
a
of
shown
indistinct
few
animals
has
very
and
that
the
earlier
badly preserved
primitiveand lowlytype.
GEOLOGY.
MINING
complexstructure,such
saurians,palms,and
contain, besides
mammals
higher
highly
lizards,
deposits
younger
remains
of many
or
fishes,the
have
lowlyto the
Geological Time
from
and
molluscs
which
In other
The
of
bird-like
molluscs,fishes,
huge
as
tree-ferns.
large and
the
forms.
highlyorganised
more
marked
shown
has
investigation
beds.
only in certain
distinctive forms.
Such
Distinctive
by
that certain
fossils
Geologistshave
organic forms
termed
are
taken
haustive
Life." Exoccur
characteristic
or
of these
to
advantage
time
geological
subdivided
as
shown
into
below
"
Recent.
.Pleistocene,
TERTIARY,
or
Cainozoic
Pliocene.
Miocene.
Eocene.
(
SECONDARY,
or
Mesozoic
"
Cretaceous.
Jurassic.
Triassic.
Permian.*^
Carboniferous.
PRIMARY,
or
Devonian.
Palajozoic
Silurian.
Cambrian.
Laurentian.1^
Such
cover
terms
vast
reference
whereas
as
aeons.
that
and
names,
is said to be of Miocene
rock
time
age,
it is
comparativelyyoung ;
Silurian
of
of
extreme
is
one
a
antiquity. For
age
these time periods
of close investigation,
sometimes
are
rock
purposes
stillfurther subdivided
by geologists.
Throughout
Origin of Igneous Rocks.
shell or crust of the earth has been subjectto
"
overflow
evidence
all time
the outer
of molten
that
frequent,more
violent,and
more
widespreadin
earlier than
in
INTRODUCTORY.
volcanic
frequency of
Yet, notwithstandingthe
geologicaltimes.
later
probablynine-tenths of
of sedimentary
or
are
that
rocks
the
themselves, but
in
fracturingof
the
fissures which
have
crack
rock
volcanic
caused
has
therebyforming
theypenetrated,
been filledwith mineral matter.
subsequently
which
issues from a
igneous magma,
overflows the surrounding country, is called a
Such
if they cool
overflow
lava.
magmas,
and
vent
or
intrusion
rocks, which
Rocks.
Overflow
their
cases
many
or
An
"
rapidly,are
"
stress.
which
Magmas
assume
cool
reach
the
example,often
in the form
occurs
bosses
These
are
of bosses.
to
deep-seated
occupy
their appearance
long subjectedto
more
at
the surface
They
erosion.
entirely
so
than
rocks.
that, according to
see
we
eruption,cooling,and
volcanic
glass,an
boss.
crystalline
rather
cases
Granite,for
bosses."
"
in structure, even
crystalline
completely
Thus
termed
generallybelieved
cavities in the
dyke
most
"
presentsurface by denudation,are
are
in
Bosses.
adjoiningrocks,in
not
pressure,
structure.
crystalline
Plutonic
did
slowly,under
than
Alteration
The
chemical
of
sedimentaries,are
pressure,
the
the
same
ordinarylava, a
difference is
varying conditions
one
magma
may
of
become
composition.
Igneous Rocks."
subjectto alteration.
All
igneous rocks,
Pressure
like
in the presence
MINING
of
has
superheated steam
GEOLOGY.
caused
often
rearrangement of the
found
secondaryorigin. Moreover, it is
morphism may cause altered lavas and
structure
Metals
rock
not
and
Minerals
date
of recent
commercial
metals
value.
have
Traces
found
been
of economic
tuffs to
assume
meta-
schistose
in altered sedimentaries.
to contain
in modern
volcanic
No
of
deposits
metalliferous
and
gold,silver,
of
intense
Igneous Rocks."
in
is known
that
base
of the
most
importanceassociated
and
both of secondary
origin.
gypsum,
The Miocene andesitic lavas and tuffs of the Sierra Nevada
and Banat
in
districts in America; Transylvania
and
Hauraki
and
of
Sumatra
in Malaysia
Borneo
;
CrippleCreek
Hungary ; of
Peninsula
of
in New
flow of andesite
contains
the
near
other
The
the
veins
Of
distribution
of
gold
althoughthere
of
and
Dykes.
of
country, which
Intrusive
fair to
are
granite,
in
and
some
contents
as
the contact
near
coincidence ; and
which
way
are
secular
the
and
the
clear
very
with the presence
softer and
fractured
foldingof
the
of tin and
by
the
boss
may
have
been
the
yieldingsedimentaries
earth.
that,
and
its
tiltedand fractured
lateral stresses
crust of the
conclude
to
have
possibly
more
copper.
is too frequent
compelledto
are
we
the
neighbourhoodof
granitebosses
and
is not
connected
againstwhich
adjacent
often impregnated
are
granite,
with sedimentarystrata ; and in
crushed
or
the
tracks
those of
The
the
fissures in
rocks,in
sedimentary
traversed by valuable veins
mere
that
assume
channels
potent influence
deposits.Many valuable
vicinityof dykes; and
knowledge concerningthe origin
the
cases
selves
often them-
not
waters.
bosses,such
tin-stone
to be
diamonds, opals,
in the
occur
then became
of mineral-laden
The
is
metalliferous
copper
seems
are
exercised
they have
originatedfractures
dyke-material
with
of
rocks
Dyke
"
is little definite
vein-matter,it
other
which
stones.
precious
Influence
metalliferous ; but
on
are
Zealand
occurrence
copper, an
therefore of great scientific interest.
times
some-
are
in New
Heads
Manukau
native
lead,and zinc
of copper,
ores
large grainsof
and
rare
veins
gold-and silver-bearing
Zealand, contain
and
initiated
anvil
were
by
Igneous magmas
the
are
INTRODUCTORY.
charged with
most
of the
and
water
water
and
During the
gases.
the
there
on,
steam
were
is
and
steam,
evidence
much
gases
afterwards
cooling,
highlyheated
as
expelled
gases are
later
of
process
laden
were
in the
deposited
to
with
of
zone
fracture.
Classification of
igneous
rocks
Igneous Rocks.
For
"
be classified in three
may
as
groups
follows
our
presentpurposes,
tinguisha
disand easily
principal
:
"
Altered
Class.
A.
B.
C
L,.
Volcanic
Basic,
Type.
Basalt.
Diabase.
Andesite.
Diorite.
Intermediate,
I "a)Trachvte-
Acidic
Acidic,
( Syenite.
^ (fe)
Rhyolifce
} Granite.
are
productive
most
distinct science,which
concerns
and
structure, composition,
itself
nomenclature
diabase,
formerlya
"
the
or
Holocrystalline
Type.
it has
veloped
de-
with
chiefly
of
igneous
and
of
the
rocks,
although
generalisations petrography
crystalline
little bearing upon
the phenomena of structural
have
geology,it is needful that every geologistshould have an
and
intimate
knowledgeof
Valuable
rocks that
minerals
it
seems
its leading
features.
are
so
associated
frequently
to
impossible
exists
geneticrelationship
reallyis has yet to be
deposits.
between
with
them.
determined
in
the
this
that
igneous
a
close
relationship
majorityof
ore-
known
to separatein the
Rock-forming constituents are now
of the
in a definite order, and the investigation
coolingmagma
laws governing magmatic differentiation promisesto throw much
lighton the genesisof ore-deposits.
Digitized
by
CHAPTER
CLASSIFICATION
Contents
"
Basis
Gold
Deposits
Superficial
Beaches"
Sand
Black
blowing
Origin of
Placers
"
"
Extent
of
Tin
Stream
"
Waters
Origin of
"
of Alluvial
"
Placers
Dry-
"
Gold
Stream
"
"
"
and
Intrusive
of
Deposits
"
their
Sulphur
"
Inclination
"
Inclined
"
and
Dykes
Gypsum
"
Beds
Bedded
Age
"
"
Borax
"
Dip
"
"
"
Salt
"
Beds
Examples of
of Occurrence
Mode
Faults
Placers
Cement
Associates
"
"
Strike
Deposits
"
Gold
Lacustrine
"
"
of
Formation
Placers
of Victoria"
Leads
Classification
Morphological
"
Platinum
Tin
Gem
Russia
and
America
Iron
in
Sand
Placers
Ruby, Sapphire Massive Deposits Bog Iron
Platinum
Thickness
DEPOSITS.
River
"
of Alluvial
Placers, Diamond,
of Descending
Action
Stratified
Placers
Deep
Forms
Alluvial Gold
Placers"
Classification
of
"
"
MINERAL
OF
The
II.
"
Beds-
Origin and
Faulting
Irregularities
Coal"
Position
Effects
of
"
"
"
"
Rand
Banket
Mansfeld
Varieties of Coal
Reefs
Bending of Seams
Prussia
Silver
of
of
Lead
Shales
Sandstone
Sandstones
Utah
Copper
Lake
Beds
of
Copper Conglomerates
Superior Coprolite
Gypsum
Beds
Unstratified Deposits Deposits of Volcanic
Origin Stockwork
Deposits Contact and Replacement Deposits Fahlbands
tions
ImpregnaTrue Fissure Veins.
SegregatedVeins" Gash Veins
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
in
so
that
"
Basis
The
Classification.
of
different
and
forms,
many
the attempts of different
founded
natural
upon
In any
success.
"
"
it must
case,
under
so
writers
to
basis,have
depositsare found
varying conditions,
Mineral
"
not
many
formulate
classification,
attended
been
be remembered
that
with
much
classification
of the
combination
The
first
principlesof
The
understood.
formulated
that
will
ore
deposition are
diverse
most
authorities
eminent
two.
; and
theories
it is doubtful
satisfyall
the
are
if
still
theory
conditions
imperfectly
advanced
by
still
and
has
yet been
explainall
the
facts.
The
Until
basis
then,
for
natural
outward
classification has
form
and
8
mode
of
still to
occurrence
be
discovered.
seem
to
10
GEOLOGY.
MINING
Class
I.
SUPERFICIAL
DEPOSITS.
(a) Fragmentary.
Definition
of Placer Deposits. These embrace alluvial deposits
all
of
lake deposits,
or
kinds,whether beach sands, river gravels,
d
rifts
loose
o
f
glacier
platinum,
containing
particles gold,tin-ore,
alluvial
iron ores, or preciousstones.
include
the
also
deep
They
South
of California,
leads,or deep placers,
Victoria,and New
Wales, which are often covered with a sheet,or sheets of basalt.
"
Gold
Placers.
gold is concentrated is
termed
the pay-washis
or
pay-wash, pay-dirt,
pay-streak.When
covered by a considerable depth of gravel-drift
other
or
cover, it is
termed a deep-lead.
Methods
to their
of working Placers. Alluvial drifts,
according
That
drift in which
the
portionof
the
"
are
situation,
worked
(1) By ground
follows
as
:
"
gravitationsluicingwith
or
not
under
water
under
water
pressure.
with
(2) By hydraulickingthat is,groundsluicing
"
pressure.
and elevating
with water under pressure.
(3) By hydraulicking
This method
of the
is only resorted to when
the configuration
to construct
a tail-race
or too costly,
ground renders it impossible,
for
Blue
or
much
success
at the
the
gravelsare
alluvial drifts of
New
dyke, California,
Siberia.
beach-sands containing
ironsand,
Gold-bearing
mostlymagnetite,
occur
and
alongthe
the Gold
Among
shores of Westland
Coast
the
Southland,in New
Zealand,
Africa.
later alluvial
of West
and
sea
succession
back
of
to
beds
upturned edgesof
the
of
foot of the
mountains.
and
sand, gravel,
It consists of
clay restingon
rock.
The
the
surface is
CLASSIFICATION
covered
with
layerof
to
is found
concentrate
tundra
from
appear
tundra
and
moss
11
DEPOSITS.
MINERAL
decayingvegetablepeaty
matter
matter
The
OF
gravels bear
their bedded
in
deposited
lake-basin
or
evidence
no
and
water-worn
in
shallow
glacierorigin,but
of
character
sea
to have
estuary of
the
near
been
a
largeriver.
Glacier
found
was
"
contain
to
classes of
two
"
masses,
other
the
classes
2."
water.
moraines.
(b) Glacier
gravels.
drained
often mixed
worn
The
at
one
trans-
Face.
ice.
first forms
and
gravels
Section of Glacier
(a) Glacier
river which
are
{d)Glacier
Fig.
by
by
Terminal
"
(c)Glacier tunnel.
(a) Moraines.
rock.
(b) Basement
is
by glaciers
overrun
matter
transported
Fig. 1.
morainic
once
sands
tumbled
deposited
Valley.
(c)Basement rock.
(d) Glacier river.
the
certain
bottom
of
points.
the
When
glacier.Both
the
country is
the glacier
gravelsand morainic matter contain gold.
gold-bearing,
formed
moraines
The
are
by ice which cannot separate the gold
from the rock debris ; hence the goldis scattered through it just
the
the glacierhappened to drop it. The glaciergravels,
on
as
12
MINING
other
GEOLOGY.
hand, beinglargelya
gold in
Many
of the
moraines,contain
of the
terraces in New
gold-bearing
of the Rocky Mountains
bear
higher valleys
river origin,while some
are
composed of a
gravelsand
morainic
the
form.
concentrated
more
rewash
Zealand and
evidence of
rewash
of
in the
glacierglacier
matter.
laid down
evidently
at
previoustime,under
some
similar conditions.
The
becoming finer
dirt is too
and
scarcer,
So
to
poor
pay.
the
will
pay-streak
and
spreadingout below,
long as
the
until the
of gravels.
River-course,
showingposition
continue
form
to
as
from
year to year.
size of the gravelseems
to show that the
The average uniform
gold is only depositedwhere the current has a certain medium
velocity.At the points where the bends in the river are made
is generally
deeper
permanent by rockybanks,the pay-gravel
more
and
of
greaterextent
richest
The
river,as
scour
of
gold does
elsewhere.
collect in the
not
but
be expected,
might naturally
ledgesbelow.
occur
than
The
in narrow,
the water
reason
that
too
where
pot-holesgenerally
the
and
velocity
parts
great to permit the permanent
rock-bound
are
be
in the
deep pot-holes
the bars or rockyon
CLASSIFICATION
OF
MINERAL
clayor
there
on
In
cement.
often
Buller
two
occur
Placers.
in the
false-bottom
alluvia
stiff
of
ness,
the drift is of considerable thickstreaks
more
typicalsection
Zealand,is shown
"
River, in New
of
pay-wash resting
in the
followingdiagram.
'
(b) Pay-wash.
It
"
does not
old channel
bed
or
bearing wash
of the
Old
or
; but
false-bottoms.
successive
River
where
cases
13
DEPOSITS.
sometimes
in the
occur
happens
present
that
the
gold-
but in
river-channel,
The
followingfigureshows a
Central Otago, New
Zealand.1
section of the Manuherikia
old river-bed was -excavated in mica-schist,
The
and the gravels
which fillit have been saved from destruction by the rim of schist.
The old river-wash is being worked
and the
by ground-sluicing,
recent gravelsin the present river-bed by bucket-dredges.
an
by.
Valleyin
near
Lacustrine
the next
Placers.
"
typicalexample of
payablepay-wash restingon
figure.2
Throughout
1
J.
Loc.
the
Manuherikia
basin
false-bottom
the
Explorations,1888-89,
Park, Geological
cit.,
p. 21.
lake
taining
con-
is shown
lacustrine
p. 24,
beds
beds
in
have
N.Z.
Wellington,
14
MINING
been
tilted almost
of
Sand
Beaches.
of alluvial
form
and Southland
ties
difficul-
the
edge,therebygreatlyincreasing
pay-washwith success.
on
workingthe
Black
GEOLOGY.
The
"
washing
the sea-beaches
mining pursuedon
Zealand.
in New
derived from
beach
of
sands
is
of Westland
The
rocks.
of the neighbouring
disintegration
the
gold
occurs
quartz sand.
of
of Victoria.
Deep-Leads
of
are
a
in
great extent
class of
and
also
deposit
The
"
buried
placersof
this state
value.
found
They
Fig. 6.
Section
"
Wash.
showing Lacustrine Gold-bearing
(AfterPark. )
(d)Carbonaceous sands.
wash.
(e) Gold-bearing
Stiff
(g)Schist
(/)
clay.
into which
higherlands.
depth as
channels.
lava
In
which
The
to
cause
some
cases
the
magma
stream.
area
when
valleys
the
was
fissures
tively
compara-
igneous magma
of the
diversion
the
ancient
and
streams
invaded
by
the
plateauxon
down
river-valley
which
spread itself
generally
This caused
over
seem,
river-system.
to
the
poured was
gravelsin
or
of
miles
of square
sites of the
lava
new
floods
river-
wide,
thin
diversion
partial
compel the river to find
only a temporary
it would
river,insufficient,
outlet in another
the
the
to
into
and
Where
crater-vents
filled with
generally
were
narrow
poured from
situated in the
such
lies on
gold-bearing
pay- wash
succession
of the
a
new
CLASSIFICATION
Where
it may
the
succession
be inferred that
the
of material
MINERAL
gravelbeds
of
thin
maintained
river, which
accumulation
OF
flows
its
had
15
DEPOSITS.
and
only
basalt
flows
originalwatershed
reached
such
occurs,
diverted
temporarily
a
heightas
to
CAMP
DQVtTVM
the
until
com-
MILL
ST*"tT
.Shaft \
Goldfield,
showing deep-lead
underlyingbasalt. (AfterR. Brough Smyth.)
choke
pletely
to
command
the old
up
a
outlet
new
valley,
whereby the
through
some
waters
low saddle
enabled
were
or
pass into
neighbouringwatershed.
Since the emission
tiki
by
and
streams
valleys.It
sculpturedinto
is noticeable
that
the
the
and
existingridges,
plateaux,
new
river-courses
graveland
basalt
pointswhere
crossed
the
by
except at the
newer
transverse
of
under
their
seldom
are
their load of
course
has been
streams.
^
16
MINING
GEOLOGY.
removed
the
has in some
cases
process of denudation
Thus
the
floor
the ancient river-valley.
barriers which
bounded
This
of the old
with
valley,
while the
ridges,
down
and
valleys
into
forms
basalt,now
flat-topped
have
the barriers
been
worn
watercourses.
ebb
Fig. 9.
"
Section
effects
Greenock, showing protective
(AfterR. Brough Smyth.)
of Mount
of basalt cap.
(a) Wash-dirt.
(b)Existingwatercourse.
The
Fig. 10.
The
gravelsrestingin
of Deep-Lead in
wash.
gold-bearing
Section
"
Victoria
generallylies at
rockygutter or
channel
the
cut
District,
showingposition
Daylesford
(AfterR. B. Smyth.)
deep-leads,
accordingto
by shafts,or
Cement
become
of
deep-leads
rock.
of
worked
the
pay-washin
from
Placers.
consolidated
"
the
of
the
Gold-bearinggravels
have
contour
ground,are
adit-levels.
into hard
cements,
or
even
sometimes
conglomerates,
the
carbonate
of lime, or
cementingaction of iron peroxide,
silica deposited
from waters which
at one
time circulated through
by
them.
Cemented
the
Silurian up to
recent and younger
The
measures
geologicalformations from
the present day. The most
important are of
placersare
in all
Tertiary
age.
found
Miocene
conglomerates which
brown
coals of New
form
Zealand
Nelson
; but
the
are
coal-
gold-
only in
18
MINING
Placers.
Dry-blowing
GEOLOGY.
As
"
result of
the
long-continued
sub-aerial
of
method
the
by
water,
blowing,which
consists
(PlateI.).
of Alluvial
Forms
which
of
been
have
found
the
ounces,
Gold.
Exceptingthe largernuggets,
"
shapes and
of all
sizes,up
gold generallyassumes
coarse
to
thousands
bean-shaped
form.
The
finer
gold occurs
small
as
heavy shots,but
more
which
flakes,ranging from the smallest particle,
thin
goldhas
been
derived
piecesof
with
gold-bearinglodes,fragments of quartz
the precious
metal are often met with.
Associates
alluvial
of Alluvial
Gold.
"
The
almost
from
of
constant
magnetitesand, the
often
as
floats
dation
the denu-
adhering
associate of
agencieswhich
led to the concentration of the gold having also collected the more
abundant
magnetite. It is found that whatever heavy ores or
minerals
are
associated with
are
also found
In
with it in the
in
Collingwood,
native
lead,in
the
years in
abundant
the form
New
to
of
shot,have
the
with
sluice-boxes,
up
skeleton
of round
to choke
as
the
is almost
gold.
been
In
found
for many
places it is so
ripples.Samplescollected by
the
chemical
the
chemically
pure,
and sometimes
encloses
gold.
Takaka,
hundred
near
ounces
of
gold;
known
garnets, locally
as
on
the West
rubies ; and
Coast
and
in Central
Otago
with
large
of scheelite and
magnetite.
Throughout Australia the alluvial gold is often associated
with
sands containing topaz, zircon, spinel,rubies, and
gem
masses
garnets.
denudation
of
Alluvial
"
o
"
Digitizedby
Digitizedby
CLASSIFICATION
in
ages, followed
countless
during
leads,or channels,by
Some
had
been
in
deposited
through
the
the
of the
concentration
gold
gravel drifts
in
by
19
DEPOSITS.
MINERAL
writers have
largenuggets
OF
was
situ from
evidence
an
that alluvial
but
gravels,
gold
solutions circulating
gold-bearing
to
support
this contention.
It has been
shown, experimentally,
by various supportersof this
theory,that decomposingorganicmatter, such as wood, and some
of gold from
are
capableof causingthe precipitation
sulphides
base
its solutions.
the
confront
theoryare
in extent
In
defined
many
others,but
disseminated
throughoutgravelsthat
over
or
near
an
are
miles,and
many
square
the
gold occurs
placers
leads,on
difficulties that
enormous.
the
In
impervious floor or bottom.
throughouta great thickness
it is scattered
rarely,
more
and sands.
gravels
It is impossible
to conceive the originof the vast volume
of
solutions necessary to providethe gold,
or the barriers
gold-bearing
solutions
leads
the
to narrow
winding in a
capableof confining
of the
tortuous
course
The
that alluvial
gold is
by
far
gold weighing
years
entirely
disprovedthe first contention,so
is concerned ; and the discovery
of a mass
of
near
some
Coolgardie,
oz., in a quartz-vein
Zealand
New
as
has
the author
ago,
303
discredit
throws
on
the
assumption contained
in the
second.
was
gold discovered in the provinceof Auckland
It
at
found
Coromandel.
of poor quality,
alluvial gold,
was
being
of
when
with
silver.
a
largeproportion
Subsequently,
alloyed
The
first
gold-bearingveins
goldwas
tliat the
the
In
vein
same
as
were
of poor quality,
being in fineness and
the alluvial gold.
the
placergold is practically
of variation
to which
found
tion
composi-
and California,
the quality
of
Australia,
Western
Victoria,
and
was
gold
in different
same
within
parts of the
the
same
the
limits
vein is
subject.
With
the
more
of
occurrence
the
exact
gold and
conclusion
knowledgewe
formation
that
of
alluvial
concerningthe
unable to
we
are
gold-drifts,
derived
gold was originally
now
possess,
escape
rock or veins,by a succession of natural operafrom gold-bearing
tions
of stream-tin.
identical with those that led to the production
20
MINING
GEOLOGY.
Stream-Tin.
Origin
of
Stream-Tin.
denudation
and
disintegration
surface
Stream-tin
"
of
originated from
lodes,or
tin-bearing
the
of
containingtin-impregnations.
The Tin Placers of Malaysia. The tin-fields of Malaysiaare
belt extending southward
great extent and value,the tin-bearing
and Siam, through the Malay Peninsula,to
from Burmah
graniticmasses
"
of
the
outlyingislands
and
of Banca
coast
of Sumatra.
The
on
gravelsare deposited
tin-bearing
which
of metalliferous
zone
valleys
country.
The
The
features throughout are almost the same.
geological
basement
which
rock is granite,
is variouslyoverlain by gneiss,
and
limestone.1
Tin-stone has been
sandstone
schist,slatyshales,
and
found in situ in veins traversing
both the graniteand slates,
disseminated
the contact
as
impregnationsin the granitenear
and also in the limestone.2
The streamwith the sedimentaries,
and rock,
derived
the
veins
from
tin was
tin-bearing
manifestly
and concentrated
in the gravelsby the rivers and their lateral
streams.
of stiff kaolin,
In many
placesthe gravelsrest on " false-bottom
of the graniteoutcrops. They
derived
from the disintegration
from
vary
1 to 15
ranging from
per
sometimes
black,and
piecesof
75
to
all
The
pale brown,
States of
Dutch
tin.
richness
an
overburden
of
the
gravels
yard.
containing
very pure, generally
metal.
The
colour is often
or
The
white.
to boulders
magnetiteand
are
by
is found
ore
half
ton
in
in
weight.
ilmenite.
Perak, Selangor,Negri-Sembilan,
Pahang, and the
Indies
East
Of
of the
cent,
associated minerals
The
region is
overlain
The
deep.
feet
tin-stone of this
70
from
5 to 80
are
varies from
The
thick,and
feet
yieldtwo-thirds
of the
world's
productionof
producesabout,one-third,and
output.3
in
Valley, the State of Perak,
about
25 miles wide,and yield
tin
an
placersin
area
40
the
Kinta
long,and
miles
about
three-fourths of the
tin-stone raised in
Perak
produced26,400
of tin.
Other
Siam, and
Tin
China, and
States of New
1
2
3
Placers.
South
R. A. F. Penrose,
Penrose, loc. cit.
F.
"
tons
There
in the
in
stream-tin
Commonwealth
mines
of
of Geology,Feb.
Perak,"Trans.
Inst. Min.
in
In
1904
Burmah,
in
Australia,
and
Wales, Queensland,Victoria,
Jr.,Journal
Owen, "Mining
are
Perak.
the
Tasmania.
1903.
and
Met.,vol. vi.
p. 51.
CLASSIFICATION
The
stream-tin
OF
Cornwall
of
deposits
21
DEPOSITS.
MINERAL
and
have
Saxony
long been
exhausted.
Platinum
Platinum
in Russia
is found
commerce
drainingthe
Nearly90
"
loose
as
slopesof
eastern
Placers.
Ural
the
Mountains.
The
gravels
contain some
alluvial gold.
generally
A little platinum has been
found
in situ in peridotite
and
but
Ultra-basic
not
in
olivine-gabbro,
eruptives,
payablequantity.
and sometimes
chloritic and talcose schists,
in
the
bourhood
neighprevail
of the platinum placers
; and fragmentsof these rocks
predominatein the sands and gravels,
therebyindicatingpretty
that
the
noble
metal
derived
from the adjacent
was
conclusively
area
by the ordinary
processes of weatheringand erosion.
The domestic
Platinum
in America.
supply of platinum,
in the United
obtained
is
the
from
in Trinity
States,
gold placers
and Shasta counties,California. The gold-drifts
in Colombia, in
"
South
often with
Enormous
smaller amount
of osmium.
Ironsand
Placers.
black
of
deposits
exist
ironsand,mostlytitaniferous,
on
These
In
derived,in most
depositswere
denuded
later eruptive
rocks,near
and
parts of the
some
sands contain
coasts
of California and
Diamond
Placers.
and
sapphires,
New
size and
Ruby
other
from
the coast-line.
Zealand, the
"
Placers.
River
yielddiamonds, rubies,
deposits
are
obtained
River, in South
Vaal
The
preciousstones.
Wales
South
placersof the
New
cases,
payablegold.
Gem
and
Lawrence, in
Zealand, on the
ironsand
weathered
black
St
diamonds
from
gravels. The
Africa,yieldgems
of
Brazil
diamond
of
great
purity.
Placers.
Burma, is situated
Mandalay.
The
"
The
near
rubies
are
region,in
principalruby-producing
Mogok, about
usuallyfound
due
90
miles
in
somewhat
Digitized
by
north
of
tenacious
VjOOQIC
22
in material
clay,or
passingfrom
is a very hard
soft friable micaceous
schist.1
country rock
or
GEOLOGY.
MINING
The
district of
famous
for
sapphiremines.
Sapphire Placers
the
sapphirefields of Anakie, in
friable and
and sometimes
clayey,
also found other precious
free from clay. In these deposits
are
moonstone, cat's
stones, notably ruby, diamond, topaz,peridot,
Queensland,the wash
eye, and
In
"
is often
cairngorm.
(b) Massive.
or
sheets,and irregular
Depositsof this class occur as layers,
lyingon the surface,or covered with soils,surface clays,
masses,
of bog-iron
They include deposits
etc.,of recent accumulation.
and rock -phosphate.
those of manganese
places,
ore, and in some
occurs
as
irregular
Bog-iron Deposits. Bog-iron generally
in shallow lakes
layersor lenticular masses, which were deposited
"
or
swamps.
The iron, in the
of iron in
deposits
iron-bearingminerals
of
its
near
iron
often
bog-ironare
or
of
decomposition
found
lodes,and
pyritic
When
The
lodes
from
has, doubtless,contributed
beds of
Extensive
iron.
derived
portionof
the
crops
out-
ore.
is oxidised,
a
largeportionof
pyrites
salts,soluble in
; while
water
it passes into
of iron is readily
soluble
carbonate
acid.
carbonic
containing
Atmospheric
liberate
amount
of iron
a
large
weatheringmust, therefore,daily
in
in
dissolved
water
soluble form.
It is well known
a
that
when
chalybeatewaters
and
in ponds,lagoons,
shallow sheets,as
iron is
deposited
seen
frequently
the
swamps,
carbonate.
are
exposedin
to the
action of
Freshly precipitated
in
stagnant pools swamps.
carbon
is caused by the action of atmospheric
The precipitation
the
thrown
down
iron
is
the
cases
as
dioxide. In some
hydrated
oxide by decomposingvegetable
products.
and
are
ores
cinderyin structure.
They
Bog-iron
porous,
contain,in many cases, too high a proportionof phosphorusto be
the
air,the
be
iron may
useful for
of
Descending
have
will be
found,as
Wynne,
Waters.
by the action
generalrule,that the
formed
been
bodies
T.
Met, vol.
in
smeltingpurposes.
Action
lT.
as
"The
v. 1897, p. 161.
Ruby
Mines
of
"
Where
oresuperficial
descendingwaters, it
have merelyacted
waters
of
Burmah,,, Trans.
Inst. Min.
and
24
MINING
GEOLOGY.
greatlypredominate. Beds
of limonite occur
in
or
separately
close association with the manganese
oxides,
formingmanganiferousiron ores of varyinggradesof purity.
The immediate
of the manganese
source
others to be rocks from which the residual
derived.
were
was
effected
organicacids.
In
the
by Watson
the
claysenclosing
and
waters
by descending
Cave
chargedwith
in
Spring district,
ores
manganese
Knox
dolomite
are
confined
to
the
residual
higher
stratigraphically
ores
of the manganese
oxygen, carbonic
adjoiningcounty,
claysderived from
than
and
is held
the
the
the
and
quartzites
chertybeds
occur
in
ville,
Openingsat the Dobbins Mine, near Cartersof manganese
ore in the residual
Georgia,showing the occurrence
clays. (Modifiedfrom Penrose by Watson. )
of partially
ore
A, fragments and masses
decayed rock ; B, manganese
;
C, residual clay.
Horizontal and vertical scale,
1 in.
10 ft.
Fig. 13.
"
Section
in
one
of the
the limestone
in
formed
has
of much
form
of
the Silurian
period.
of Roman^che
ores
(Sa6ne-et-Loire)
important manganese
both
which
traverse the
as veins
occur, accordingto De Launay,1
red
intercalated
s
heets
in
stone.
and
in limeas
irregular
clays
granite
The latter abut againsta nearlyvertical wall of granite.
the graniteand the Secondary
The vertical boundary between
The
Professor L. de
nation.,Paris,1901, p. 968.
Digitized
by
Inter-
CLASSIFICATION
rocks is
to be
by
occupied
partlycontact
The
OF
MINERAL
25
DEPOSITS.
vein of manganese.
These deposits
appear
and partly
ores
replacementsof the limestone.
a
valuable
surface
"
is obtained
yielda
The
marsh
sediments.
of
deposits
sodium
The
of
borate,as also
of California and
marshes
muds
Nevada
also
output.
Section
14."
Fig.
and
valuable
Daggett,Pa.,contain
do those of Turkey.
small
muds
from
in Knox
Dolomite, 2
miles
east
of
Kingston,Georgia,
SuperficialGypsum
thick
notable
where
beds
Deposits." Gypsum
is found
forming
the banks
incrustation
and
of gypsum
also occurs
Gypsum
rocks;
argillaceous
as
and
in
associated
disseminated
with
with
calcareous
in
crystals
an
and
claysand
marls.
Sulphur Deposits.
"
in volcanic
Native
regionsoften associated
Digitized
by
26
It
MINING
in beds
occurs
near
Solfatara,
GEOLOGY.
Class
of
valleys
Noto
Stratified
II.
"
beds
(a) Constituting
(b)Disseminated
and
or
strata.
through a bed.
Beds
(a) Constituting
Strike
Deposits.
or
Strata.
A bed or seam
is a member
of a
Dip of Beds.
the
the
and
the
formation,
roof,
overlying
layerforming
the floor.
underlying
"
stratified
The
strike of
drawn
along the
bed
or
is the direction of
seam
horizontal line
The
and is
dip is the direction towards which a bed inclines,
that we are
always at rightangles to the strike. If we assume
standingupon the outcrop of a vein, running or strikingnorth
and south,and facingnorth, it will be found that the dip may be
either to the rightor left,
that is,to the east or west.
The dip or direction of the inclination of a bed or vein must
not
be confounded
with the inclination or angleof dip.
The angle of dip is the downward
The
Inclination of Beds.
"
inclination measured
The
underlie
The
dip and
of the
bed
among
When
The
This
downward
underlie
15 and 16."
Figs.
"
degreesfrom
the horizontal.
inclination measured
in
degrees
the vertical.
from
use
is the
in
or
vein
Showing
miners, and
means
strikes
that
is
bed
The
apt
or
to
term
direction
by
Co-ordinates.
underlie
is in
lead to confusion
seam
north-south,and
the
the inclination
when
same
Inclination of Veins
is 45".
a
describing
seam
onlythe
are
common
if used
care-
will generally
geologist
say,
east
at
an
dips
angleof 25"."
towards
which
the
seam
inclines is
CLASSIFICATION
east; and
the
OF
27
DEPOSITS.
MINERAL
measured
angle of inclination,
the
from
horizon,
is 25".
The
inclination of
For
co-ordinates.
departurefrom
for every
must
road
the
three
vein
or
depth;
with
in which
gradients,
inch,foot,or
of
unit,
method
expressingrailwayor
of 1 in 1000
gradient
angular
rect-
a
signifies
other
co-ordinate
the
but
method
the
1 in 3
dip of
instance,a
of vertical
expressedin
is often
of 1
perpendicular
be confused
not
bed
means
vertical
clinometer
or
(Abney level),
Thickness
length of
Of Beds.
between
the
the
beds
lengthof
pointsa
and
lyingbetween
; and
ac
of
bed
right anglesto
at
bedding.
For example:Supposethe
plumb-bob and
thickness
The
"
line,measured
with
if the average
the
seam
is the
plane of
and
b would
be
equal to
inclination or
angleof
the
17
fig.
500
points a
or
horizontal distance in
measured
were
foot-rule.
dip of
of
the
the
^"7
'A
"
y/sA
*
-
Fig. 17."
at
Showing
from
beds,measured
A'%^
a
/
^x.x
the
/C
CA
of Thickness of Beds.
Measurement
horizon,were
60
b,
Then
sin 60
deg.x
of Bedded
Examples
500
ac
433
Deposits." The
feet.
useful minerals
which
of a stratified formation,
beds, or as members
are
coal,
In
and spathiciron.
addition to these,roofingslates,
oil-shale,
marbles, limestones,building stones, and natural cements
are
occur
in
quarriedfor
commercial
purposes.
Coal.
Origin and
Formation.
Coal is
simply an
altered form of
At one
time it was
believed that there was
vegetablematter.
only one formation containingtrue coal,hence the originof the
time-name
Carboniferous,The discoveries of recent
geological
"
28
GEOLOGY.
MINING
that
years, however,have shown
and the investigation
of the newer
belief that
occurs
established
coal-vegetation
the conditions
In
coal
tracingthe
favourable
were
ever
when-
plantand
succession of
and
itself wherever
animal
life in
geological
primitive
respect
distinguished
by
other
place.
the
plant-life,
to
the
developmentof
great
and
the
vegetationprevailingat
coals of
ferns, and
mosses,
; the
cryptogamicforms
specially
formed
periodsare
geological
that
Hence
time.
composed of
Europe are
and
equisetums,lycopodiums,
the
Carboniferous
of
ferns,mosses,
remains
the
of the
which
of
lepidodendrons,
many
in this periodreached
plant-life
There is good
this and
unrivalled
luxuriance
attaininga
all later
periods
grew
land,.
adjacentto
some
sea
at any
later
belief that
for the
reason
wide
on
and
with mud
A
reveals
cloud of steaming
seldom
sun
penetrated.
for hundreds
the
preservedfrom
land, which
low-lying,
swampy
in
lake,enveloped
or
miles,
of
sluggishrivers laden
fine sediments.
study of
age
coal-vegetation
of
the
tracts of
occupying the
development,
period.
geological
its maximum
coal-measures
fact that
the
destruction
thus
by
of
every
accumulated
the
of
permittedthe deposition
great thickness of
protectingsediments.
The
succession
successive
each
thickness
affords
some
; but
encroachment
abnormal
of the beds
evidence
alwaysbe taken
an
with in many
coalfieldsindicates
subsidence and elevation of the land,
met
seams
of minor
periods
with its underclay
marking the
seam
The
of
the
as
of
or
the
strata between
extent
clay partingsmet
an
of
evidence
site of
new
flood-waters
on
a
forest.
the different
duration
of
each
with in coal-seams
submergence. They
of
inundation, whereby
and
to
the
layer of
forests
mud
was
may
seams
mergence
sub-
cannot
mark
during an
deposited
CLASSIFICATION
whose
vegetation,
the
among
OF
MINERAL
would
growth
29
DEPOSITS.
be
retarded,but
not
destroyed.
Mode
Occurrence."
Of
succeeding the
forests and
same
coal
their
age.
Subsidence
The
character
naturallyvaried
proximity to
of the land
was
of the accumulated
preservation
the coal is followed by shales
the
with
sea,
the
of
the
fundamental
the
positionof
for
even
sediments
coals of
the
requirementfor
the
In most countries,
coal-vegetation.
indurated
and
or
sandstones,
clays,
limestones.
The
shales
commonly formed
plant-remains
; the
are
contain
generally
and
often
contain
rich molluscan
of
fluviatile
sandstones
fauna
muds, which
fluvio-marine,
are
; while
the limestones
indicate a true
of shells and corals,which
the coal marks
the beginningof a
In these cases
composed
are
littoral.
marine
cycleof
deposition.
Where
lake
and
the
coal-vegetation
grew
the
on
sandstones.
lakes
margins of
in
or
of shales,grits,
principally
placesthe gritsunderlie
the coal.
The
anthracite
of
County Cavan,
in
is Silurian
Ireland,
; the
great
Britain,Continental Europe,and United States
South
are
Wales, State of
Carboniferous; the coals of New
and
and
Carboniferous
China,
India,
Virginia,
Permo-carboniferous;
the bituminous
coals of New
Zealand, Upper Cretaceous; the
coalfieldsof Great
brown
and
Hungary, Pennsylvania,
coals of South
Zealand
and
Liassic ; of New
the lignite
beds of Ireland,Pliocene.
and
Inclined
their
more
accompanying
or
of Coal Seams.
Position
seams
less horizontal
of
very
laborious
overlyingstrata
The
strata
are
and
at
different
basin,Miocene
of the crust
had
strata
procuringcoal
expensive;and
with
coal-measures,
would
been
remained
in countries
secular movements
Germany,
originally
depositedin
position.If the
The
"
coal,were
North
Vienna
Oolitic and
few
have
where
the
reached.
tilted the
degreesto
angleswhich occasionally
approachthe vertical.
Sudden
dislocations or changes of
Faulting of Coal Seams.
of
or faults.
slips,
positionare spoken as throws,troubles,
"
In
coal-strata faults
often
in
occur
bearing. They
having a parallel
in oppositedirections.
frequently
with
often met
are
Step-faults
sometimes
in
series of
all
two
or
one
way,
dip
coal-measures.
Where
more,
but
the
30
MINING
dislocations do not
termed hitclies.
Extent
exceed
Faults.
of
GEOLOGY.
the thickness
Fault-lines
"
of the coal-seam
often
are
thin
so
they are
as
be
to
for the
rocks.
In many
the
cases
which
often
courses,
to coal-miners
known
of sooty coal
quantities
seam,
Intrusive
wall-like
of
masses
of faults
and
Dykes
or inclined
vertical,
mixed
with
their
Effects.
igneous rock,
angles,and
surfaces of
to form
bed
coal,and
coal-seams,and
dykes and
sheets
or
expense in the
coal in the vicinity
of
The
rendered
extra
Zealand, a
seam
into anthracite of
Coal
They
act
the
oppositewalls.
been
of
are
part
They
forced
even
of the
as
seam.
sillssometimes
working of the
an
igneousmass
great loss of
cause
seam.
coked, and
is often
cinderyor sooty.
But
basaltic.
or
the
on
consist
Dykes
"
sometimes
at various
alongthe
Intrusive
clay.
often
In
caused
been
the strata
by displacing
to faults.
run
parallel
sometimes
New
faultinghas
not
of
alwaysdestructive. At Malvern
brown
coal was
dehydratedand
good qualityby
feet upon
of
masses
volcanic
floor of the
sandstone
with
agency
into
Egmont,
in New
graphite.
Zealand
which
cone
converted
sheet of basalt.
Among
(a beautiful
Hills,in
is
of not
occurrence.
uncommon
qualityare
Igneous dykes often dam back water in coal-mines; and
cases
some
they have effectually
preventedthe spreadof fire.
in
with in
The troubles met
Irregularitiesof Coal Seams.
known
swellies,
are
as
balks,nips,gates, sa/ldle-backs,
coal-mining
"
horses,and
pot-bottoms,
Balks
sudden
are
shaken
coal.
thinnings in
the stratum
seam,
so
called
Gaws
as
nip
and
to almost
or
above
or
the
coal, occasioned
accompaniedby
by
ing
correspond-
the thickness
of the
coal,it is
want.
saddle-backs appear
to be
the
reverse
of
nips,as
the
32
GEOLOGY.
MINING
well
section
typical
Fig.
of this
drawn
field,
by
De
Saint
Eloy
in
France.
Laimay,1is shown
in
20.
fig.
19. "-Cross-section
showing
from
Shenandah
Basin, Pennsylvaniaanthracite region,
of
coal-measures.
folding
(Reduced by B. S. Lyman
inverted
Fig. 20."
and
of Coal
Varieties
Assuming
of Coal
Section
coal to be
Survey.)
PennsylvaniaGeological
Influence
Enclosing
Rock.
form of altered vegetablematter, the progressive
of
are
indicated
the
following
:
"
(1) Peat.
(2) Lignite.
(3) Brown coal.
(4) Cannel-coal.
(5) Bituminous or cakingcoal.
smokeless
(6) Semi-anthracite
Anthracite.
(7)
"
The
by
"
of
quality
coal is not
coal.
much
Professor
L.
de
so
Paris,1901, p.
International^
Session
959.
Digitized
by
Congr"s Geol.
CLASSIFICATION
of
access
without
The
or
MINERAL
therebyproducingcoals
water,
fine bituminous
Upper
steam-coals
Cretaceous
of the west
enclosed
are
age,
The
Another
example of
rocks upon
the
eastern Texas.1
the
Penrose
the
character
influence
coast
in
of New
seen
In the
land,
Zea-
great thickness
coals of the
exercised
of the coal is
same
by
are
the
age
little
enclosing
in the coalfields of
Timber Belt divisions,
enclosingrocks
in the bituminous
group
of coals.
(b) Disseminated
througha Bed.
Sedimentaryrocks containingwell-defined
with
and
ores
minerals
of
greater
or
in many
parts of the globe. The
of these beds is a problemnot yet
metals
either introduced
were
of the sediments
and
awaits
of
high quality
Yegua, and
Fayette,
and shales,
are
soft,sandyclays,
chiefly
coal is onlya lignite,
while in Webb
where
the
measures
County
sandstones and shales,it is so superioras to be classed by
where
are
of
and
quartz grits,
on
the
33
DEPOSITS.
regardto age.
of
of
air
OF
elevation
further
less economic
impregnated
value
found
are
in which
of the
horizons
sediments
A few
investigation.
above
The
water.
subject
typical
examplesof this class
are
deposit
given below.
The
Rand
celebrated
Banket
so-called
in the Transvaal.
The basement
Reefs.
"
be included the
rock
is
which
granite,2
etc.
felsite,
syenite,granulite,
The
is intruded
by dykes of
by the
graniteis overlain
20"
to
50".
Johannesburg.
beds, which
The
are
round
side
the
north
wraps
group
It contains several thin conglomerate
or banket
This
gold-bearing.
Quartzite-shale
group
is followed,
comformably,
apparently
series proper
the gold-bearing
by the Witwatersrand
group
with which are associated beds
of quartzites,
consisting
principally
sandstones
and shales. The dip is
of conglomerateor banket,
series.
lower anglesthan the underlying
south, at somewhat
"
"
is overlain by
group
amygdaloidaldiabase,in its turn followed
The
Witwatersrand
an
by
pileof
enormous
the
Black
Heinrich
Digitized
by
Reef
104.
34
GEOLOGY.
MINING
The
formation.
latter
and
alternatingquartzites
conglomeratesof the banket type
consists* of
varyingfrom
the diabase
The
by
bulk
few inches of
of the
from
It is separated
feet thick.
few inches to 14
ferruginous
clay.
is derived
Rand
gold in the
Reef
group,
which
from
the
Main
comprisesthree
"
(a) The
as
Reef
Main
(b)The
Main
(c)The
South
(thelowest).
Reef Leader.
Reef.
Fig.
Cross-section
21."
Robinson
across
Mine.
(AfterGibson.)
(1 and 2) Bastard South Reefs ; (3) Diabase Dyke ; (4) South Reef ; (5)
Middle Reef ; (6) Main Reef Leader ; (7)Main Reef ; (8)North Reef.
The banket
of rounded
in
pyritic
quartzconglomerates,
composed
sub-angularpebblesof bluish-gray
quartz,embedded
quartzosematrix.
The
Main
banket
or
or
beds consist of
Reef series
beds
"
comprisesthree
namely,the
Main
more
or
Reef, which
less payablereefs
is often
12
feet
Reef
thick, and very low grade; the Main
Leader, about 15
inches thick, and very rich; and the South Reef, varying from
few inches to 6 feet thick,and payablein most
a
places. This
be traced for 46 miles,and is the main
series can
of the
source
goldproducedin
the Transvaal.
A characteristic feature
The
even
in the
occur
of the bankets
distribution of the
gold has
is their uniform
been
an
value.
importantfactor
in the
circumstance
which
tends
to
simplyconsolidated lacustrine
show
that
estuarine
the
not
"
conglomeratesare
in which
the
deposits,
from circulating
solutions.
gold-bearing
goldwas deposited
The
Shales."
Mansfeld
shales (KupCopper
copper-bearing
of Mansfeld, in Prussian Saxony,are of Permian age.
ferschiefer)
They are 18 inches thick,and extend for many miles. In places
or
CLASSIFICATION
onlythe
few inches
upper
rich
are
35
DEPOSITS.
MINERAL
OF
enough
The
to pay.
copper
contents
present. It
deposited
aneously
contempor-
that
by geologists
is believed
the
with
blende,iron
shales,but
copper-bearing
the
partsof
globe.
in Southern
Russia,
Copper sandstones,of great extent,occur
in many
parts of Germany, in Great Britain and America,and all
sandstones
age. The copper-bearing
Lake
series near
much
to
a
belong
Superior
believed to be of Permian
are
of the
Keweenawan
earlier
period.
Copper Conglomerates of Lake
mines
the
on
shore
southern
long
Michigan,have
this
Geologically,
been
Lake
of
celebrated
region
copper
Superior.
The
copper
the
in
State
of
Superior,
for their productiveness.
is
"
highly interestingand
instructive.
belt,with a
copper-bearing
which
miles,lies on a long peninsula,
The
for
distance
of
60
some
width
varying from
into
projects
Lake
conglomerates,interstratified with
eruptive rock, chieflyamygdaloidaldiabase, and
sandstones of Huronian
age.1
The
found
copper
almost
occurs
Superior
miles.
and
sandstones
4 to 5
whollyin
the native
sheets
of
flanked
state.
by
It is
"
(a)Disseminated
are
(b)In
(c)In
in beds of
and sandstone,
which
conglomerate
run
diabase.
amygdaloidal
at rightanglesto the generaltrend
of
In the beds
thick.
The
amygdaloidalrocks
which
they contain
copper
in the Atlantic mine.
Silver Sandstones
in
of Utah.
D.
everywhere
are
is very
as
"
much
altered.
distributed,
irregularly
except
The
silversandstones of
puzzlingas
the copper
States
Utah,
shales of
of Lake
Rocks
graph,
Copper-bearing
Superior,"Mono1883.
S
urvey,
Geological
Washington,
Irving,"The
United
The
Digitized
by
36
MINING
consist
Europe. They
Triassic age.
The White
of
and
Reef
GEOLOGY.
shales
alternating
Buck-eyeReef
and
sandstones
sandstone
two
are
of
beds,
3000
level the
chloride is
replacedby sulphides.The
metal-bearing
are
Nearly all geologists
agreedthat the silver and
to the tilting
of the beds.
introduced subsequently
Lead
Sandstone
Commern,
in Rhenish
rock
of
Prussia. "The
lead
Prussia,is believed to be
copper
sandstone
The
is
white
of
lower
Triassic in
thickness.
The
sandstone,of great
varying from
upper part is chargedwith small concretions,
head to a pea in size,
of
composed quartzose sand, cemented
age.
were
pinwith
galena.
The
concretions
knotten-sandstein.
called
are
knots, hence
contain
They
the
miners'
name,
little
chromium, vanadium,
and titanium ; the latter in the greatest proportion. The ore is
mined partlyby open-castand partly
by undergroundworkings.
rocks
belongingto this class occur in
Lead-bearingsedimentary
several parts of Germany, and in the counties of Nottinghamand
a
in England.
Leicestershire,
found
seminated
disare
containing Coprolites."
Coprolites
with strata of younger
in greensandsinterbedded
Secondaryage in the south of England. The coprolite
bearing
of the Cretaceous Waipara series of New
Zealand
are
greensands
be
of
to
economic value.
of too low a grade
in beds associated with
Beds.
Gypsum occurs
Gypsum
Beds
"
calcareous and
clayeyrocks.
It is found
Its
occurrence
in
in volcanic
alreadybeen noted.
Class
III.
"
Unstratifibd
Deposits.
(d) Fahlbands.
(e)Impregnations.
(J)Segregatedveins.
Gash veins.
("g)
veins.
(h) True fissure
Digitized
by
regionshas
CLASSIFICATION
Volcanic
(a)Depositsof
include
These
in and
accumulate
Origin.
depositsof sulphur
around
fumaroles
and
borax, which
of sublimates.
in the form
found
are
examplesof sulphur-deposits
Notable
Mount
and
the
White
Vesuvius;
Zealand ; and
in
37
DEPOSITS.
MINERAL
OF
and
Island
at
Mount
Etna
New
Rotorua, in
Japan.
being mined
are
The
by
fumaroles
steam
of the
export.
Grosetto,in Italy,
yielda
and
Pisa
of
sulphuris of
of boric acid.
largeannual output
(b)Stockwork Deposits,
The
"
term
"
stockwork
first used
was
in
Europe to distinguish
the
as
stockwork
small
numerous
but
be
may
veins of
too small
are
The
Stockworks
are
by the
output
country
matter
sometimes
are
mostly of low
grade;
of
rock
itself is
which
and from
Treadwell
bearing ore-bodies
the
are
commonly
necessity
albite-diorite
lyingbetween
with
foot-wall,
the
enables
on
greenstone
a
They generallyconform
the
mineralised
of
on
smaller
to
large
gold-
Treadwell
few
worked
celebrated
The
Alaska,according to Spencer,1consist
slate
often
Stockworks."
in
by
Alaska
slate.
traversed
rock-mass
possess
imperceptiblyinto the
impregnatedwith mineral
as
that
ore
to be worked
seldom
veins
defined
dykes of
hanging-wall
dykes near by in
and
dip of
the
the
strike
and
the
slates.
The
greenstones are,
possess
ancient
slates
1
A.
schistose
andesites
were
C.
as
rule,greatlyaltered,and
or
and
basalts
that
in
places
supposedto be
slatystructure.
were
They are
eruptedat
the
time
the
formed.
Spencer,"The
Island,Alaska," Trans.
Geology of
Am.
Inst. M.E.
the
Treadwell
Ore
Pamphlet, 1904.
Deposits,Douglas
38
GEOLOGY.
MINING
ore
filled with
and
fair
carry
of thin
network
proportionof
sulphides.1The
the
best
and
quartz veinlets.
The
is that
ore
calcite and
mass
contains
can
the
per
and
In
general
of calcite
greatestnumber
often accompanies,
the
or replaces,
Pyrrhotite
The
ated
gold is associmagnetite.
pyrites.
ore
ton, but
skilful
for
profits
cuts
and
The
years.
many
enabled
have
management
ore-bodies
Stockworks.
of
shaped mass
At
"
partlyby
Zinnwald, in Bohemia, in
and
greisen(quartz
Altenbergthere
open-
is
mica),there
are
dome-
zontal
hori-
narrow,
stockworks.
called Zwitter,
rock,locally
greisen-like
tin-ore is disseminated
in which
half
mined
are
handsome
to pay
Other
At
the mines
of one-third
to the extent
cent., thus
stock work.
to
Somewhat
one-
similar
forming
in the form of impregnations.
granite
deposits
Near
Stanthorpe,in Queensland,grainsof tin are disseminated
constituents.
rock,as ifformingone of its original
througha granitic
the
Cretaceous
At Monte
broken
in
strata
are
Catini, Tuscany,
through by serpentineand gabbro, containinglargepockets of
copper ore, mostly erubescite and copper pyrites.
per
in
occur
In
Cuba
and
Newfoundland
rich
of
deposits
occur
copper
in
serpentine.
In
granitesand
Cornwall
containingfrom 8
In
a good profit.
cases
some
rock,yield
been sufficient
A man
break from 1" to 2 tons
can
pay all expenses.
hard rock per day, and 7 to 8 tons of soft killas.
to
In the mineral
and
belt
cupriteoccur
near
Nelson, in New
and
in serpentine,
of the
Zealand,native copper
chromite
of iron in massive
olivine.
At
found
necks
nated
dissemi-
of ancient
volcanoes.
(c)Contact
A
a
is one
contact-deposit
sedimentaryrock
and
1
an
A. C.
and
ReplacementDeposits.
which
occurs
intrusive
mass
at, or
or
Spencer,loc. cit,t
p.
near,
dyke.
26.
the contact
of
40
GEOLOGY.
MINING
Contact
Ores in America.
in Colorado, have
ville,
been
depositsoccurringalong the
dykes,which
have
The
"
into and
broken
overlain
bed
of dolomitic
limestone.
c
Fig. 23.
"
Contact Deposit.
Pyritic
Cupriferous
(6) Felspar-porphyry. ("?)
pyrites.
The
along the
occur
have
been
by Lindgren
occur
as
slate and
diorite or
true
same
granite. They
contact-deposits.
State,there
(6)zones
(a)fissure-veins,
are
copper-
of
impregnation,
consist of Triassic
country-rocks
The
(c)contact-deposits.
and
as
in the
district,
Devils
which
deposits
and
of limestone
contact
described
In the Seven
of South
ores
limestone,intercalated with
basic
lavas.
In
several
to
appear
be
masses.
The
in the
in the
formed
veins.
has been
fissured
sedimentaryseries,in different places,
outside
and
also
The
of
it.
of
zone
fissures,
metamorphism,
filled with mineral matter,
of metamorphism,when
zone
while those outside of it became
fissurecontact-deposits,
but
they differ,
they are the
Morphologically
genetically
same.
The
Carboniferous
other
or
of Arizona
associated with
occur
deposits
at the line of contact of granite,
limestone,
generally
valuable
copper
eruptiverock.
Gold- and
contact-veins
copper-bearing
Cretaceous
between
occurringgenerally
rocks,which are nearlyalwaysdiorite.8
1
Genesis
S. F. Emmons, "The
M.E., vol. xv., p. 125, 1886.
2
W.
Trans.
Genesis and
Lindgren,"The
Am.
Inst. Min.
Lindgren,loc.cit.,p.
724.
common
limestone
in
and
Trans.
Deposits,"
Eng.%vol. xxxi.
p. 721.
3
of Certain Ore
are
Mexico,
eruptive
Am.
Inst,
Deposits."
Deposits,"
CLASSIFICATION
OF
MINERAL
41
DEPOSITS.
Vogt l
of
with
ore
The
describes
the
curious
depositis
1500
Rammelsberg depositas
like the
lateral branch
yardslong and
from
NW
Fio. 24.
Upper
is enclosed in
shear
zone.
Devonian
Hill lode.
feet wide.
neighbourhood.
certain
slates,
occupyingthe
lines
immediate
of
It
centre
of
closely
by Vogt
eruption of granite in the
to
J. W.
be
Gregory2
groups
pyriticmasses,
lens-shaped
1
to 65
believed
genesis is
Its
with
the
Broken
connected
Mount
irregularlens
SE
Ideal Section of
"
49
an
J. H. L.
Vigsnas,Sulitelma in
Professor
Prakt. Geol.y1894.
2 Professor
J. W.
and
classes,
namely, (a) huge,
(6)mineralised bands of schist,
die Kieslagerstatten
vom
Vogt, "Ueber
Typus Roros,
Norwegen und Rammelsberg in Deutschland," Zeit.
Gregory,"The
Mount
LyellMining
Field" Tasmania."
42
MINING
forming fahlbands.
valuable
the
of
The
GEOLOGY.
former
mined
mineral
the
are
the
in
of the
source
great bulk
field; the
latter
are
of little importance.
economically
The
rocks
flanked
consist
Silurian
by
conglomeratesand
of
Devonian
and
Cambrian
but
complicated
by folding,
schists.
The
quartzites
country is traversed by
the
is not
structure
complex
of great faults.
ore-bodies
The
the
of
contact
schists
is known
the
which
with
and
Parent
or
Mine.
base.
The
planewhich
extension
bringsthe
most
important
Professor
Gregory
form, being an
and
tapers graduallydownwards
thrust
great
Mine
largestand
the
pyritic
masses,
Big
rounded
line of
east, and
the
conglomerateson
in
irregularly
boat-shaped
as
the
along
masses
side.
main
as
describes it
mass
quartzitesand
the west
on
Of the two
detached
as
occur
elliptical
is then
depth
under
conglomerates
off
cut
is limited
in
by
the
ore
schists.1
oxidised gossan consisted mainlyof silica,
barite,and iron
and
dwt.
about
15
of
15
of goldper
silver
oz.
containing
The
oxide
ton.
The
Small
enrichment,
They
pyriticore
patches of
contained
The
main
with
met
were
W.
pyriticmass
2 per cent, of
0*04 to 0*07 oz. of
2
T. Batchelor
New
oxidised
of the
zone.
goldper
states that
of splitting
into
peculiarity
descend, a
bottom
bornite,fahlore,and argentite.
redruthite,
0*5 to
from
the
at
feature
one
ton
ore.
ore-bodies is their
feature of the
or
more
characteristic
so
of
of
legsor
the
branches
Broken
as
they
Hill lode
in
Wales.
South
with
genesisof
the
the
granite
Mount
intrusions
of
Heemskirk
Mount
range.
would
examination
ore
penological
probably
like
those
other
show that the Mount
of
pyriticmasses
Lyellores,
the
rock.
of
elsewhere,are metasomatic
enclosing
replacements
The great faults which traverse the lodes are
thought by some
writers to have
has
connection
lodes
not
faulted
are
1
geneticassociation
yet
and
Loc, cit.,
p. 118.
been
with the
The
but
ore-bodies,
this
in which
the
manner
proved.
displacedhorizontally
by
2
thrust-faults
OF
CLASSIFICATION
would
the
43
DEPOSITS.
MINERAL
are
which theydisplace.
ore-deposits
a
100'
300'
Fig. 25.
"
Cross-section of Mount
(a) Quartzitesand
enclosed
quartzite
Broken
Hill
long,flanked
(c) Isolated
masses
of
in lode,
Lode.
on
"
both
Broken
Hill itself is
sides
the
by
about
ridge,
plain. The
rocks
of probablySilurian age.
slates,schist,and gneiss,
are
The
2 miles
mainly
summit
iodyrite.
the
oxidised
zone,
below
the
ironstone
cap,
the
mineral
44
GEOLOGY.
MINING
cerussite,native
principally
silver, chlorides,
associated with kaolin,
bromides, and iodides of silver,
garnet,and
quartz.
contents
were
Below
the
oxidised
productscame
what
locallytermed
are
Shaft.
N*t Level
N?2
60
Scale
Fig. 26.
"
Feet
Hill Lode"
Broken Hill
Cross-sectioiiof Broken
the
Mine.
Company's plan.)
(Copiedfrom
passeddownward
into solid
Proprietary
enclosed
and galena),
(blende
sulphides
in
frequentlyvery rich,
secondaryenrichment.
Between
spurs
or
the
200
and
branches,which
and
apparentlyrepresenteda
300
feet
zone
follow the
trend
of the
of
two
rocks.
enclosing
OF
CLASSIFICATION
The
rock is
The
not
are
MINERAL
slicken-sided.
more
impregnatedor replaced
gneissand
to
diorite,1
the
schist
of
subsequentfilling
of which
the
In
many
less with
associated with
are
intrusion
or
45
DEPOSITS.
placesthe
ore.
dykes of
numerous
cavities
contend
sedimentaries.
that
of disagreement
Australian
lode is
Professor
the other
on
Gregory,3
hand, maintains
the
clearly
prove
Duckton
Ore
be
region may
America.
The
slates which
originfor
sedimentary
Deposits,Tennessee.
taken
rocks
have
been
as
thrown
which
the series.
ore-bodies in this
pyritic
in
this class of ore-deposit
The
"
typicalof
consist of
of limestone
gneissand
micaceous
schists
or
to S.E.,showing probablestructure of
Fig. 27." Ideal Section,N.W.
Duckton region. (AfterHenrich.)
The
ore-bodies consist of
of
sulphides
have
been
copper,
of
masses
zinc,and lead.
with
pyrrhotite
The
portionsnear
Carl Henrich4
which
occur
the surface
Melbourne
Argus, September1904.
of
Copper Ores,
46
MINING
the gossan
and
unaltered
the
above
GEOLOGY.
there is a zone
of
sulphides
secondaryenrichment consistingof partlyoxidised copper ore or
black copper." Frequently
floor of white quartz occurs
below
a
the
enriched
zone
frequentlycontaining dispersedgrains or
"
bunches
The
of marcasite.
do not
ore-deposits
intrusions,but
occur
found
the
igneous
planesof
the
fault-fissures,
along
accordingto Henrich, forming the east or
are
in all cases,
fault-plane
hanging-wallof the deposit,which is alwayssharplydefined.
That writer is of the opinionthat the Duckton
are
ore-deposits
which
of
the
time
at
one
replacements
igneous dykes
occupied
present placesof the ore-bodies.
(d) Fahlbands.
These
are
beds
or
of
strata
crystalline
metamorphic rock, so
are
a
width
In
They
extend
of several hundred
the
fissure
narrow
attain
cases
feet.
rightanglesby
miles,and in
for several
bands
are
crossed
veins,varyingin width
nearly at
from
few
are
productiveof silver only where
up to 2 feet,and
the
fahlbands are importantin this
The
intersect
fahlbands.
they
inches
district
the
more
Yiq. 28."
Section
of Fahlband
at
small
when
especially
are
two
riched
en-
such
belt.
Dusky Sound,
(a) Schists.
fissure-veins
New
Zealand.
(AfterPark.)
(b) Fahlband.
Dusky Sound,
of
payable*ore
any
in New
kind.
48
MINING
In
clay slates.
the
Emmaville
in
ore
occurs
tin-bearing
b
oss.
of
crust
a granitic
In
the
GEOLOGY.
veins
in the same
division,
State, the
and impregnationsin the outer
Herberton
which
district,
producesthe bulk of the tin
raised in Queensland, the tin-stone occurs
in veins,bunches,and
impregnationsin granite.
At the
Genetically,
they
are
closely
(f)SegregatedVeins.
of
Deposits
masses,
a
to constitute
as
in the
occur
generally
often succeed
and
manner
this kind
one
a
shapeof lenticular
lengthand depthin such
less continuous
vein.
They
that have been sharply
folded,
another
more
or
in
rocks
onlyfound in sedimentary
cracks
fissures
have
been formed more
or
or less parallel
whereby
with the beddingplanes,
and dippingat rightanglesto the axial
are
line of elevation.
Characteristics
of
which
of
both
seldom
as
Segregated Veins.
veins
segregated
(1) Uncertain
are
of
in
may
as
depth and
continuous
succession
are
of
contain
follows
"
The
chief characteristics
"
linear extension
; that
is,they
either in
many
thousands
of tons,
quartz.
H. W.
F.
Kayser,"Mount
Aust.
Bischoff,"
Assoc. Advt.
Science,1892.
CLASSIFICATION
the
in
MINERAL
Reefton, Inangahua,and
succession
lenticular
of
the
bedding
Some
of the
their widest
enclosingclaystonesand
largerore-bodies
varying
from
masses
planesof the
swell out
3 to
Saddle
Reefs.
These
"
stockman's
6 feet.
so
are
to
width
shapedlike
There
of
to
sandstones.
of 20
feet at
are
veins,which
of the
vicinity
in form
49
DEPOSITS.
consist
Lyell goldfields
which
generallyconform
thickness
OF
dykes
no
or
cavities
occupy
monoclinal.
named
from
their resemblance
saddle.
veins
They are merelysegregated
formed
in cavities along the bedding planesof sedimentary
rocks
which have been bent into anticlinal and synclinal
folds.
E. J. Dunn,1 who
worked
out the morphology of the saddlereefs of Bendigogoldfield,
defines a saddle-reef as :
in Victoria,
A lenticular quartz-lode
lying between beddingplanesof rock,
bent over
folds."
in anticlinal or synclinal
to
"
"
The
bedded, banded,
They
occur
They
fillcavities which
in
as
:
"
foliated rocks.
or
to the
conform
follows
planesof beddingor
(3) The
of
greatest mass
anticlinal arch
ore
along
occurs
forming the
saddle
the
crown
which
from
of the
the
legs
(4) The
die
finally
out.
saddle-reefs of
Bendigoconsist
bearingquartz conformingto
and
slate
most
sandstone
cases
the
of arch-like
masses
bedding planesof
of Silurian
age.
of the rocks was
the folding
Dunn
has
caused
by
the
shown
goldenclosing
of
that
in
the intrusion of
igneousdykes.
Inverted
Saddle
Terawhiti, near
of
Reefs."
Wellington,in
saddle-reefs which
arrangement, as
synclinal
the
1
New
gold-bearingveins at Cape
examples
Zealand, are interesting
exhibit
in
both
anticlinal and
an
fig.31.
which
have
and sandstones
claystones
with the result that
eroded into steepridgesand deep valleys,
ore-bodies
The
denuded.
been correspondingly
veins have
The
been
shown
The
rocks
are
E. J. Dunn,
Melbourne, 1893.
Triassic
Report on
Bendigo Goldfield,Dept.
of
Mines, Victoria,
50
MINING
GEOLOGY.
of Saddle-Reefs.
(AfterE. J. Dunn.)
CLASSIFICATION
remaining are
now
at
time
one
only
the
MINERAL
truncated
51
DEPOSITS.
ends
or
legsof
what
were
saddle-reefs.
true
Monte
The
OF
Christo
Sta*tevel
:::v-r
Cape Terawhiti.
at
(a) Segregatedveins.
is a
segregatedore-bodywhich
branches
spurs or
form assumed
shapeof
the
into the
by
sends out
adjoiningslates
"
Cross-section of Monte
Christo
(g) Gash
metalliferous
shaped cavities,or
where
cross-joints
by
The
by
the
Veins.
occupying lenticular
deposits
gashes
in
limestone.
sandstones.
Bradford.)
(AfterW.
are
and
original
cavity.
Fig. 32.
These
lateral
peculiarparallel
and
cavities,
at
the
sometimes
wedgeThey generallyoccur
pointsof
intersection
largecaverns,
chargedwith
or
have
carbonic
of
been
acid.
52
MINING
The
zinc blende.
confined to
Veins
in
galena and
walls,and,being
are
gash-veins
no
distinct
in which
of the formation
singlestratum
found
commonly
most
ores
GEOLOGY.
they occur,
limited in extent.
are
Fig. 33.
"
Gash
Veins,Wangapeka,
New
Zealand.
(h) True
Fissure
Veins.
admitted
in
to have originated
generally
fissures caused either by secular folding,
or by igneousintrusions,
and are believed to possess great depth. They pass through all
kinds of rocks in their course, independently
of any bedding or
chance
stratification ; but in some
to coincide with
part they may
Veins
the
of this class
dip and
are
strike of the
containingformation.
Fig. 34."
(c)Granite.
{d) Fissure-vein.
(a) Limestone.
(b) Slates.
The
mineral
contents
ascending aqueous
connected with
The
banded
these
solutions,which
magmatic
deep-seated
veins
were,
depositedfrom
probably,genetically
were
intrusions.
of the fissure-veins
of Cornwall
Hauraki
of
CLASSIFICATION
the later
placein
OF
MINERAL
53
DEPOSITS.
the igneous
stagesof the after-actions following
intrusion.
The
often
walls do
two
a
not
vein,may
Lodes
out
branches
or
spurs
of Cornwall.
A true
from
or
one
segregated
both
Cornwall
lodes of
The
"
vein,like
fissure is
walls.
familiar
are
examples
They pass
depth successively
and
In
the
limestone, the
through limestone, slate,
granite.
commercial
product was lead ; in the slate,copper ; and
principal
tin.
in the granite,
The
three giganticquartz
Lodes
Forest.
of Bavarian
of true
fissure-veins.
in
"
regardedby Suess l
of linear dislocation known
in Europe.
as the greatestmonuments
and
They are true fissure-veins, are believed by that distinguished
lodes
the
on
the Bavarian
slopesof
Forest
are
he
by
hords
to
geologist
graben.
und
Of these,the Asch
of
lode
north-west
beginsin
the most
of
Asch, runs
the mica-schist,
gneiss,and
Bohemia,
across
Mountains; then
cuts
to
the
across
the
beneath
Seeberg,disappears
south-east
versely
trans-
graniteof Erzgebirge
narrow
outcrop of gneissnear
Tertiarycoveringin the basin
the other
on
Eger,and reapj"ears immediately
the granitemass
of Sandan, finally
extending
to the south of Konigswart. The total lengthof
and
of Franzensbad
side of this in
through this
north-westerly
part
the
up
strikes N.
from
strata, and
then
For
it separatesthe
course,
Jurassic
for the
225
the
course
varies
east
south-
region;
west
far
Veins
of
Cripple Creek.
Creek, in Colorado,traverse
1
Eduard
Suess,The
Face
"
of the
thence
line
It
distance of 27 miles in
granitefrom
to
Pfahl.
The
The
chain
it continues
total
middle
pletely
passes comin a straight
length of outcrop
veins at Cripple
gold-bearing
of lower
phonolite
vol. i. p. 207.
of the Earth, Englishedition,
54
MINING
They
Tertiary
age.
of
centres
The
Nevada,
traverses
Lode.
The
of
latter
diabase,the
In
the middle
between
contact
portionof
of
masses
its course
diorite
hanging-wall.The
the
lying on
Comstock
it
and
basement
and limestones.1
schists,
slates,
granite,
are
traced for
nearlydue
and
line
the
occupies
celebrated
lode, in
andesite,dacite,diabase,diorite,
propylitised
"
The
old volcanic
fissure-veins,groupedaround
are
eruption.
Comstock
rocks
GEOLOGY.
has
and
north
thickness
fissure is also
The
It
20
varying from
fault.
distance of
direction.
south
60
feet*
the east,
The
vein-
consists of crushed
and
lode is remarkable
for
yieldeda fabulous
of gold and silver since they were
amount
opened in 1859. The
of silver.
gold exists as free gold,associated with sulphides
The
mines
the
on
Lode
Mother
California is one
It is traceable
of
of the
for
counties,and in many
lode
dips towards
to
vein-matter
Comstock
22,000 feet in
over
California.
have
The
"
remarkable
most
Great
Mother
lode of
fissure-veins in the
globe.
of 70
distance
placesis
miles,extendingthrough five
mineralised belt,rather than a
vein.
true
This immense
of
vein,or group
veins,generallyoccurs
of black
the
angle of
same
traverses
The
course
inclination.
At
in
belt
with the
nearlyparallel
direction
at nearly
same
it
and granite.
diabase,serpentine,
slate,diorite,
mines
the
on
Mother
lode and
the
rich
largeproportionof the
have
yieldeda
years.2
placerson its
gold produced in
Lode
Formations
of
formations
features
of
Kalgoorlie.
"
Kalgoorliein Western
peculiarinterest
grouped togetherin
are
of
an
to
area
The
Australia
the
lode-formations
and
many
mining geologist.They
about
in extent,
in this area
country-rocks
a
square
the
mile
tion
the determinaof demarcation
which
country-rock,3
Lode and
G. F. Becker,"Geology of the Comstock
Monograph Hi. of U.S. Oeol. Survey. Washington,1882.
1
possess
the
The
Mile.
the Golden
named
locally
renders
which
have undergone extreme
alteration,
character very difficult.
of their original
In the oxidised ground,there is no sharp line
between
lode-
famous
Washoe
is
District,"
J. D. Whitney, The
Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada
of
Cambridge,U.S., 1880, p. 45.
California,
8 H.
Alteration of Western Australian Ore
C. Hoover, "The
Superficial
Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. xxviii. p. 785.
Deposits,"
2
56
MINING
GEOLOGY.
which is an
quartz,however, is in many cases replacedby calcite,
important gangue material,sometimes occurringin large masses,
with calaverite.1
The gold occurs
telluridesoccur
and disseminated
veins,splashes,
as
crystals
throughoutthe entire
Mount
mine
Morgan
Lode.
mass.
in Mount
greatore-body
The
"
minute
Morgan
lode.
to be a huge pyritic
Queensland is believed by some
In the upper part of the deposit,
it consists of siliceous haematite
or
in
often with
gossan,
lower
part, of
porous,
massive
; and
structure
cavernous
ore.
pyritic gold-bearing
in the
zone
of
f
Fig. 35.
Cross-section of Mount
"
of
(AfterE.
J.
Dunn.)
(e)Cellular siliceousore.
(/) Siliceous sulphides.
(g) Oxidised enriched zone.
(a and b) Sandstones,etc.
(c)Dykes.
(d) Igneousrock.
secondaryenrichment
Lode.
Morgan
great value
met
was
zone.
The
action
of thermal
G. W.
E.
water
is held
by
E. J. Dunn
to
Card, "Notes
on
Records
Australia,"
J.
Dunn,
"Mount
the
Country Rocks
of the
Morgan
Qeol.
Gold
of the
sufficiently
in
calling
are
highlymetamorphosedstrata
country-rocks
Western
Part I.
2
sea-
for the
account
The
of
the aid
of Permo-
Kalgoorlie
Goldfield,
Survey of N.S.W.,
vol.
vi.
1905.
Victoria,
Digitized
by
Classification
Carboniferous age, traversed
and dolerite.1
of
mineral
by
intrusions
57
deposits.
of
hornblende-granite
connected
with
points of
resemblance
Rio Tinto
in
The
of
the
to the
in the
geneticcause
formation
geneticorigin. As
magmatic intrusion may
of
bed-impregnation.
Lodes
of Malaysia.
Tin
many
fissure-veins is
than
later,the after-actions of
even
bears
It
depositsat
copper-contact
and
contact-deposits
rather
geologicoccurrence
or
dolerites.
the
famous
Spain.
distinction between
shown
of
intrusion
will be
the
be
fissure-veins,
contact-deposits,
The
"
one
lodes
tin
the
of
Malay
clay slates
Gold
of Charters
Veins
of the veins
largenumber
in
porphyry.
The
pyritesand
iron
Copper
Towers.
enclosed
are
vein-gangueis
often
Lodes
rock
but some
occur
granite,
principally
quartz, containing
of which
The
City.
Butte
a
goldfield
in
both
pyrrhotite,
of
granite.2
In this rich
"
"
contain
gold.
near
copper-deposits
Butte
trendingnorth
A
number
mineralised
of
south.3
mining
belt,which
are
companies
be traced
can
course
direction of the
The
the
and
unitingin
planes,which are
places,running out
which
intrusions,
over
were
at
after-actions,
including
lode
miles, in
or
a
generaltrend of
to each other,
approximately
parallel
belt follows the
and
unitingagain.
that the granitewas
fissured by
followed by the usual sequence
concludes
Emmons
for
west.
mineral
fissure
operatingon
the
of
rhyolite
eruptive
ing
stage the circulation of hot ascend-
one
the granite
Through the agency of these solutions,
decomposed along the lines of fracture,and the ore-bodies
by metasomatic interchange.
solutions.
became
formed
Much
of
the
ore
occurs
in thin
impregnatingthe granite,and
1
C.
Mount
2 W.
Trans.
8S.
Amor.
some
veins, some
interlacing
as huge ore-masses.
of it
S.
and
F. Emmons,
Inst. Min.
"The
Eng.t
Copper
Resources
p. 12.
of the United
States,"Trans.
58
MINING
The
copper
zone
oxidised
GEOLOGY.
portioncarried silver,
mainlythe chloride,and
depth of
was
met
about
400
no
feet,where
with, containingrich
bornite,and
chalcopyrite,
6 to
copper glance,containingfrom
10 per cent, of copper, and a little silver.1
but on an
The width of the lodes varies considerably,
average
may
1
be taken
at about
Douglas,"The
Inst. Min.
10 feet.
Copper Resources
Eng.t vol. xix. p. 679.
of the
United
States,"Trans.
Digitized
by
Am.
CHAPTER
ORE
VEINS
III.
THEIR
"
FILLING,
AGE,
PAY
MOVEMENTS,
WALL
TURE,
STRUC-
SHOOTS,
ETC.
Contents
Filling of
filling Width
:
Vein-
Condition
Shoots
of
Veins
Veins
Horses
Bonanzas
Wall
Vertical
"
in
Veins
of
Ores
of
Veins
"
Beds
Rock
"
Para-
"
"
"
"
"
Enrichment
Indicator
in
of Veins
Depth
Impoverishment
in Deep Mining
genesis
Recording
Temperatures
Metasomatic
Limits
of Deep
Replacement.
Mining
"
"
Pay
Country
Secondary
"
of
Age
Depth
Contents
"
of
"
"
Outcrops
"
Valuable
Influence
Movements
Distribution
Cavities
Inclination
of
Position
"
Zones
Vein
Stroke"
"
"
Contents"
of
Origin
"
Length
"
Matter
Metallic
Gold
"
Productive
Lode
of
and
Lodes
of
"
Arrangement
of
Cavities
"
Temperatures
"
"
Cavities
of
Filling
from
matter
was,
doubtless,
and
chemical
of
the
It
of
most
due
cases,
to
in
operating
ore-bodies, and
not
the
of
one
precipitation
combination
solved
dis-
of
and
solutions
gases
physical
of
well-known
with
conformity
constitution
to
uncommon
more
of
find
difficult
most
is made
the
so
by
connected
and
lack
our
held
substances
vein
copper,
of
is
chemical
is
The
"
circulating underground
causes
problem
genesis
Veins.
laws.
physical
The
in
and
enclosed
the
knowledge
of
solution.
sulphides
containing
silver, all
in
with
in
of
iron,
matrix
quartz.
In
of the
veinsymmetrical arrangement
the
in other
matter
cases
sulphides are deposited throughout
; but
the
order
matrix
or
apparently without
irregularly, and
system,
forming
masses
intimately associated, yet still only mechanically
that
the
of
mixed,
a
clearly suggesting
deposition had
process
nuclear
which
each
in
of
to
went
ore
itself,
tendency,
consequence
and
many
formed
aggregates,
Deposition
effected
(a)
by
The
there
cases
one
of
is
both
from
vein-matter
or
cooling
more
of
of
and
small
the
solutions
great.
solutions
underground
following
charged
matter.
59
causes
with
may
"
dissolved
mineral
be
60
MINING
GEOLOGY.
Origin of Vein
The
"
solutions
either found
the
channels by a
awaiting them, or they formed their own
to
replacementof the wall-rock parallel
process of slow progressive
primary fractures.
If the cavities were
pre-existing,
they were formed mechanically
or
by forces either {a)internal,
(b)etxemal to the rock affected.
In the case of eruptivemagmas
of the igneous
unequalcooling
cavities
would
mass
tend
to
molten
charge in
energy
plucking
action of the
the
fragments from
of the
to fracture the
magmas,
the
walls of
risingpasty mass
roof and
that the
of volume
increase
blast
a
"
sides.
Daly1
causes
an
by magma
sufficient
furnishing
thereby
overlyingrocks
and
itself
alongplanesof weakness.
eruptiverocks may be fractured by an
stresses created
or by the lateral and
tangential
igneous intrusion,
by the secular foldingof the crust of the earth. Such forces are
Sedimentaryand
older
they act,
importantpart in
more
we
ponderoussecular
affected ; and if we
consider the
shall find that igneous intrusions
the
genesisof
vein-cavities than
manner
play a
the
more
earth-movements.
rather
movement
than
local.
material
the
is
the
When
resultant
stress
effects
exceeds
the
elastic limit
faultingand
shearing,
infolding.
sharp
The fracturingwhich
produces open fissures and cavities is
work
the
of igneousintrusions and volcanic forces. These
chiefly
also providethe mineralised
agencieshaving made the cavities,
of the
are
and
plication
at
1
intersection
of
joints,
simple fractures,and
of
Igneous Intrusion,"A
mer.
faults.
Journ,
Set.
[4],
typicalexample
of
this class of
Fig. 36.
depositin Bendigogoldfield,
T. A. Rickard.1
by
of Ore
Section
Typical
"
61
VEINS.
ORE
Body at Intersection
Rickard.)
of Fractures.
(AfterT. A.
(b) Slate.
(a) Sandstone.
(d) Gold-bearing
quartzin the form
of
(cc)Fractures.
false-saddle
reef.
of Monte
ores
Cristo,in the State of Washington,
sulphide
be
of the country-rock
to
are
replacements
by Spurr2
tonalite. The ores, which are chiefly
galena,blende,chalcopyrite,
and arseno-pyrite,
concentrated alongjoint
are
planesand
pyrite,
The
stated
intersections in the
Age
in
of Vein
district
are
system make
an
Filling.
"
place,it
case
vein is younger
of large fissures
than
now
the
they remained
filled. It is
1
2
the lodes
beginningthe
fissures
were
of
the
vein
as
mineral
open
matter, it
chasms
States Oeol.
without
believed that in
generally
small size,and
gradually
lieportUnited
which
vein.
displaced
filledwith
that
is highly improbable
the
that
is evident
another
displaces
the
figure.
happensthat
It sometimes
of one
of different ages, and that the members
with
those
another
of
system. When
angle
displacementtakes
In
in the next
shown
manner
Annual
62
MINING
increased
in
accumulated
GEOLOGY.
the
mineral
matter
to afford the
fissure.
original
It might be expectedthat
tend to follow
as
in them
would
width
an
rock
forming the
if later
movement
walls
took
of
the
it
place,
than
initiate
SCALE
OF
FCC
and Vein
Sketch-section of Tunnel
Fig. 37.
Glacier
Creek, showing mineralisation
and
wall-movements
character
re-cemented; and
not uncommon
who made a
are
evidences
of
similar
elsewhere.
examination
of the copper-veins
of
Weed,1
special
that
there
the
veins
of
states
several
are
Butte, in Montana,
ages
and systems,and that the older primary quartz-pyrite
veins were
reopenedby
volcanic
of
enargite,which is now
sulpharsenide,
copper
of the veins.
found to be the chief ore of some
of vein-matter
took place after the
As a rule the formation
of
deposition
formation
1
W.
H.
Waters,"
the
of the
Weed,
Trans.
enclosingrock.
"Ore
Am.
Depositionand
List.
Vein Enrichment
vol.
1903.
xxxiii.,
M.E.,
by AscendingHot
64
GEOLOGY.
MINING
The
or
Little
Bendigo goldfield
typicalexample of an ore-bodycomposed of a
the
masses.
Accordingto W. Bradford,1
lozenge-shaped
in Victoria
stringof
lode
Temperance
is
traverses
and
alternatingslates
series of
sandstones
of
In vertical
age.
faulting.
that erosion,either chemical or mechanical,
Again, it is possible
than in another.
may have acted in one portionof a fissure more
Fig. 39.
Section
"
slates.
Lodes
and
and
a
widest
generally
are
in hard
narrowest
In hard
diorite.
crack
mere
or
enteringsofter
Length
which
rocks
Of the three
Forest
Saxony
1
W.
lengthof
to
andesite,
granite,
to
down
its normal
size
to
on
great lodes
is traceable for
lode
Pfahl
generallythose
the slopes
traversing
are
for 34
miles, and
distance
the
Great
92 miles.
the
average
miles, and
Bradford, Bulletin
1905, p. 6.
expand
the Asch
unaltered
as
longestlodes
The
"
of 25
In
moderatelysoft ground,
country.
of Lodes.
Bavarian
such
or
dwindle
rock,a lode will frequently
of the
Pfahl for
in soft
clayparting,and
broadest.
are
"
No.
length of
in
the
15, Geol.
load is about
Harz
Mountains
mile, in
8
to
10
ORB
miles.
In
California
the
Great
Mother
In the Hauraki
been
traced for
in New
goldfields,
be
Strike
Bearing of Lodes.
In many
general bearing. Thus
or
"
lodes possess a
generalstrike is E.N.E.-W.S.W., and
main
W.
many
the
goldfields
N.N.E.-S.S.W.
districtrun
trend
mining regionsthere is a
some
of the lodes
runniug in
E.N.E
yieldtin,copper,
lodes
yieldclayand
lead.
the
But
of
and
the
In
is
Freiberg
strike has
times
some-
lode.
in the
great similarity
direction.
same
S.
E.
productivelodes
changeof
of
the
England
other
directions. A
in various
in -Cornwall
north
of the most
an
In
the
On
in the
mining districtsthe
Prussia
In
the Hauraki
safe
lode has
70 miles.
over
and
65
VEINS.
Thus
contents
in Cornwall
the
exceptionsare
too
The
lode may
many
allow
to
to be made.
generalisation
Inclination
of Lodes.
dip of
vary as it
descends
depth,or may vary at different pointsalong its course.
The dip is spoken of as flat or steep. It is alwaysat rightangles
"
in
to the strike.
The
lode
Andreasberg,the Talisman
Empire lode in the Waihi mine
oppositedirections in different parts
Samson
Karangahake,
and
Zealand, dip in
at
the
lode
at
in New
of their
course.
fullyendorses
the
on
of
generalisations
the
Lodes
Henwood
of Cornwall,
the
relatingto
influence of
contents
formulated
the
(1) Those
laws
following
parts
vertical
(2) In
the
"
lode
of the
always the
are
inclination
whose
most
nearly
productive.
rich
is most
in
rate
country of mode-
hardness.
(3) The
"
"
courses
direction
as
of bunches
(4) The
"
the
shoots
contained
bearing of
the
in the
rich
stratigraphical
system
laws hold
if they can
them
be
has been
Take
good
the
the groups
is
generallythat
with which
the
observation
of
initial fracture
the
of
is connected.
It is doubtful
and
appliedin other mining regions,
safely
in different places.
disproved
same
lode.
same
parts
regionunder
"
generallydip in
and very often also
country,"
"
or
in the Thames
each of
gold-
66
field
found
were
where
the
Caledonia
in the
about
dip was
and
Cambria
Both
30".
under
bonanzas
reefs,in places
and
above
below
the
45".
With
which
the exception
of gash-veins,
Depth
wedge-shapedopenings from the surface the depth which
of Lodes.
are
GEOLOGY.
MINING
"
limit.
lode has
been
followed
wards
down-
is at
reached
The
gold-minesof
reached
have
It
seems
than
Victoria and
depthsranging from
that
likely
of Lode
most
often
occurs
It may
crystalline.
be
be
Lake
feet to 5000
2000
to
Superior
feet.
greaterdepth
follow them.
Matter.
most
in veins of calcite
quartz may
at
copper-mines
can
mining operations
Arrangement
The
the
or
The
"
or
gangue
matrix
of
exceptionis lead,which
fluor-spar.
chalcedonic,finelyor coarsely
notable
flintyor
concentric,
brecciated,
banded, ribbon-like,
M*i Iff*
,$
"
Fig. 40."
Showing Ribbon
or in loose sugary
compact, vuggy, granular,disseminated,
grains.
The arrangement of the lode-matter should always be observed,
since the
structure
something about
and
arrangement
will almost
always tell
us
its history.
arranged
and
ores
ORB
wall
one
on
67
VEINS.
the
other wall.
When
bands
the
individual
are
crystals
anglesto the
termed
made
plane
up
of
arranged
with
are
This
of the walls.
crystalline
aggregates,the
their longeraxis at right
arrangement is sometimes
comb-structure.
Such
the
on
Lodes
filled with
lode at
Martha
lode, exhibit
Waihi, or
little
or
part of the
with
no
sugary
contents.
In
some
cases
the
partly fillingthe
breccia
The
occupiesone
Cambria
lode
Thames
at
has
band
2 to 4 feet thick.
hanging-wall varyingfrom
of
The
breccia
breccia
on
the
is not
in flatlenticular layers.
co-extensive with the vein-matter,but occurs
A mass
embedded
of country-rock
in Veins.
in the
Horses
"
matrix
of
lode,and
more
Fig. 41.
walls,is termed
when
"
or
Horse
less
or
detached
completely
Floater in
large a horse,and
from
the
Vein.
when
small
or
floater,
rider.
A
horse is
slice of rock
hanging-wallwhile
the
that
siliceous
has
become
was
filling
detached
still in a
from
gelatinous
condition,
~~
the
Digitized
by VjOOQIC
68
GEOLOGY.
MINING
wall and
In Com
of
horse
Cornish
attended
aphorism,
and
labour
extra
with
horne
expense
of
rence
occur-
the
of
doubtless
originated
for itself,
meaning that
pays
lode
that the
enrichment
an
which
circumstance
the
shown
experiencehas
is often
lode, a
of the
contents
the
elsewhere
than
more
working caused
compensates the
the
by
of
appearance
the horse.
veins
steeplyinclined gold-bearing
In the
Thames
horses
of rock
often
were
caused
confined to
met
or
split
one
branch
of the lode.
that
this enrichment
showed
Investigation
of the
concentration
increase in the
values
values
mean
Outcrops of Veins.
different
the
of the
terms
biological
branch, but
one
Professor
"
used
by
Van
a
designatethe
to
are
actual
an
lode.
suggestedby
somewhat
as
to
the
distinguishes
nomenclature
animal
Hise
to
the main
rulingin
previously
of rock-alteration
zones
changes in
into
due
not
was
follows
parallel
:
of Katamorphism.
Belt of weathering.
1. Zone
a.
b. Belt of cementation.
of Anamorphism.
2. Zone
The
Katamorphiczone
broken
and
down
it is the
is that in which
altered into
of oxidation.
zone
The
belt
ground
of
weathering extends
the
water-level,
level to the
Chemical
zone
action
and is in most
changes
of
cases
effected in
down
from
belt of cementation
from
the
results in
from
simple
surface
ground
to
water-
Anamorphism.
is very
active
in the
zone
of
Katamorphism,
and
(c)carbonation.
By long-continuedexposure to atmospheric agenciesand the
meteoric waters, the outcrops of iron,copper,
action of descending
often oxidised and so altered by
and silver sulphidelodes are
and
removal
replacementas to bear little resemblance to the
be found at a greater
unaltered vein-matter which will generally
depth.
1
Chas.
Survey.
Richard Van
Hise,
Washington,1904.
"A
Treatise
on
Metamorphism,"
U.S.
Geo!.
The
iron
oxidised
are
sulphides
oxides, while
lirst to
copper is removed
is oxidised to
or
sulphates,
soluble
69
VEINS.
ORE
the
by
and
sulphates
then
to
the
form
of
in
water
carbonates,which
stain the
at
below
or
water-level.
solution flowingfrom
ferruginous
the
rocks
surrounding
Such
hat in
ironstone
known
gossan in
ironstone blows in Australia.
the
of
nature
and
cavernous
and
brown
much
red
cindery,
ore-bodyis composedmainly of
of ochre
as
varies with
gossan
originalsulphideore-body.If
is
soil.
outcrops are
Germany, and
The
and
the
character
of
quartz is present,the
brown- coloured
or
iron
the
Cornwall,iron-
; but
the
crop
out-
if the
haematite,often in
forms.
The
to
oxidation and
depth of 500
far below
the
leachingof lode-matter
feet below
present
line of demarcation
of
lode,but
between
often
more
first
Gossan
outcrops
contain
they may
be detected
The
valuable
givelittle or
The
often
proceeded
outcrop,in
some
cases
there
is
sharp
portions
Sometimes
unaltered
graduallybecome
plentiful
more
increasing
depth.
A gossan is always an
reason, forms a valuable
not
surface
the
water-level.
has
lode
valuable
minerals
by panning.
gold and silver
the
presence
lodes of the
in such
assayed,as
of which
could
Hauraki
goldfields
by
panning.
finelydivided state that a colour is rarely
value can onlybe ascertained by careful
no
goldexists
indication of
crushingand
rich,unoxidised
Australia
of Western
ores
sulpho-telluride
character to indicate
physicalfeature of a striking
possess no
their great value, and when
tested by the prospector's
ready
method
Each
to
of
mineral
and
itself,
film
or
layerof
oil
on
pool of water, or
an
emanation
of
car-
70
GEOLOGY.
MINING
buretted
direct
hydrogen, may
attention
to
steam
may
aud
springs
chalybeate
of commercial
necessarily
not
of
existence
Puffs
value.
of
the smell of
sulphuretted
hydrogenin a volcanic region
pointto the existence of sulphur. For instance,at Rotorua
in New
of sulphur
White Island,
Zealand, extensive deposits
or
found
are
the
to
around
extinct,and
the
fumaroles, both
numerous
at both
placesthe
long before
plainly
perceptible
Condition
of Metallic
odour
the
or
goorliemuch
of it exists combined
In
uncombined
the
portionsof
influences
of
oxidising
condition
of Veins. "Gold
the
with
that
veins
occurs
Kal-
and
CrippleCreek
form, but at
tellurium.
have
been
subjectto
the
in a free-milling
surface waters, gold occurs
that is to say, it unites readily
with mercury
to form
being free from tellurium and base sulphides.1
"
amalgam,
Below
sulphuretted
hydrogenis
reached.
are
deposits
of
Contents
in the native
and
active
extractions
reach
of
only be
fine,so
ground extremely
with
in contact
The
can
Waihi
on
of this
trace
chemical
have
sulphides
of goldto
particle
the
each
been
come
the solvent.
bullion
selenium,and
no
when
to enable
as
extracted
Martha
of
obtained
some
from
cyanideprocess
as
be
can
the
cent,
occasions
metal
rare
the
by
as
tests.
is
ore
converted
generally
sulphides.Native
bromides, and
silver,
iodide often
accompany
the chloride.
The
of
sulphides
lodes
converted
are
often of
Position
contents
1
of
It must
of Valuable
a
vein
are
always be
so fine that
particles
in contact
particles
the precious
metal
Contents.
Sometimes
the metallic
evenlydistributed throughoutthe
remembered
that
there is considerable
with
"
the mercury
in the form
of
so
gold may
mechanical
as
amalgam.
to obtain
be
free and
gangue.
yet exist
in
in bringing
the
difficulty
an
adequaterecovery
of
72
MtMKG
wall to wall.
from
sometimes
the
on
the centre
The
of the
or
hanging-wall,
vein,or in
the
on
Gold
and
band
of
the
and
foot-wall,
ore
situated
near
the
crosses
vein
wall to wall.
payableore
systematicsampling,provideda
values
in
of the
extent
lie on
values sometimes
obliquely,
passingfrom
The
GEOLOGY.
always
can
careful
ascertained
be
is made
record
of
by
the
mine-assayplan.
Bonanzas.
Coromandel
rich bonanzas
The
"
celebrated
are
goldfields
for which
Thames
the
in the richer
occur
zones.
daubs or masses
They are placeswhere the quartz contains coarse
called
of gold,forming what is locally
picked or specimen stone,
found to yieldas much
which
six ounces
of gold
is frequently
as
to the pound of stone.
The
Hauraki
extended
the
It
surface.
off by
100
from
120
to
feet
wide, and
60
feet from
point about
and
north-east,
the
to
pitchedslightly
fault about
In these
varied
bonanza
to the 300
cut
was
Bunker's
30 feet from
boundary.
the pay-shootscommonly occur
goldfields
along the
of intersection
of
vein
cross-
which
flinty,
or
is
thin
line
indicator
of dense
consisting
flinty
quartz,generallypyritic.
Faultinghas taken placealong
the course
In some
the faultingtook
of most large veins.
cases
the
the
other
before
of
in
the
and,
fissure,
filling
place
cases, when
vein
Wall
veins
Of Veins.
Movements
formed
partially
were
When
"
the
matter, the
result
the movement
took place. On
pug or clayon the wall on which
the side on which the pug occurs
all the small veins and droppers
thus cut off or displaced
that branching
are
; and it is for this reason
veins
taken
In
only found
are
classes of
seldom
of friction-breccias
exceed
of
lenticular-shaped
hard
few
masses
In
has
movement
no
the formation
breccias
form
which
on
place.
some
has caused
Such
side
the
on
country, movement
on
course
one
or
the
both
vein
walls.
thickness,and
feet in
varyinglengthand
on
of
walls has
mostly
depth.
often produced
through the
"
Influence
shown
has
by
of
Country-Rock.
the character
of the
"
Observation
contents
of
vein
are
country-rocktraversed
recognisedthat certain
and minerals.
ores
particular
also
is
rocks
Thus
favour
tin
has
in many countries
often influenced
by
the
a
the vein.
occurrence
It is
of
preferencefor
serpentines,
usuallyassociated with
ORB
chloriticschists,
and
diorites,
Austrialia
yieldslead
it
change
countries.
in
many
silver ; in
and
especially
Limestone, more
In
Belgium,
Chili and
zinc ; and
in
lead.
slates.
dolomitic,yieldslead
when
73
VEINS.
rock often
in the
causes
the
change in
richness of
vein.
In
the
and
goldfields
Hauraki
productivein
tuffs. At
altered
the
Transylvania,
in
andesite,but
CrippleCreek, the
veins
barren
the
veins
are
and
breccias
in
productive
most
are
in
andesitic
breccias.
In
gritand
Sandbergerstrongly
urged the
influence
of
country-rock
upon
of veins ; and his researches have been supplemented
verified in later years by those of many
American
accomplished
the contents
and
whose
geologists,
been
and
wide
rocks.
of twelve
be summarised
rock which
(a) The
"
(b)The
found
that the
influenced by
strongly
was
years may
author
the
goldfields,
of the veins
The
in the
field have
varied.
In the Hauraki
character
observation
for
opportunities
has
moderatelyhard
kindlysandstone
in
containing
this regionduring a period
follows
as
productive
the
:
"
of the miners.
favourable
shift.
(c)In
becomes
andesite,it invariably
out
(d)The
to
or
clay-parting
mere
veins in the
those
as
is due
not
size and
(e)When
the
breccia,it
to be
in the
so
vein
rock
hard
to
passes
from
altered
to their
as
is true
or
character,and seldom
been
andesite
this
smaller
found
tuff
too
low
that
the
or
barren, or
grade
the
of
Hauraki
parts
breccias
reliable
into
in all
experiencehas
exist in tuffs
have
their leanness
becomes
invariably
Peninsula; and
some
clay-head."
not proved so remunerative
"kindlysandstone,"and
payable. This
which
"
have
miner's
much
generallysmaller
as
shown
veins
often
in
superficial
although
gold-producers,
to contain
are
small
shoots of
able
pay-
nature.1
1
Goldfields,
N.Z.,"
Trans.
74
MINING
Productive
Zones.
in
thirty-five
years
The
"
the
veins,it has
parallel
enteringthe
favourable
of the miner's
There
andesite
there
others.
Even
found
that
Point
such
The
Russell.
the
lodes
the
of
in
zones
latter
influence
Moanataiari
namely,
"
the
being
till the
certain
in the
that
which
of
case
past
in the
zones
all become
several
enriched
grade
Kuranui
at
of
the
Hill and
is traversed
mine
four
by
large parallel
Age, and
Parr, Golden
course.
the
ore
cessively
changes from exmaintained
being
the course
passed through. This zone crosses
the lodes nearlyat rightangles.1
The
followingdiagram shows the generaldistribution of
is
zone
on
affords,perhaps,the most
graphic
favourable
of
country. At that
productivezone,
to
end
Moanataiari
those
Dauntless, Reuben
entering the
low
are
the
shown
zone,
field,the best-known
illustration
have
tion
a graphicillustratherebyaffording
aphorism,ore-against-ore.
several
are
Thames
place
area
been
the
mining operationsof
Hauraki
productivethan
more
GEOLOGY.
of
"
zones
productive
Fig. 43."
on
Plan
the
this field :
"
of Northern
Portion
of Thames
N.Z.
Goldfield,
(e)No. 9 veiu.
(aa) Great Moanataiari fault.
zone.
(/) Caledonia vein.
{bb)Point Russell productive
of
altered
andesite.
zone
(g) Waiotahi vein.
(cc)Kuranui productive
(d) Shotover vein.
Mining operationsdisclosed
zones
were
they were
not
onlylimited
found
direction to the
The
of the
The
to
dip
the
in width
to the
circumstance
but also in
southward, that
that
the
rich
depth. Further,
is,in the opposite
along the
line
altered andesite.
1
J.
Park,
gold occurred
The
in the
bonanzas, which
in almost
of intersection of
Fig. 44.
case
every
end
Kuranui
the
surface, but
going
1000
they were
Beauty shaft,in
of
the
that
mixed
This
is,there
by
no
are
better
of the
depth of nearly
elsewhere
have
are
sulphides
each other in
horizontal
certain
shown
intimately
each
of which
is
sulphide.
noticed
was
zones,
vertical direction
zones,
example could
celebrated Dolcoath
Lower
end
and
metallic
succeed
dominant
arrangement
less horizontal
In
to
increasing
at
south
definite
which
zones
characterised
lower
the
the
near
that
and
the
veins
in many
without
any
in
States,England,
United
while
in horizontal
"
of Ores
Distribution
in the
followed
was
found
sea-level.
feet below
Vertical
of the
southward
Queen
depths.
the
goldfield, productivezone
In
Goldfield.
leader.
Foreshore,Thames
alongNorthern
line
along the
found
were
rich
and
in shoots
productivezone
cross-vein,
locallytermed
small
Section
"
75
VEINS.
ORE
of
in Cornwall
mine, which
commenced
vein,in
many
be
as
more
years
or
ago ;
the
presentedby
a
tin-mine,at
to Bain, is as
according
follows
vertical
:
distribution
of
the
ores,
"
his
report on
states
1
H. F. Bain, United
Part II. p. 161.
that
Monte
the
States Oeol.
Cristo
mining district,in
quartz, pyrite,chalcopyrite,
pyrSurvey Twenty-Second Annual
Report,
76
MINING
GEOLOGY.
marked
in
the
order named.1
Rlckard
Weed
states
order
ores
orderlydistribution
Mountain
Broken
distribution
general
follows
silver
of
assumes
as
The
concentration
primary
to commend
Yellowstone
solutions.
by ascendinghot
it.
is often succeeded
solfataric
silver.
"
Ore Depositionand Vein Enrichment
paper on
Hot Waters," appears
to support the hypothesis
that the distribution of ores in horizontal zones
is
has much
This view
by
intense
of the North
rocks
depth
Wales,
been
has
"
result of
The
South
Weed,4 in a
by Ascending
which
highlyzinciferous
mines, in New
in vertical
ores
in Colorado.2
ores
in Montana, the
district,
the
of
At
the
the
mentions
Island of New
Zealand.
ascendingwaters
line of least
that
resistance,
is,towards
the
hot
spring pipe or
vent*.
Many substances,insoluble
soluble
easily
in the
presence
in normal
rendered
conditions,are
of heat and
pressure.
The
ground
under-
will,therefore,
possess their greatestsolvent power
where the greatestheat and pressure prevail,
which will naturally
be at the greatestdepth.
waters
With
loss of
will be
As
the
relieved
will be
When
solution
1
2
3
4
and
precipitatedthat
"
effected under
was
heat
waters
extreme
ascend
pressure,
is,those
the
least soluble
substances
whose
substances
dissolution
heat and
they
pressure.
will continue to lose heat
and
be
minerals
hot waters
most
cases
reach
the
will be
surface,the onlysubstances
the
extremelysoluble
in
alkaline
ORE
77
VEINS.
mentioned
metallic
at
sulphides
the surface.
lodes it is a common
In many
feature to find
oxidised products,
at the surface,but in such
well to bear in mind
have
The
obvious
is
filling
veins
truncated
been
to
that
drawn
be
to
less
greateror
inference
impoverishment of
or their
sulphides,
it is always
cases
degree by denudation.
from
the
ore
at
minerals
from
above.
Secondary Enrichment
of Veins.
portionof
the
It has been
"
of
masses
or
ore-body,
ore
in that
often
noted in all
in the
occur
portionlying near
water-level.
has shown
that these rich masses
investigation
are
Microscopic
not of primary but of secondary
origin. Their genesisis supposed
to be due
the
by
the
to
higherpart
migrationof
of the
the valuable
redeposition
may
resultingin
an
concentrate
at the
metallic contents
from
zone
dissolution,
migration,and
and
over
again,each cycle
placeover
taken
of
increasing
degreeof concentration.
The veins in which
often seen
most
are
secondaryenrichment
those of gold,silver,
are
copper, lead,and zinc.
Gold ores, in the zone
of weathering,are often augmented in
value by the long-continued
of the vein and the endisintegration
closing
rock, thus permittingthe goldset free from its matrix to
Extensive
to
outcrop.
of the
areas
sub-aerial
denudation
and it is doubtless
Victoria and
The
upper
surface
due
Western
the
lower
in the
electro-chemical
Chemical
of
that
cause
so
many
have been
subject
Palaeozoic
period,
notable
veins have
gold-bearing
gold,copper, silver,lead,and
parts
in the
waters
involved
to this
continent
close of the
been
examples
found
in
Australia.
migration of
to
since the
enrichment
of mechanical
Australian
zone
of the
veins
is affected
zinc from
the
by descending
of vadose
migration are
(a)
deposition.
operate in
may
secondaryenrichment, as follows :
processes
various
ways
to
cause
"
(1) By
the
removal
valuable
of
contents
worthless
in
purer
78
MINING
of worthless metals
removal
(2) By
GEOLOGY.
and
their
replacementsby
higherpart of the vein.
of valuable metals on primary sulphides,
in
(3) By deposition
those portionsof the vein subjectto the influence of
In this case, the primary
circulatingsurface waters.
valuable
metals
removed
from
first
nuclei
for the
depositof
the
operationin
is the chemical
contents
The
oxidation
In
day.
mass
galena,the iron
Katamorphiczone.
be seen
of base sulphides
in operation
can
every
of mixed
sulphidesof iron, copper, zinc,and
will be the first to be affected from its affinity
for
oxygen.
Iron
at
The
and
gold
combines
once
of
sulphides
of dissolution
must
copper,
ores
careful
and
chloride of
in the
silver,
in
investigation
sulphideshave
been
later years
enriched
by the
zone
above
has shown
water-level.
that
of
deposition
primary
secondary
even
sulphides
in
It
from
readilyprecipitated
coherent
form
in
the
alkaline
presence
of
sulphidesolutions in a solid
iron pyrites,
galena,blende,
etc.
stibnite,
The
descendingacid
will attack
the
solutions formed
constituents
of the rocks
in the
zone
of oxidation
which
through
they percolate
and
alkaline
silicates
of
production
sulphides.
dissolved by ferric sulphate would
be also carried down
with the
Gold
and
W.
Professor
1870, p. 226.
Skey, Trans. New Zealand Inst.,vol. iii.,
Proc. Boy. Soc. New South Wales, vol. xxvii.,
Liversidge,
1893,
80
MINING
GEOLOGY.
the
absorptive
propertyof clays,etc.,made by himself
and
others in the laboratory
States Geological
of the United
Survey in Washington. The results confirmed the researches of
W.
Skey made in 1869, and of E. Kohler1 in 1903, who found
that clays and
substances, such as gelatinoussilica,
porous
raents
on
carbonaceous
metals
from
of
extracting
solutions.
In
that finely
1869, Skey2 proved experimentally
pulverised
and
massive
rock
the
of
silica
crystal,
quartz,
possess
power
the
extracting
found
that
ignitedat
and
oxide
preparedsilica
low
In
from
1871,he
from
found
solution.
its acetate
this
manifests
especially
temperature, and
chromium
divided
of iron
besides takes
their acetate
also
He
property if
oxides of copper
The
solutions.
finely
more
more
that
when
ammoniacal
weak
of
solution
poured upon
filter
solution.8
chemist
that clay possesses the
showed
1874, the same
property of absorbingand fixingnatural petroleumin such a way
the oil being
as to form
a substance
resemblingnatural oil-shale,
In
combined
with the clay.4
chemically
that gelatinoussilica
Skey'sdiscovery
possess the
an
and
veins and in
the
porous substances
their solutions has
in
chemistryof ore-deposition
secondaryenrichment.
Impoverishment
of Veins
in
Depth.
"
T. A.
Rickard,when
depth is
fact
capableof proof.5He
contends
that
of
in
since heat
and
pressure are the two great factors which increase the solubility
of mineral
substances,the deep region will favour solution the
most, while
the
shallow
zone
will favour
owing
precipitation,
in
E.
W.
to
Progressive
poverty
Kohler,Zeitschrift
filrprahtischeOeologie,
1903, p. 49.
of Silicaand its direct Hydration
Skey, On the Absorptive
Properties
Zealand
contact with Water," Trans. New
Inst.,Wellington,
N.Z., 1869,
"
Solution
by
Inst.,vol. iv.,
p. 332, 1871.
4
of Torbanite
W. Skey, " Notes on the Formation
and Constitution
similar Minerals,"Trans. New Zealand Inst.,vol. vii. p. 387, 1874.
6
T. A. Rickard," Genesis of Ore Deposits,"
Discission,
p. 190.
and
ORE
81
VEINS.
of
depth below a certain depth must be the natural corollary
the generallaw governing the orderlydistribution of ores
in
horizontal zones, throughthe agency of ascendingwaters.
in depth is determined
In some
by the
cases, impoverishment
geologicalconditions. Ore-veins which are confined
prevailing
in
to
out
on
notable
veins
of the
in the
districts,
the
Hauraki
gold-bearingveins
rest
on
highlyeroded
and
wacke,
mining
surface
occur
The
the
near
in all
borders
hydro-thermal
Kuaotunu
mining
Zealand,where
in altered
andesites,which
Mesozoic
shales,grey-
of Lower
cases
of
shown
the
that
andesite
when
the veins
flows reach
the
rock,they die
basement
which
exhausted
adinole.
have
Mining operations
which
the
region of New
contained
are
become
or
out
in
disappear
of the enriched
portionof
in vertical distance.
added
to ore
are
secondaryenrichment
the
result
rich
shoot
is
bonanza
a payable
a
or
quality,
;
values are added to lean
the secondary
but when, as often happens,
just payable.
ore, then the net result is to render the lean ore
of enrichment, the lean ore will be unprofitable.
Below the zone
Thus
secondaryenrichment is a concentration of values in
due to the tranference of the
the oxidised or Katamorphic zone
valuable contents
from a higher to a lower level by the flow of
meteoric
be
waters.
Only in rare cases will primary sulphides
enriched by this agency.
The
of Victoria,includingthe late
Mining Commissioners1
Professor
M'Coy and Mr Alfred Selwyn, the State geologist,
in
reported 1857 that experiencein every country had proved
that the yieldof gold decreased with the depth after a certain
When
the
values
of
alreadyof
small limit
The
was
reached.
of the
conclusion
Commissioners
opinionalreadyexpressedby
edition
of
his
Siluria.
Sir Roderick
This
was
in unison
Murchison
with the
in the first
the
as
geologist,2
distinguished
induced to materially
modifyhis
knowledge,was
he tells us, as respectsthe colonyof Victoria ;
view, particularly,
but he still adhered
to the belief that in general gold veins
diminish in value as they descend.8
result of further
the
2
3
Loc. cit.,
p. 496,
82
GEOLOGY.
MINING
,
"
kind
one
of
rock
often
productivein limestone,are
and
gold
veins,payable in
lead
Thus
another.
to
veins, which
in sandstone
poor
often barren
andesite,are
are
shale ;
or
in tuffs
or
breccias.
There
are
well-known
some
exhibited in
specialand
the
Certain
divided
manner.
veins,and
The
that
of
area.
generallytilted
position.They
Silurian
are
shale
the
from
applied,
locally
one
veins
by silver-bearing
only productive
are
the distribution
high
at
of black carbonaceous
crosses
are
these
exercised
of the
gold
in the
are
country-rocks
vertical
schist.
intersected
Ballarat,in Victoria,have
influence upon
veins of that
vein
Kongsberg, in
the fahlbands.
indicator-beds
remarkable
is
is
conform
fahlbands,
as
enclosinggneissand
fahlbands
it is notorious
theytraverse
The
are
the
dip of
and
country-rock
where
influence
gneissand
are
lead,nickel,cobalt,and silver.
These mineralised bands, locally
known
The
this
In
schists.
crystalline
bands or zones
of the latter are
impregnatedwith finely
of iron,copper, zinc,and occasionally
of
ores
sulphides
Norway,
prevailingrocks
where
cases
notable
of these
slates and
angles,and
interbedded
or
sandstones,which
often
with
slate,to which
certain thin
the
that
circumstance
approach the
name
wherever
seams
indicators
a
it uniformlybecomes
shale-seams,
quartzricher
mere
distance
of
sheet
to
or
an
inch
miles.
thick,and
It
is
can
be
traced
for
nearly vertical,and
is
intersected
are
states that
1
E.
T.
the veins
are
of black
Lidgey,Reporton
shale ;
A.
Rickard,
Digitized
by
ORB
and
so
the system of
says, determined
The goldveins in the south
83
VEINS.
to the miners
mining on
end
that
it has, he
the field.1
of the
Thames
in
goldfield,
New
are
termed
intersected
are
flintiesare
proportionof
Von
thin veins of
brown
or
gray
Cotta
schist.
states that
The
Freibergare enclosed in
irregularbed of black graphitic'
the veins
contains
veins,he says,
Mansfeld,
in
bituminous
an
are
Prussia, which
near
in
productive
well-known
in
occur
assayed at
bituminous
found
the
embedded
of
rate
5000
silver to
of
oz.
sapwood
showed
and
bark.
hard
The
impregnatedwith
horn
Triassic sandstones
sandstones of Russia.7
Permian
in the
association of
another, with
metallic
the
of Utah
the
in
ton
of silver to the
oz.
covered
and
the wood
of
replacing
of fossil plantshave
trees
often
silver.
of copper-ores
leaves and stems
occurrences
encrustingthe
discovered
copper-ores of
shales and
silicified heartwood
Tree-trunks
Similar
and
schist,
carbonised
an
the black
limestone.4
A tree-trunk
The
locally
chalcedonic quartz
close-grained
They usuallycontain a small
colour.
and
veins
disseminated pyrites.
finely
mica-schist,which
ton.5
by
flinties.2
These
of
they
ores
productive
carbonaceous
has
sulphides,
been
and
of New
with
fetid
Mexico, and
carbon
in
demonstrated
in almost
form
one
limestones,and
been
in the
with
all
or
base
parts of
the
globe.
Organic matter
powerful reducers
and
of
either singlyor
sulphides,
gold
and
base
metals
from
together,are
their alkaline
solutions.
1
R. L.
Jack, Annual
p. 58.
2
J. Park, "The
Trans.
Geology and Veins of the Hauraki Goldfields,"
Zealand Inst. Min. Eng., vol. i.,1897, p. 52.
3 Von
Cotta,Treatise on Ore Deposits,
p. 46.
4
Loe. cit.y
164.
p.
6
W.
P. Jenney, "The
Chemistry of Ore Deposition,"Trans. Amcr.
Inst. Min.
Eng., vol. xxxiii. p. 445, 1903; and C. M. Rolker, "The
Silver Sandstone
District of Utah," Trans.
Amer.
Inst. M.E., vol. ix.
New
p. 21.
6
F. M.
F. Cazin, "The
Origin of Copper and Silver Ores in
Sandrock,"Eng. and Min. Jour.,vol. xxx. p. 381.
7 Persifor
Frazer,Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. ix. p. 33.
Digitized
by
Triassic
84
GEOLOGY.
MINING
Paragenesis.
has
It
certain
each
other
than
caused
which
shown
been
and
everywhere that
by mining operations
associated with
more
ores
are
frequently
with
other
minerals
formation
the
operatedso
minerals.
The
genetic processes
of
deposition
or
certain mineral
the
of another mineral,
deposition
same
same
or
place.
This parallel,
and
of
ores
or
minerals,
genesis
synchronous,
which has brought about a common
association in the matrix,is
and is probablygoverned by the laws of
known
as paragenesis,
Substances
soluble at the
chemical
solution and precipitation.
often
as
to
cause
time and
minerals,at the
in the
same
obscure.
The
followingtable,on
affords
in metalliferous
ores
deposits
"
Galena,blende,
chalpyrites,
copyrite,
Iron
Gold, quartz,
Gold, tellurium,
and
Ores
nickel
Galena, blende,
Cinnabar,
Mineral.
Four
iron
or
More
Members.
pyrites,
chalcopy- Iron pyrites,chalcopyrite,
pyrites,
rite,quartz,
galena,blende,quartz.
Gold, quartz, iron Gold, quartz, iron pyrites,
blende, galena, arsenical
pyrites,
pyrites.
iron pyrites,
Gold,tellurium,
quartz, Gold,tellurium,
Iron
Cobalt and
nickel ores,
pyrrhotite,
ores,
wolfram,
Tin-ore,
and
Three Members.
Members.
Cobalt
mineral
Associated
Two
and
quartz.
and
Cobalt
nickel
ores,
quartz.
pyrrhotite,
iron
iron
Cinnabar, iron pyrites,Cinnabar,
pyrites,
pyrites,
quartz, calcspar.
quartz,
chlorite,Magnetite,chlorite,garnet,
Magnetite,
chlorite,
Magnetite,
garnet,
pyroxene, pyrites.
olivine,
Chromite, serpenChromite, serpentine,Chromite,serpentine,
tine.
olivine,
pyroxene.
In
and
nickel,and
platinum,
copper
ORE
85
VEINS.
Gothard
Saint
of the
crust
This
earth.
taken
Observations
in
provedthat
(a) The
belief is
known
parts of the
be
to
erroneous.
bore-holes in different
parts
Australia,during the past decade, have
"
temperature of the
from
(b) That
in all
rate
now
and
deep mines
of
normal
the
tunnel, was
with
increases
crust
the
distance
the surface.
temperature
to
depth,i.e.,the
Tertiarydate, the
feet
30
every
by
to
increase
of middle
for
and
exceptional
is
The
vein-fissures.
This
depth.2
in andesites
found
temperature was
in
caused
apparently
the
is enclosed
lode,which
Comstock
the
as
of the heated
source
waters.
Ohaeawai
mines in New
Zealand, the rockquicksilver
that boiling
water
with
met
was
temperatureincreased so rapidly
feet from
the surface.
Here again we
at a depth of 200
are
the
leave
deposits
cinnabar
Volcanoes, whether
hot
Calumet
Fahr.
In
and
recent
of
parts
abnormallycool.
For
Hecla
little room
the
South
instance,Professor
mine
Lake
at
was
Maldon
found
to be
as
Mine, Maldon
Professor
East
cap
sinters,
sulphur,
situated
in
parts, however,
Agassiz
a
Superior,
follows
found
rise of
Victoria,4the
normally
abare
in the
only 1"
increase
of
:
"
"
Some
basalt
in this instance.
Tertiary,are
or
crust.
temperate
and
for doubt
The
depth down
to 1700
feet.
Worcestershire
Inst. Min.
Eng.,
1904.
F. Becker, "The
Geology of the Comstock Lode," Monograph III.,
Oeol.
U.S.
Survey, Washington.
p. 263, 1882,
8 Professor
Journal of Science " vol. i.,1895, p. 503.
Agassiz,American
4
H. C. Jenkins, " Rock
Temperaturesin Victoria,"Proc Aust. Assoc.
1902.
Adv.
vol.
ix.
Si,
p. 309,
2G.
Digitized
by
86
GEOLOGY.
MINING
Garden
South
1" Fahr.
Band
and
Gully,Beudigo
"
Chum
depth down
80 feet in
to 2080
feet.
Railway,Bendigo
"
1" Fahr.
The
feet.
"
to 3000
for every
in
country-rock
77*5 feet in
each
depth down
to 3645
case
feet.
sandstone.
The
followingtables of rock-temperatures
preparedby Professor
Everett,1are of much interest in connection with this question.
Table
I.
"
Observations
Depths
II.
"
Temperature
Vertical
and
Table
of
at
Mines
at
Borings.
100"
which
Fahr.
was
found.
Feet.
Sperenberg,
2400
Paruschowitz,
Schladebach,
Pendleton,
3200
......
3400
3480
3875
Wheeling,
Table
III.
"
Calculated
WOULD
Depths
BE
at
which
100*
Fahr.
FOUND.
Feet.
Rosebridge,
2769
Scarle,
3449
Kingswood,
3469
Dukinfield,
3672
Wheeling,
3722
Ashton
4192
Moss,
Professor J. D.
Everett, Evidence
Coal Supplies,London, 1904.
1
before
the
Royal
Commission
on
88
ture, it is remarkable
recorded
in
GEOLOGY.
MINING
in
little
how
has been
information
trustworthy
underground temperatures,even
regardto progressive
placeswhere
time
is
must
be
Temperaturesshould
regularintervals both
at
ground ;
and
value,and
taken
in
in
some
cases
follows
there
be
even
is
change
than
worse
cision
pre-
drivingin
haphazardmanner
or
new
rock.
of
of
are
no
useless,as they
conclusions.
erroneous
observed
be
precautionsto
been
may
of
skill and
reasonable
sinkingand
when
careless
with
placeswhere
all
at
Observations
may
The
noted
be
peratures
taking underground tem-
in
summarised
succinctly
by
H. C. Jenkins
as
:
"
rapidlypushed
cooled
(2) Where
The
rock-walls
currents.
by ventilating
should
the
rock
possible
oxidised,since chemical
easily
temperatureshould
(3)Very
ground
wet
lower
in
be taken
must
readingthan
most
be
cases
be
free
sulphides
tion
attendingoxidasulphidesare present the
at
once.
it will
avoided,as
the
from
reactions
When
exothermic.
are
be
time
be
must
the
will tend
to
given to permit
the
water
deep-seated
sufficient
(4) After drilling,
will
true
hand, ascending
exaggerate the temperature.
generallygive
other
abnormal
become
soon
heat of
for this.
(5) The
drill-hole must
be
deep enough
majorityof
to
6 feet holes
cases
avoid
Agassizused
the
ture
tempera-
holes 10 feet
are
deep.
sufficient.
Limits
limited
1
by
of
the
be
When
inserted in the
wrapped round
with three
H. C. Jenkins," Rock
Sc, vol. ix. p. 309, 1902.
"
at
standard
hole,the thermometer
layersof flannel.
great depths will
economic
Temperaturesin Victoria,"Proc.
Aust.
be
consideraAssoc. Adv.
ORE
tions.
By
the
89
VEINS.
adoptionof secondaryventilation
methods
and
depths
at
on
of
increment
of
temperature.
Until lately
it was
Replacement"
commonly
and
believed that ore-deposits
filled
fissures
pre-existing
merely
In recent years writers on ore-formation
cavities in country-rock.
has been
have been inclined to placemore
less stress on what
or
Metasomatic
termed
metasomatic
replacement
no
According to this,it is surmised that,in many cases at least,
previouscavities existed,but that the waters percolating
through
the rocks dissolved certain tracks or zones
which
they replaced
with
and
ore-matter
This
of
gangue.
replacement is
process
taken placeamong
have
how
matter
the
well known
rock-masses,no
metamorphic rocks,and all older
constituents
all
dense,including
to
penologists
to
of many
igneousand eruptivemasses.
It is known
due
internal
to
in rocks
readily
(meaningchange of body),and is
to take placeas
reactions,which seem
metasomatism
as
chemical
as
do the metabolic
changes in livingorganisms.
replacedmolecule by molecule,
In
minerals
cases
are
many
giving rise to what is termed mineral
the
pseudomorphism. But
in
set up
minerals
new
capableof segregatingthemselves
into
masses
of
all sizes.
Gneiss
and
mica-schist
segregationand
molecular
of altered
are
familiar
examplesof
rearrangement
sedimentaryrocks.
work
of
stituents
con-
alteration is termed
Such
the
dominant
of the
the
anamorphic zone.
The internal changes that affect eruptivesare known
to every
Besides
these
which
molecular,
are
petrologist.
changes,
chiefly
and
altered by
be
rock-masses,
so
eruptiverocks, may
especially
the action of
waters
circulating
as
to
bear
no
resemblance
to the
rock.
original
Thus
by
the
in many
removal
of
cases
andesites have
of certain
others.
Rock
been
changedto propylite
essential constituents
replacement
and
is doubtless
the
tution
substi-
precededby
alteration.
Hise l and Emmons,2
as defined by Van
replacement,
does not necessarily
substitution of matter, molecule
imply a mere
for molecule,as happens in the process of pseudomorphism,
which
involves the preservation
of the original
form of the subMetasomatic
1
2
90
GEOLOGY.
MINING
but an
replaced,
interchangeof substance, the dissolved
being replaced
by grainsor crystalline
aggregates of one or
stance
rock
minerals.
more
That
substitution
did, however,
kinds of
place in some
In the tin-impregnations
in granite,
depositsis well known.
in New
South Wales, pseudomorphs of tin-oxide,
in the form of
not uncommon
other examplescould be
are
orthoclase,
; and many
reference
of isolated
to the replacement
quoted,having
principally
in crystalline
and eruptiverocks.
crystals,
Slow replacement
of substance
of
by a progressivemovement
the
solutions
taken
in
direction must
aggregates.
determined
In
the
by
where
most
of
cases
of
ctd-desac.
massive
would
be
it
solutions,
by deep-circulating
as
rapid,
would
active
processes were
circulation
Whatever
in
have
to
line of fault.
or
depositsformed
currents, which
assumed
direction of movement
metasomatic
be
composed of
ore-deposits
the
rock fracture
case
is manifest
or
definite
take
the face
form
existed would
or
be due
could
deep-seatedcavities
breast
blind end
to
vection
con-
only
be
feeble.
This
now
raises the
dissolved matter
of
to the
questionas
to
transference
and
supply
somatic
advancingfaces of metacontinually
the
action.
The
energy which
was
It has been
is
force of
proved that
at any
when
from a solution at
deposited
and
immediatelymore
;
been
shown
portionof dissolved
any point,the osmotic
a
dissolved matter
well-established
has
by
great intensity.
disturbed
mass
ference,
rate accelerated this trans-
pressure, which
probablyosmotic
*t Hoff to be
van
caused, or
to
matter
substance
balance
is
travels to that
laws
of
osmotic
ore.
Arrhenius
and
Gillette
have
urged
the
claims
of
osmotic
and
mass,
since it is
its
deposition
commences,
have
must
seldom
been
does
not
dissolved matter
1
is
by
writers
an
on
being when
in vein-filling
agency
this subject,
although
process of lode-formation
itself with the source
concern
by replacement,
or
originof
the
"
Osmosis
Gillette,
1903.
operationas
called into
mentioned.
specifically
Metasomatism
and
assumed
always
as
Factor
in Ore
Formation,"Trans.
Am.
Inst. M. E.,
It is almost
less
certain that
mineralised
to
appliedto largepyriticore-bodies
often
of
zones
metasomatic
processes, to a greater or
ground
agenciesin the formation of many underrock masses.
For this reason
the phrase
degree,were active
and
ore-deposits
Replacementlode,so
91
VEINS.
ORE
country, is somewhat
ambiguous,
the
with
vein-matter
layeron
channel
width
It is
each
assumed
during
satisfactorily
explainedby supposing
in
deposited open channels, beginning
until the
wall,followed by subsequentlayers
the solutions exhausted.
or
that
the
vein-fissure remained
whole
the
reasonable
more
symmetrical
was
closed
became
It is not
and
only be
layerscan
or
that
and
to suppose
opened
gradually
as
reopen and
Waldemar
widen
in Fissure
Veins"1
Lindgren'sclassic paper
on
The
of
work
His
genesisof
rocks
further
a
vein
can
shows
metasomatism
that
only be
contiguousto the
The
"Metasomatic
author
microscopicchemical research
field hitherto much
neglected.
methods
the
to time.
Processes
of vein-formation.
investigation
in
time
with
conspicuoussuccess,
clear
obtained
of. the
understanding
minute
the
of
by a
study
ore-body.
he
describes
is
not
clearly
correlative with
mineral
"
Lindgren thinks
fullysufficient
Lindgren,Trans.
1
31
Am.
xxx.
p.
578, 1900.
igitie
92
MINING
for many
majorityof
fissure-veins
GEOLOGY.
others
for many
perhapsthe
there seems
to be something lackingin
"
that
"
this
explanation.
Vogt classifiesthe
of ore-solutions
processes caused
metasomatic
as
follows
by
the circulation
:
"
(d)Kaolinisation.
(c)Sericitisation.
(/) Carbonatisation
(g)Silicification.
(withdolomitisation).
(h)Zeolitisation.
(t)Intense
He agrees
metasomatic
contact
with
of mineral-veins
Information
with
of wall-rock
occasions.
wall-rock
for
often
throw
be taken
1
in
Professor
metamorphism.
and
ore-bodies.
regard
to
character,and
vein-structure,
should
be
placed on
examination
petrographical
distance
some
on
each
record
of
on
all
possible
the vein-matter
side of
the
Vogt,
"
Problems
in the
Geology of
Ore
and
ore-bodywill
fluence
in-
must
alone.
Deposits,"loc. cit.,
p. 660.
Digitized
by
CHAPTEE
DYNAMICS
THE
OF
"
of
fractured,
or
which
the
Faults.
build
sharper
by
igneous magma
or
hypogenic.
simple
fractures
fracture
is, the
have
become
of
movement
the
majority
displacement.
; but
but
areas
in
also
the
of
In
Zinimerraann's
veins
the
slow
or
tilted
the
by
and
bent
ments
move-
dislocated
an
orogenic
either
there
other
of
be
may
on
cases
be
may
secular
intrusion
agents
rock
Faults-
Dip
Lodes"
and
propagated
disturbing
movements
without
been
up
beds
Bed"
with
Inclined
depressed, by
or
BEDS.
AND
parallel
for
Mineral
continental
; that
Dislocations
Rules
"
"
elevated
LODES
Faults
"
Faults
Trough
Step Faults
Graphic Method.
Definition
Faults
of
Definition
Contents:"
IV.
wall
has
words,
the
side
of
are
only
not
rente
faults.
fault
be
may
denned
as
fracture
on
one
taken
on
place whereby the rocks
been
displaced relativelyto those on the other side.
Faults
caused
in
are
by crust stresses.
They run
the
in
but
the
faults
of
often
a
run
region
major
has
movement
which
side
one
all
have
directions,
general
same
direction.
A
or
fault
vein
Faults
are
plane.
The
not
fault
makes
The
cross
or
other.
fault
run
may
hade
with
hade-line
the
the
parallel with
course,
at right angles,
course
often
vertical,
is said
of
the
of
hade
to
a
fault
vertical
a
fault
but
when
or
incline
at
to
it inclines
is, therefore,
strike, of
or
the
other
any
angle.
side
one
from
the
or
the
vertical
which
angle
bed
the
plane.
is
the
oblique
resultant
forces, namely
gravitational
principal component
towards
the
of the
centre
earth,
verticallyor radially
thrust
mainly due to subsidence.
Faults
of two
kinds, namely :
are
of
stress
and
two
acting
lateral
"
(a)
(b)
Normal
Reversed
faults.
overlap faults.
or
93
Digitized by
G00gle
94
MINING
In normal
GEOLOGY.
downthrow
faults the
is towards
Fio. 45."
In
the hade
Fig.45
towards
Normal
Fault.
downthrow
of the beds
are
the west.
In reversed
or
overlapfaults
the downthrow
is on
the
foot-wall
Fig. 46.
In the
on
above
"
Reversed
figure,the
hade
or
OverlapFault.
is to the
west, and
the
throw
down-
the foot-wrallside.
Fig. 48.
"
Sharp Foldingwithout
Fracture.
faults
are
96
GEOLOGY.
MINING
The
miners
from
dotonthrow
the east
or
as
upthrow,according
or
called by
displacement
the fault is approached
west.
Fig. 52.
The
the vertical
"
Showing Displacements
by
line cb shows
disseverment which
the
amount
is sometimes
of
Strike Fault.
horizontal
displacementor
termed
erroneously
heave.
DYNAMICS
THE
When
OF
LODES
AND
97
BEDS.
one
shown
fig.54.
in
Secondaryand
Fig. 54.
both
This
seam
is not
may
be
removed,
entirely
in the
uncommon
Tertiarycoal-measures
"
Section of Normal
seam
may
sides of the
65. "Section
Fig
faulted
hanging on
as
of young
flanks of
case
the
chains.
mountain
The
of
be
Fault,showing one
by denudation.
partlyremoved
fault,as indicated in
showing Seam
Bide of
seam
by denudation
55 and 56.
figs.
partlyremoved
on
One
Side
removed
on
one
or
alongline
of Fault.
or
fault possesses the same
dip and strike as a seam
it
mineral-vein,that is,when it conforms to the bedding-planes,
rocks
relation
of
the
on
disturbance in the
no
causes
When
apparent
each
side.
98
GEOLOGY.
MINING
The
only evidence
and
smooth,polished,
Fig.
56.
Section
"
of
the
existence
slicken-sided
showing Seam
such
of
surfaces
partlyremoved
on
the
Both
on
fault
is the
line of
Sides
move-
alongline
of Fault.
In
ment.
the
the
of
production
the movement
of
case
a
took
mineral
layerof
place.
vein,the faulting
may
friction breccia
on
Such
fault is
more
merelya thrust-plane,
the side
result in
on
which
Plane.
stress.
shearingthrust than vertical or tangential
A
fault
which
in the same
runs
Dip Faults.
generaldirection
bed
termed
is
the
of
or vein,
a dip-fault
as
dip a
strike-faults and dip-faults
The distinction beween
is not always
"
well marked.
bed.
and
and
a
or
strike-fault.
producean apparent
Dip-faults
lateral
of
displacement
the bed
vein,which
or
When
they cross.
the principal
movement
faultingtakes place,
is
vertical
when
the faulted vein is vertical there is no
Consequently,
lateral displacement
or
heave, as the dissevered ends merelyslide
one.
and
shearingare
but
gneiss,
are
sometimes
often
seen
observed
in fault-
THE
Thus
planes.
DYNAMICS
in
some
LODES
OF
the
cases
AND
99
BEDS.
dissevered ends
of
vein
are
sharplybent
On
the
the
rubbingof
vertical
rock-surface
one
upon
the other
follow
generally
plane.
Fault
Fig. 58.
"
Upper part,Plan of Faulted Vein at, say, 100 feet level. Lower
alongetc,showing heave and vertical displacement.
part,Cross-section
The
apparent heave
the vein
dip of
the
or
lateral
vein to the
carryingthe
flatter the
When
dip,the
the
is producedby
displacement
vein
is
left ; and
rightor
greater will be
vertical,there
the
festly
mani-
the
placement
apparent dis-
can
be
no
heave
at all.
In
fig.58
the
distance
db
represents the
amount
of
vertical
100
MINING
GEOLOGY.
downthrow
or
displacement
; and
lateral displacement
heave.
or
When
The
lost.
drive
the
da
lost vein
the
cross-cut
the
ac
of
amount
in
was
the
east ; but
downthrow
is
will strike
The
higherpart of
downthrow
is the
Sometimes
two
ab, and
upon alongda.
b will be found the
at
faults
on
run
problems become
Step Faults.
number
of
"
seam
the
"
same
a.
other,or
happens that
of
one
later date.
are
again faulted,many complicated
in the recovery of the lost portions.
bed
crossed by a
is sometimes
or
faults,running more
Fig. 59.
dippingin
seams
or
involved
at
with each
parallel
an
faulted veins
crosscut
distance
more
or
each other at
group
When
some
Hence, the
continuation
cross
the north
on
Cross-section
or
less
to
parallel
showing Group
direction ;
or
by
some
of
each
other,and
Step Faults.
dippingone
way
and
another.
Such
faults
they dislocate
Fig. 60."
are
a
seam
often
small, and
seen
when
of coal.
Cross-section of
Trough
(a) Seam
Fault in
of coal.
THE
DYNAMICS
Faults*
Trough
When
"
LODES
two
example
is the
which
Staffordshire,
distance of 450
has
as
Inclined
Lodes.
fault.
the
vein
the
dips to
dippingtowards
cases
The
Mine, in
Port
or
you
left,and
dip to
from
away
is cut
when
occur
may
vein may
off
the
you.
a
fault
by
ing
driv-
fault
by
you, the
well-
great 10-yardseam
Four
"
Lodes.
Lost
of
each
between
trough-fault
the
down
below.
thrown
feet,as shown
for
down
of Dudley
trough-fault
Recovery
Rules
AND
to be thrown
101
BEDS.
OF
to the left.
II. When
III.
the vein
the
left,and
is cut
When
the
dips to
right,and
is cut
cross
does
fault may
cross
the
face of the
V.
When
horizontal
seam
drive
rules
faults and
or
the
ing
driv-
or
squarely,
fault
dippingtowards
higher level
the
lost
; but
will
seam
are
strike-faultswhich
run
the
with
parallel
of
case
reversed
seam.
method
1.
fault
rules.
is cut off by
Graphic
findingthe lost
Method.
Zimmerman's
follows
by a
found by
underfoot.
be found
These
off
it may
fault intersects the vein
vein
by
right.
the vein
dippingaway
The
off
ing
dippingaway from you, the lost vein will be found by drivto the right.
the vein dips to the rightand is cut off by a fault
When
ing
dippingtowards you, the lost vein will be found by drivto the
IV.
dips to
for
or
faulted
"
Zimmerman's
portionof
graphic
lode
is
as
:
"
Lay down
2. Determine
by
construction
the
point of
intersection
fault,
at
any
level.
3.
imaginary lower
the pointsof
Draw
a line joining
fault at the two
levels.
102
MINING
4. Produce
GEOLOGY.
the
line of intersection
line
to
perpendicular
through the
fault at upper
level.
5. Draw
the
fault at
the
pointwhere
the
faults and
beds
be
can
of the throw
Applicationof
north
on
of reversed
strike-faults.
Unless
extent
produced
be found.
lode
Example
fault is met
fault
an
an
In
dips south at
angle of 60*.
side of the
fault,the
be determined.
cannot
Rule.
each
on
recognised
with
Suppose that
the
which displaces
1.
"
the
direction should
lode
the
in
driving
lode.
The
dips west at
lost portions
Fig. 61."
Procure
Sketch
lode and
fault be shown
by
of
approximateposition
dipof each with an arrow.
firm,black
line,as
shown
fig.61.
the
Draw
line
through
the
and
pointsof intersection,
erect
per-
104
MINING
Example
5.
GEOLOGY.
angle,the diagramwould
same
Supposein drivingnorth-west
"
on
lode
be
dipping
south-west at
E. and
would
W., and
an
angleof 60", a
dippingnorth at
fault
an
were
met
with
angle of 75",on
running
which
side
Fig. 66."
To illustrateExample 6.
Digitized
by
CHAPTER
DEPOSITS
ORE
Contents
GENETICALLY
formed
Nickel
"
by
Alkaline
Deposits
and,
occurrence,
determined
their
as
by
to
It
the
"
Regional
They
are
members
as
that
of
mode
their
composition and
prevailing at
their
conditions
geological
and
known
now
extent,
some
Ascending
of
Deposits
composition.
masses,
is
Ores
"
"
and
form
detached
formation.
sedimentary
Waters
Metals
Action
"
Metamorphic
Organic.
in
Chromite
"
Platinum
"
Solfataric
"
Meteoric
"
Segregation
Copper
Contact
"
diverse
of
veins,
true
Magraatic
"
Native
"
Fumarolic
are
CONSIDERED.
After-actions
Eruptive
Ore-deposits
as
lion
Waters"
Metamorphic
found
Classification
Genetic*
:"
Peridotite
V.
of
form,
the
were
time
of
formation.
In
the
of
the
facilities
for
The
and
genesis
naturally
of
vast
and
observation
with
literature
the
of
the
to
where
afforded
has
mining
the
research.
ore-deposits presents
the
added
been
America,
in
connected
operations
has
of facts
mass
subject, particularly
the
of
magnitude
great
decade,
past
literature
difficult
many
is rich
subject
problems,
theoretical
in
deductions.
The
and
introduction
of
demonstration
the
and
of
secondary
this
but
are
of
crust
still
We
the
of
in
the
understand
the
of
occurrence
incident
in
shell
Recent
the
of
investigation,
of
metasomatic
marked
have
conception
remember
must
we
the
same
the
present
natural
of
edge
past,
is
that
The
past.
ore-deposits
tectonic
of
ment
replaceof
point
new
formation
of
ore-
existed.
its
governed by the
are
living on
rightly
outer
earth
principles
truer
investigation
reflection
the
enrichment,
led
to
departure, and
deposits than formerly
In
methods
petrographical
agencies
form
are
existing
that
still in
conditions
built
the
up
operation,
and
laws.
a
we
geologic epoch,
study
must
merely
arrangement
of
the
geologic
the
and
if
we
would
The
present.
happening
materials
forming
"
an
the
of the
globe.
petrographical investigation
105
has
shown
that
ore-deposits
106
alwaysmore
are
GEOLOGY.
MINING
This constant
association
leads
naturally
That
geneticclassificationwhich
to most
seems
to mineral
present knowledgerelating
I.
to the
Classification.
Genetic
The
igneous rocks.
broad generalisation
with the eruption
connected
genetically
are
ore-deposits
of igneousmagmas.
"
with
less intimately
connected
or
our
nearly satisfy
is
deposits
follows
as
"
Magmaticsegregation.
Eruptiveafter-actions
(a) Solfataric.
II.
"
lb)Fumarolic.
(c)Contact melamorphic.
(d)Regionalmetamorphic.
III. Meteoric
waters
"
(a)Chemical.
(b)Mechanical.
IV.
Organic.
I.
"
It has
been
shown
Magmatic
by
Segregation.
Professor
of mineral
veins.
compositionof
the molten
sphere.
Keferringto
the
distribution of the
elements
in the
earth's
Professor
Loc. cit.t
p. 639.
"
Problems
Genesis of Ore Deposits,
1901, p. 637.
J. H.
L.
Vogt,
in the
Originof
Digitized
by
Ore
Deposits,"
DEPOSITS
ORE
The
GENETICALLY
of
proportions
107
CONSIDERED.
are, he says,
as
follows
"
Per cent.
Aluminium,
sodium,and
potassium,
Hydrogen,titanium,carbon,and chlorine,
barium,
Phosphorus,manganese, sulphur,
fluorine,nitrogen, zirconium, and
strontium,
Nickel, lithium,vanadium, bromine, and
perhapsberylliumand boron,
Cobalt, argon, iodine, rubidium, tin,
arsenic and
cerium, yttrium,
possibly
others,
....
....
the
deficient in acid-forming
constituents,
heavy metals will segregateas oxides duringthe process of cooling,
assuming the form of individual crystals,
grains,or irregular
In
igneous magmas
in basic and
common
The
in acid rocks.
are
typical
examplesof magmatic border-segregation
At
the
and
forms.
its
found
serpentinised
peridotite
present
but
differentiation
laws
are
imperfectly
governing magmatic
is
molecular
flow
ascribed
to
understood.
segregation
By some,
and
Becker
due to differences of temperature in the magma
; by
Spurr to convection currents which they believe would tend to
most
in
such
carry the first crop of minerals,
the borders of the igneousmagmas.
as
etc.,to
magnetite,olivine,
segregation
may be accelerated
The
in the cooling magma.
due to unequal osmotic
pressure
would
be less
temperature at the borders of the igneous mass
than
in the central portion,thereby causing a corresponding
The
difference
holds
writer
of
good
transference
And
since osmotic
pressure
pressure.
there would be a
laws of thermodynamics,
osmotic
for the
of
osmotic
stress
from
the
central
portionto
the
borders.
The
1
J.
Trans.
ores
that
Park, "The
N.Z.
occur
as
primaryconstituents
Cause of Border
1905.
Inst.,vol. xxxviii.,
in
Segregation
of intrusive
Some
rocks,
IgneousMagmas/'
108
MINING
resultingfrom
follows
GEOLOGY.
coolingmagma,
are
as
"
and serpentine.
(a) Chromite in peridotite
(b)Copperand nickel-iron in serpentine.
(c)Platinum metals in highlybasic eruptives.
(d)Magnetiteand titanite in basic and semi-basic eruptives.
in Peridotite. In the
Chromite
Zealand, there are two mountain
masses
the
magmatic
of
segregation
Island
South
"
in which
peridotite,
of
is exhibited
chromite
New
of
on
large
scale.
A
the
height of
over
4000
cityof Nelson,
feet above
Dun
Mountain
sea-level.
It
covers
rises to
area
of
an
about
but occasionally
occurs
grains,
The
adjacentrocks
are
Between
Hochstetter
largemasses.1
slatyshales and
in
at the base of
occurring
and
limestone
the
gave
half
a mile wide.
serpentine
The
limestones
the
of
probably
sedimentary
which
olivine,to
dunite,there is
chromite,
of
masses
serpentinecontains lenticular-shaped
belt of
with the
native copper, and copper ores, principally
chalcopyrite,
usual productsof oxidation.
It also contains thin irregular
veins
and chrysobronzite,enstatite,
wollastonite,
diallage,
scapolite,
of
tile.
The
The
second
situated 20
6000
feet
The
olivine,near
so
ore.
an
of about
area
10 square
chromite.
greaterproportionthan at Dun
age.
the
serpentine
these rocks.
supposedPalaeozoic
often
covers
separate it from
The
olivine and
the
of Milford
is flanked
peridotite
which
and
in
Ked
forms
Mountain,
peridotite
in
Sound,
Otago.3 It is over
of
mass
north
high,and
mountain
The
great
miles
in much
occurs
chromite
occur
of
of
largermasses
two
on
the
sides
by
with
latter
belts of
serpentine,
sandstones
of
sedimentaryrocks, is
the
highlychargedwith chromite as
No deposits
of chromite are known
The
Mountain.
adjacentslates and
contact
miles.
to form
in the
massive
bodies
but
serpentine,
S. H.
Cox, "Chrome
Depositsof Nelson,"New Zealand Qeol. Reports
Explorations,
1881, p. 8.
Dr F. Von Hochstetter,
xvi. p. 341,
ZeUschriftder deutscJien geol.Gesells.,
1864.
8
J. Park, New
Zealand
GeologicalReports and
Explorations,1886-87,
p. 121.
Digitized
by
DEPOSITS
ORB
they
GENETICALLY
the
possiblyexist,as
may
Nickel
Iron.
sands
The
"
Mountain
109
CONSIDERED.
explored.
uncountry is still practically
in the streams
yieldsmall
which
nickelarea
rare
serpentine
iron alloy,
Awaruite, discovered by W. Skey in 1885.1 It has
been found,in situ,in the serpentine.2
A nickel-iron alloy,
the same
as or related to Awaruite, has been
found
sands at the River
in gold-bearing
Biella,Piedmont,
associated with chromite
in serpenseparatedfrom peridotite;8
tine
4
associated
with
in
in Josephine
sandstone,
County,Oregon ;
Copper.
serpentinesat
Native
Wales,
Columbia
Dun
in
in
serpentine
Cornwall,
In
found
in
mentioned.
New
South
found
are
silver,
S. H. Cox
disseminated
grainsof native copper, finely
The
dykes are intruded in
igneous matrix.6
small
to contain
throughout
the
volcanic breccias of
Platinum
probablylater
Metals.
in the
matrix
rocks.
In
basic
flanks
of
the
An
the
olivine rock
found
in
few
Kaiva
rivers,on
the
western
seminated
containingdisolivine-gabbro,
platinum,but not apparentlyin payable
consists
of
discovered
was
side
western
age.
onlybeen
Ural
Urals,
grains of
quantities.
has
in
the
Miocene
Platinum
"
and serpentine.
peridotite
The bed-rock
of the Vyzaj and
on
chromite
a
district,
discovered,in the Manukau
their
of dykes of andesite,which, near
borders, were
1879, Prof.
number
cases
in Smith
other
Large masses
in
and
The
"
is found
copper
and many
of the
quantities
of
the
in
1893,
at
Goroblage-datsk,
and
dark
fine-grained
1
basaltic rock.
ComptesRondus,
Am.
5
6
Journ. 8c
cxii. p. 171.
[4],xix. p. 319, 1905.
1879-80,p. 27.
Eng. and Min. Jour.,New
Oeol.
tions,
Reports and Explora-
110
MINING
GEOLOGY.
at
Pond, in 1886, discovered native platinumin serpentine
and
in
vein
a great
Wade, near Auckland,
traversingpropylitised
I. A.
goldfield.
of platinumin
discovery
Since
Sudbury,
at
ore
in minute
But
beds
in sulphide
occurs
II.
"
or
nickel-copper
sulphide
disclosed
has
the
analysis
quantityin many sulphideores
this,and
veins,its occurrence
magmatic segregation.
Orbs
Eruptive
by
formed
It is manifest
at the movement
commence
in
in
the
careful
Canada,
in
are
series of
after-actions
eruptive
Igneous magmas
After-actions.
now
admitted
the
fusion of magmas
dry heat
is, fusion
in
the
is not
constituents
believed to be
alone,but
temperature
shown
of
by experimentthat
3000"
F. to
tinue
con-
hydrous
pyrogenetic,
that
hydato-pyrogenetic,
water.
Accordingto
liquid.
of
by heat,
presence
more
Arrhenius,1water renders the magma
It has been
of
will
contain
to
by penologists
less water
more
or
togetherwith many
character.
or gaseous
Hence
and
which
magmas
requirea
be
fused
of water
at 500" F.
Further, it has been
presence
shown that the presence of water aids in givinga magma
fluidity.
able to fuse glassat 200" C. in the presence of water.
Barus 2 was
in the
of 210"
in the form of a
sufficient to hold the water
condition.4
At high temperatures,both
possess
1
Svante
in
liquid,
water
and
heated
supersteam
mineral substances.
great capacityfor dissolving
Arrhenius, "Zur
Geol. Foren.
Fork.
Stockholm,1900.
2
Digitized
by
112
MINING
thick
hot
the
Where
GEOLOGY.
springs overflow
mushroom-shaped mounds
on
of
along
fissures in lavas
grouped around
the
near
point of
Hauraki
the
of this
andesitic lavas,tuffs,and
pileof
chalcedonic.
slatyshales
breccias of Miocene
resting
age,
and
to the
igneousrock-formation.
the borders of the
Near
and
die out
generally
rock.
basement
veins
On
are
small
are
they reach
the
and
important,
un-
underlying
other
more
ductive
proold vents, and have been
have followed them.
operations
the
deep as mining
no
reason
why they should
as
be
to
seems
the
when
grouped around
found to descend
There
andesites,the veins
descend
not
to
great depths.
the walls of the veins,is propylitised
to a
on
country-rock,
hard
rock.
When
two
veins
or more
run
moderately
parallel
gray
with each other, as they do in all the Hauraki
mining centres,
between
the veins is often entirely
the country-rock
altered,or
propylitised.
The
In
veins
parallel
which
yards,and
in almost
each other
by
hard
bands
or
generalstrike
distance
the
district,
Thames
the
narrow
traverse
the
seldom
goldfield
numerous
exceeds
200
from
separated
every instance the veins are
belt of hard unaltered
andesite. These
bars,as
and
the
between
the
dip as
miners
They
Away
surface
The
waters
matter.
from
the
eruptive centres,
the
andesites
have
circulatingin
From
fissures which
are
now
hot
suffered
mineral
filled with
mineralised waters
acted
veinon
the
DEPOSITS
ORE
rock
coming
the
from
meet,
narrow,
Where
the vein-fissures.
the veins
surroundingdistricts,
distance
majorityis under
5000
largerlodes
of the
16,000
of
feet,but
principally
are
quartz,possessingall the
origin. Some
the
left between
were
"
composedof chalcedonic
of solfataric
those
met
fissure,
"
and
Waihi,
each other,
near
other.
113
CONSIDERED.
each
on
the
not
GENETICALLY
characteristics
traced
be
can
the
on
length of the
feet.
huge
of chalcedonic quartz,closely
resembling
mushroom-shapedmasses
volcanic
in
the
in form the siliceous deposits
now
forming
regions
around Rotorua and Lake Taupo.
At
and
Kuaotunu
Great
in
mushroom-shapeddeposits,
others,thousands
circular in
At
of
shape,and
Great
character.1
Barrier
It
is
some
are
are
many
of these
many
covering hundreds,
cases
At
acres.
Kuaotunu
they are more
exceed 20 feet in thickness.
seldom
Island,the largestdepositis
miles
nearly2
long,half
of
an
mile
or
in
less
unusual
wide, and
from
intersected in four
mines, in
hundreds
quartz, in which
The
evidence
The
of
yards.
It has been
matter.
mile, and
opened
It varies from
12
to
up
40
chalcedonic
very dense banded
silver sulphides
tributed.
are
sparinglydis-
is filled with
iron
and
furnished
overlyingmushroom
surface from
mineral
distance of
or
thermal
by
the
umbrella
waters
mine
of
workings impliesthat
quartz was
issuingfrom
at Jeffs
molybdenitedeposits,
on
deposited
the
the
Camp,
in the
Hodgkinson
as
Queensland, are described by W. E. Cameron2
roughly circular,or oval-shaped
outcrops of quartz, or blows,
in
goldfield,
carryingwolfram
The
'
and
blows, when
native bismuth.
followed down,
developinto irregularpipe-
N.Z.
2
J. Park, "The
Institute
114
GEOLOGY.
MINING
region, and
volcanic
the
mushroom-shaped quartz-blowsat
Kuaotunu.
Several
of the
massive
by Frank
country-rock.1
A
similar replacementof
andesite
Monte
Cristo
stated
are
Spurr
He
occurringat
as
mentions
rock is made
up of
by
silica is described
in
district,
by
Washington.2
proceededuntil
of the
most
to
quartz,which, he says, varies from coarsely
"
In 1894
and
andesites
of the Hauraki
The
The
analyseswere
ranging from two
leached with
was
potassiumcyanidefor
The
five
and
litharge,
pure
Simultaneous
tests
were
were
the
pounds
selected
cyanide test, on
in
weight.
The
in situ.
samples
pulverised
solution of pure
seventy-two hours.
cyanide solutions
with
by
examination
silver.
examination, were
conducted
to
exhaustive
an
goldand
for
samples,subjectedto
material
made
and
the
made
fluxed
washings were
evaporated,
resultingbutton of lead cupelled.
on
pure
substances,so
to
as
check
the results.
found
goldat
The
and
and
kaolinised,
often
sampleswere
in
no
that the
case
did
the pyroxenes
much
generally
selected from the least altered rocks
they contain
visible
felspars
altered.4
obtained,
pyrites.
Deposits,"
p. 833.
Geology And
J. Park, "The
Veins
Zealand
Inst. M.E., 1897, p. 52.
4
Andesites
J. Park, "Some
from
v
ol.
Zealand
Institute,
xxxiv.,p. 435.
"
of Hauraki
Goldfields,Trans.
New
Thames
Trans.
Goldfields,"
New
the
DEPOSITS
ORE
The
evidence
primary
the
is not
is inclined
and
quantityof
gold
for by the
accounted
At
Te
Aroha,
conclusive
the
silver
of the
gold may
Percy Morgan1 that
source
with
the
gold and
the
is too
veins
to
great
in
existing
the
country-rock.
boundary of
the
great Central
traces
near
the
to agree
silver in
115
CONSIDERED.
that
Whatever
constituents.
author
GENETICALLY
are
be
the
be
Volcanic
soda-water
In the mines
in the north
end
of the
depthsvaryingfrom
weather
muggy
in the
mines,
500
and
sea-level.
In
closd,
the gas
overflows at the surface.
before it.
descend to
Sometimes
rises up
shafts,
specialprecautionsemployed to effect
and to warn
several fatal accidents
the men
of danger,
ventilation,
have taken placein the past thirty
years.
In the Big Pump Shaft,the C02 escapes with such force as to
Notwithstanding the
violent
cause
The
boilingall
depth of
the shaft
over
is 640
feet,but
the
in the well.
workings are
flooded
The
has been
pump
quarter of
The
in
the
500
water
at
which
is not dissolved
At
of
rate
750
working
The
the
century, at
is
water
Hauraki
veins
as
gallons per
to
at
by
the
often
the
cause
surface
escape
over
minute.
trouble
of
the
of the gas
the water.
by
of
manifestly
are
Waihi, Kuaotunu,
from
raisingwater
and
Great
solfataric
Barrier
origin.
Island,there are huge
veins of
denudation.
The
when
presence of timber
the vein-fissure was
point of
its
course
with
in mineral
veins
open channel
the surface,as
an
pointto a time
communicating at some
hot springs do at the
seems
to
present day.
Posepny
1
mentions
the
remarkable
occurrence
of
tree-stems
Waihi
of
116
the
chargedto galenafrom
these
In
the
fibre and
R. D'Audremont
Mr
carbonised
be
easilyrecognised,
surfaces.1
polished
deciduous
volcanic tuff at
piece of
found
plant,was
depth of 915
that
Bdgique)states
la Soc. Geol.
Joachimsthal, in Bohemia,
at
wood, from
filled with
rings could
de
(Bull,
mine
pitchblende
Vesuvian
annular
being extremelyplainon
in
GEOLOGY.
MINING
in
fissure
feet.
andesites,
gold-bearing
wood, partlyor whollysilicifiedand spangledwith nests
masses
and
veins of iron
Martha
The
lode, and
its
Silverton,Union, and
the
in
that
andesite,prove
time
activitysome
flows,which
Silverton
and
numerous
tained
lodes,at Waihi, are all conmile.
The huge lodes,wide
square
and extensive
of the
propylitisation
area
was
an
hydrothermal
the
the
later
of
to
rhyolite
eruption
prior
Waihi
form
now
occurrence.
silicified andesite
of
zones
common
Amaranth
of about
area
an
of
are
pyrites,
of intense
the
and
plains,
around
wrap
the
Martha
veins.
has already
been shown by the Waihi mine
propylitisation
workings to extend to a depth of nearly800 feet below present
The
that is,some
water-level,
alteration of the andesite
thermal
moving
laterally
At Thames
do
and
reach
not
workings at
with
the
on
paper
"
The
of
of
were
the
of Ore
of the association
rocks.4
He
states that
Professor Franz
P.
the
C.
Company'sproperty.2
"Waihi
"Notes
"
on
Morgan,
Trans,
Goldfield,"
result of
the
who
geologist,
discussingProfessor
describes
Deposits,"
examined
Posepny's
the characteristic
adducing additional
springsand later eruptive
the view
of thermal
his examination
Posepny,
mine
feature in connection
of
of the
led him
vein-structure,
though incomplete,
1
the
Thames
American
with
district,
evidence
and
cluded
conmining district,
hydrothermalorigin.8
well-known
Genesis
features of the
similar
Hutton, F.R.S., as
W.
in 1891, when
goldfield
same
the
Obviously,
ascendingand
veins
productive
enclosingrock;
the
of the most
disclosed
have
examination
petrographical
Rickard, a
the action of
to
some
of
surface
Waihi
sea-level.
waters.
1898, CaptainF.
T. A.
due
was
Coromandel
few valuable
In
feet below
400
to
and
ore-occurrences
conclude
that
Austr.
Institute
of Mining
the
of
Engineers,vol.
1901, p. 222.
ORE
which
country-rock,
lines of altered
certain
gold and
the
of
deposition
117
CONSIDERED.
GENETICALLY
DEPOSITS
had
had
been
followed
exposedto
Ohaeawai
The
basement
sandstones
rocks
overlain
of
consist
lower
and
shales
Mesozoic
lower
by greensandsof
Tertiary or upper
basalt and beds
which
covered
with
flows
of
are
age,
that the basalt constitutes
of scoriae. It is agreedby all geologists
Cretaceous
the
is
everywhereevidence
The
springs,around
hot
situated
clustered,are
which
Omapere,
They
itself
which
sulphurand
There
some
are
cinnabar
also
an
and
lain
over-
siliceous sinter
disseminated.
finely
are
of pyriteswith
deposits
old crater.
basalt,which is
calcareous
carbonaceous
of
containingtraces
cases
Lake
of
south-east
site of
flow of
of
point by deposits
and
miles
two
of
activity.
quicksilver
depositsare
the
occupiesthe
edge
there
intense volcanic
about
along the
occur
this
at
of former
; and
craters
goldand
without
or
both
gold
and
cinnabar,in
silver.1
The
silver.
springsis generally
ground
very hot ; and all
depositshave been frustrated
attempts to developthe quicksilver
at shallow depths
by the largevolumes of hot water encountered
The
below
the surface.
district has
The
Sir James
Hutton,
best
the
around
Hector, A.
is
description
extensive
examined
been
that
prospectingand
M'Kay,
Andre
of
different times
at
and
by Captain
author
the
there
mining operations
the
conducted
who
Griffiths,
P.
; but
in 1895
and
1898.
The
iron
varies
from
in
pyritesoccurs
cracks and
masses
3 inches
to
the
near
The
feet,but
many
surface
tion.
examina-
ing
basalt,and also fill-
thickness
their
important
other
of the
masses
dimensions
are
extremelyirregular.
Close
to
sinter, from
contain
the
8
gold and
pyriticmasses
to
10
inches
silver in
there
thick,
places. One
is
which
hard, white
Griffiths
siliceous
found
to
1 Andre
"The
P. Griffiths,
Ohaeawai
QuicksilverDeposits,"Trans.
Zealand Institute Mining Eng.tvol. ii. p. 4S.
Nexo
118
MINING
GEOLOGY.
value of "3
the
per ton, but unfortunately
silver are not given.1
goldand
The
cinnabar
in the
in the
proportionsof
the
divided form.
finely
Sulphuroccurs throughoutthe sinter in largerproportionthan
either the cinnabar or pyrites.
The hot springsgive off largequantities
of H2S, and occasionally
little steam.
The gas escapingthrough the water of the
a
and
small
oxidised liberating
is partially
streams
pools
sulphur,
which
the
white
colour
known
to
imparts a milky
pools,locally
white
as
The
lakes.
beaches
mixed
with
the
of
magnetic
lakes
so-called white
ironsand,and
small
consist of
also
feet
consisted
thick,and
cinnabar.
At
this
of small
there
depth
was
that
the rocks
increased
so
It is
that
trunk
of
trunk
and
roots
also
as
of the
were
tree
sunk
was
The
ore
found
was
in hard
was
of
the
by
H2S,
depth
of the cinnabar,
the charred
siliceous mud.
coated with
were
evolution
some
some
foot of the
shaft
formation
recent
embedded
tree,partially
the
rapidlywith
the
near
strong
the
of
disclosed
of pyritescemented
crystals
and
heat
sulphur,
proportionof alum.
or
openings in the
The
thin
film of cinnabar,
gum
found
near
the roots.
In
rock at
small trench
a
depth of
sunk
over
10 feet
was
found
to be 185" Fahr.
was
bore-hole,cased with
put down to a
piping,
depth of 104 feet,where it encountered the edge of the basalt.
At the same
from which
hot mud
time it struck a fissure,
was
No.
3-inch
a heightof
projected
60
feet above
the
surface
for about
forty-
eighthours.
The
mud
gas, which
inch.
was
was
succeeded
found
to
issue at
found
in close
1
by boilingwater, charged
pressure
proximityto
Andre
the hottest
with
H2S
cinnabar
fumaroles,and that
P. Griffiths,
loc.cit.t
p. 50.
120
Baron
a
GEOLOGY.
MINING
Rlchthofen,1who examined
abnormal
no
temperature was
von
time when
lode, at
Comstock
the
ascribed the
noticeable,
slate and
this
rocks are
place the basement
freshwater
formation,which
by a
basalt.
flow
The
of
a
geologicfeatures are
those existing
at Ohaeawai.
overlain
The
sandstones
way as to form
still soft or
disseminated
and
slates
breccia.
The
metallic
is
almost
identical with
fissured in such
filled partlywith
are
interspaces
alreadyindurated
capped by
in turn
and
broken
are
sandstones,
siliceous
paste,containingfinely
partlywith cinnabar,for the
and
sulphides,
most
In
the
and
mine
same
traversed
the
is reduced
basalt
to
irregularfissures,filled
by
with
mass,
porous
sidphur
and
cinnabar.8
Hot
mineral
through
and
the
and
water
slates.
The
silica
found
are
deposits
in all
from
stagesof consolidation,
and
to chalcedony,
gelatinousmass
metallic sulphides,
of cinnabar
consisting
information
no
Unfortunately
the
freshwater
and
basalt.
formation
sodium
carbonate.
and
is rich in
liberated
gases
to the nature
as
the Cretaceous
hot water
The
layersof
pyrites.
is obtainable
lyingbetween
According to Becker,the
and
with
alternate
of
sandstone
borax,
chlorides,
from
the water
sisted
con-
gas
the
of 893
(CH4),and
parts of
cobalt and
the
mine
workings,Becker
detected
the
traces
of
nickel.
onlysulphur was
and
within
parts of
25
efflorescence from
or
C02, 2
in
found
depth,cinnabar
and
; lower
down
sulphur
pyritesoccurringupon
of silica.
deposits
Steamboat
Springs,in Nevada,
furnish
equallyimportant
compared with
the
same
at
SulphurBank,"
p. 404.
3 Professor
F.
List.
Mining
Posepny,"The
Genesis
Am.
of Ore
vol.
Jour, of Science,
Trans.
Deposits,"
xxv.
American
evidence
GENETICALLY
DEPOSITS
ORE
121
CONSIDERED.
of
fullydescribed
In
sedimentaries,believed
altered
springsissue
The
floor of the
of the
some
of
archaean
north
age, thermal
south fissures.
and
with
valleyis covered, in places,
there
mostlyclosed
pointsfrom
sinter,in which
calcareous
and
several
from
be
to
by
are
many
the
springshot
sheet
here and
fissures,
of
deposit
vapours
of
there
silica on
their walls.
gases,
chiefly
C02
and
H2S, stillissue.
Becker
found,in
sulphideand
About
the mineral
sodium
mile
to
water, small
of mercury
amounts
sulphide.
the west
of the
main
and
fissures
yieldingsteam
C02. In
sulphides.
Becker
analysedthe fillingof several fissures,and found,
besides hydrated ferric oxide,lead,copper and mercury
sulphides,
several metallic
and
gold and silver,
The
traces
of
of metallic
occurrence
in the
sulphides
Springs, and
Bank, Steamboat
Ohaeawai
of veins
late
by
hot
and
ascendingwaters
sinters at
Sulphur
Springs; the
Hot
Great
Barrier
in veins
the
cobalt,and nickel.
zinc,manganese,
at
evidence
gases in
Island ; the
great depths
of the
areas
filling
occupiedby
eruptiverocks.
It
is
notorious
in the
that
circumstance
are
ore-deposits
neighbourhoodof extended
most
of
zones
igneousrocks,
and
New
Nevada,
Colorado,
Zealand,
Hungary,Transylvania,
where
the vein-bearing
rocks are
andesite,phonolite,
principally
common
in
as
and
trachyte.
are
fewer
and
more
scattered.
later
J. Le
Conte,
comparedwith
"
the
On
same
Mineral
at
Veins
now
in
Sulphur Bank,"
at
Progress
Am.
Steamboat
Springs
Jour, of Science,
vol.
xxv.
p. 424.
2
G. F.
122
MINING
latest
the
of
deposits
Action
phasesof
of ascendingAlkaline Waters.
bore-holes
constitute the
have
Lake
Rotorua
crusted
are
is
old
an
the
In
the
pumice flows of
pumice there are
become
rise to
deep-seated
source,
have
This has
not
sinter formed
common
while the
led to the
origin.
shores of which
by
the
of
deposit
disseminated
of finely
deposits
solfataric
action at
by
that the deposits
of pyritesand
north
Hot Springs,
at Ohaeawai
apparentlyformed
were
formed
being
now
which
many
are
which
Auckland.
of
present
hot
existing
and
pumice,
generally
pumiceous or pisolitic.
rhyolite
of
deposits
below
cinnabar
the
alkaline,
neutral,or
the southern
crater-lake,
springs.
some
to
waters
are
in the
with
over
earlier
from
come
Below
marcasite
down
put
The
"
Rotorua
quite a superficial
origin.
conclusion
erroneous
led up
Lake
regionabout
Shafts and
which
series which
whole
ore."
GEOLOGY.
The
hot
the
that reach
highlyalkaline
oxidation
small
area
to the
extremely acid
of the contained
the
singularphenomenon of
ranging from the
accordingto the degree of
salts.
The
have
we
in the
follows
alkaline waters
of Eachel
6943
Part
The
Mineral
I.,1904, p.
Waters
39.
and
Health
Resorts
of
New
Zealand,Dr Wohlmann,
Plate
II.
Geyser-crater
at
Whakarewarewa,
siliceous
New
crustification.
Zealand,
showing
Digitized
by
DEPOSITS
ORE
Also
In
GENETICALLY
sulphuretted
hydrogenand carbon dioxide not estimated.
majorityof cases, the alkaline springsdepositlayersof
the
silica on
and
the
at
forming largemushroom-shapedmasses.
The compositionof the waters of the
be taken
may
123
CONSIDERED.
Priest hot
of
typical
as
as
spring,which
follows
Grains
per
:
"
gallon.
19*4
Sulphateof soda,
potash,
.
"
"
"
"
lime,
"
"
magnesia,
"
"
"
"
traces
alumina,
iron,
.
Sulphuricacid
(free),
Hydrochloricacid (free),
Silica,
96-77
Total,
The
the alkaline
temperature of
originwould
suggest, is very
while that of the acid
Fahr.;
waters,
high, varying
is
waters
their
as
deep-seated
180"
from
212*
to
The
walls
encrustingthe
waters
and
escape
(PlateII.).
the
at
arrangedin
Hand
lode
at
surface
is
much
of the
Waihi.
Rotorua
In
and
we
can
pipes from
generallyhard and
often
specimens of
marcasite
Around
fissures and
the
layerswhich
from
distinguished
Martha
of
present a
the
ore
the
chalcedonic
fine ribbon-structure
harder
found
which
sinters cannot
at the
be
outcrop of the
disseminated
placesthe sinters contain finely
of goldand silver.
of the solfataric class
see
ore-deposits
trace
present.
(b)Fumarolic.
ferric
"
In this class
chloride,
cupricoxide,and
of steam
and
sulphurand
Boron
salts
are
common
boric
in the
by the escape
regions. Of these,
salts,formed
acid
provincesof
Sulphuris sublimed
reaction of
boron
of sulphur,
groupeddeposits
emanations
in volcanic
gaseous
value.
boric acid alone are of economic
productionof
fumaroles
are
from
Pisa and
fumaroles
entire
steam
Grosseto.
and
craters
by
the mutual
It is found
124
MINING
GEOLOGY.
vesicular lavas,tuffs,
and mixed
and siliceous sinters,
impregnating
with volcanic muds
and gypsum
deposits.
The most
known
of sulphuroccur
in Italy,
important
deposits
United
and
New
States,
Spain, Hungary, Chili,Mexico, Japan,
Zealand.
The
of Italy occur
sulphur-deposits
rocks
in
masses,
Caltauisetta
of
and
between
age,
lenticular
or
the
chieflyin
limestone
rock
sulphur-bearing
and
provinces of
beds
in
occurs
lying
magnesian rocks.
associated
In
veins
Girgenti.
Nevada, the
In
Miocene
in
with gypsum,
an
near
old crater.
At
Tikitere,in New
sulphurin
the black
Zealand, there
old crater.
an
of
large proportion
springsis too
greaterdepth than
At
or
extensive
are
the
of
deposits
sulphuris
excavation
and
highlycharged with
The
in
is deposited
gypsum
floor of the crater-lake.
been
hydrochloricand
free
the
; but
8 feet.
of sulphuroccur
in and
Island,the deposits
m
ixed
the crater-lake,
with gypsum.
The
crater-water
determined
hot
sulphurto
White
and
and
of the
source
be
supplymust
is
hot,
sulphuricacids.
on
incrustations,
crystalline
The
around
the sides
yet
constant, as gypsum
is
continuously.
being deposited
The sulphur is deposited
in the water from gas-springs,
which
are
seen
bubbling everywherein the floor of the lake ; and also
from fumaroles around the margin of the crater.
(c)Contact
tends
contact.
to
Metamorphic
effect
In
the
changes
Even
shallow
magmas
rocks
which
of overflow
case
that
"
in the
and
generallytrifling,
are
Deposits.
have
depths,have
not
with
the
magmas,
in
many
cooled in
molten
it
thermal
magma
comes
in
changes
cases
hardly appreciable.
rents
in sedimentaries
always caused
at
enclosingrock.
The
the
rate
of
longerwill the
The
of the
thermal
rate
of
cooling;and
adjacentrocks
coolingwill
be
of the
conductivity
the
rate
of
cooling,the
be heated.
the mass
upon
surface,and the relative
mainly dependent
changes effected
will be
igneousmagma
The
the slower
the
adjacentrocks.
in the
by
country-rock
mechanical
and
thermal.
the intrusion of
an
126
GEOLOGY.
MINING
It
probablethat
is
and
ascendingwaters
and
circulation,
mix
hot
as
reappear
in contact
with
Weed
to effect
redistribution of
gases may
the meteoric
with
reach
the
zone
some
cases,
of
surface
waters, which
then
may
veins not
directly
the
and
other
some
made
have
writers
attempt
an
to
depositsinto
contact-metamorphic
subdivide
mainlyupon
the mode
of
distribution
be
due
may
and
composition
accidents
to
depending
groups,
the form and mode of
But
occurrence.
hydrous condition
differences in
than
mineralised
heated
and minerals
ores
the
of the
circulation
the
of
densityor
rocks
of the
porosity,
affected,rather
geneticformation.
of the magma,
the weight of superincumMoreover, the mass
bent
and
the
heat
and
of
amount
rocks,
subsequent contraction,
all doubtless contributing
factors in
are
phaseof the after-action,
with the form
connection
Masses
of ore,
distribution of the
heavy metals.
and
fissure-veins,
occurringas contact-deposits,
in the
bed-impregnations,
to the
and
of
zone
metamorphism,may
all be traced
geneticcauses.
Launay, of Paris,supportsthe views of the school
and Daubree
of De Beaumont
in respectof the primary influence of
volatile mineralisers emanating from eruptive
The emanations,
magmas.
he contends,must have prepared
into
the way, by introducing
the enclosingrocks,*
in the vein-fissures,
or
simplyby depositing
same
Professor L. de
constituents such
dissolved
rendered
The
intrusions of
Hawes.2
the
quently
chlorides,
which, subsefluorides,
etc.,
sulphides,
anew
waters, have
by the circulation of superficial
as
His
schists
investigated
by
Albany,in New Hampshire,was fully
showed
series of changes in
a
analyses
progressive
as
they approach
boric and
there
appears
He
contact.
hot vapours
granite.
to have
been
regardedthe
and
the
solutions
an
schists
as
but
eruptive,
More
never
added
rocks
to
hydrated,
de-
are
them, and
of alkali at the
infusion
time
of
emanating from
lie at
Contact-deposits
frequently
eruptiveand the country-rock
; also
the
been
The
outside the
zone
at
the
boundary between
the
variable
of
distances
from
metamorphism.
limestones,marly and
and are
accompanied by the usual contact-minerals,
clay-slates,
blende,
wollastonite,
garnet, vesuvianite,scapolite,
augite, mica, hornand
in clay-slate
etc.
etc.,
by chiastolite,
contact-ores
particularly,
L. de
G. W.
Launay,
Hawes,
The
Amer.
Genesis
occur
in
616.
Contact-ores
127
CONSIDERED.
GENETICALLY
DEPOSITS
ORE
are
of
in
Spain.
The
pyriticore-mass
described
generally
as
geologicoccurrence
does
of such
Professor
body.
that
it
graduallytapers
wards
down-
rounded
by
off with
cut
base
(loc.
cit).
great thrust-plane
There
but
at
of
are
dykes of
diabase
and
great distance.
other
contact
igneousrocks
of these
The
with
occur
the
leadingfrom
all
the
probability
time
one
later,or
district,
of bands
fahlbands,would
of
munication
com-
to the vein-cavities.
Lyellsulphideore-bodies
in the
ore-body,
in the
eruptivemagmas
Mount
formed
impregnationswere
eruptiveafter-actions.
the
dykes,and
presence
with
forming
schist,impregnated
sulphides,
no
lead
In
actual
eruptivesin
no
solfataric
and
bed-
stages,of
enclosingrocks.
of
Examples of deposits
which
ore
due
to
regionalmetamorphism,in
processes doubtless
metasomatic
took
an
active
part, are
of Sweden
deposits
and the
magnetic
of Michigan.
vast speculariron and magnetitemasses
Massive
in chlorite-schist
aggregates of magnetite are common
and mica-schist in all parts of the globe.
Metamorphic rocks also enclose beds of iron pyritesand pyrrhotite,the originof which is stillobscure.
found
among
the valuable
III.
"
(a) Chemical.
borax,
Meteoric
Waters.
this group
are
nitre,bog-iron ore, and some
"
In
included
of salt,
deposits
and
depositsof gypsum
manganese.
1
Professor J. W.
Inst. Min.
Gregory,"The
"ng.f vol.
i. Part
Mount
LyellMuring Field,"Trans.
281.
Aust.
128
MINING
(b) Mechanical.
formed
by
"
This
the agency
loose
whether
drifts,
GEOLOGY.
of water
or
includes
group
in lakes and
compact, of river
gold,tin, platinum,and
all
gems;
and
sedimentaryrocks
seas
; also alluvial
lake
containing
origin,
sea-beaches
ore-bearing
or
deposits.
IV.
Organic.
"
group
to
embraces
anthracite,also
graphite,oil-shale,
included
mineral
in
this subdivision
phosphates.
Digitized
by
are
CHAPTER
OF
THEORIES
Contents
VI.
theories
follows
Lateral Secretion"
EruptiveProcesses" Theory of
:"
of Solutions
The
FORMATION.
VEIN
which
"
the
receive
now
Ascension
Summary.
most
acceptance
are
as
"
I.
Eruptiveprocesses :
(a) Magmatic segregation.
(b)Eruptiveafter-actions.
"
II. Lateral
secretion.
III. Ascension
of solutions.
Eruptive Processes.
in the
igneous rocks
urged in late
Kemp2 of
recentlyby
United
has been
of ore-deposits
Vogt
Lindgren4
Staff.
Geological
with
classes
principal
under
as
and
the
of
playedby
specially
Professor
Christiania,
of Vienna, and
more
W.
H.
Weed5
of
the
close
ing
existrelationship
eruptiveprocesses. Ore-deposits
are
grouped by him into two
attention
eruptive magmas
Suess8
Waldemar
and
ore-deposits
between
the r61e
importance of
formation
directs renewed
connected
The
years by Professor
New
York, Professor
States
Vogt
"
to
:
"
Professor J. H. L.
Genesis
2
loc.
of
J. F.
Kemp, "The
cit.,
p.
681
'Professor
1902, p.
Vogt, "Problems
in the
Originof
Ore
Deposits,"The
Deposits,1901, p. 636.
Ore
; also
Edward
Rdle of the
Trans.
Amer.
in the Formation
of Veins,"
vol. xxxii.,1902, p. 681.
GeographicalJournal, vol. xx.,
IgneousRocks
Inst. M.E.,
Suess, Lecture,The
520.
Waldemar
Lindgren," Character and Genesis of Certain Contact Deposits,"
Genesis of Ore Deposits,1901, p. 716.
5W.
H. Weed, "Ore
Igneous Contacts,"Trans. Amer.
Deposits near
Inst. M.B., voL xxxiii.,1908.
4
129
by$Lj"
130
GEOLOGY.
MINING
the
and
infrequent,
therefore economically
subordinate in importance to those of the
second group.
to Vogt :
They include,
according
belongingto
Ore-deposits
first group
are
"
be
from eruptivemagmas
in the
segregated
and
be
still
it
is
to
doubtful
yet
proved;
the occurrence
far Vpgt's conclusions respecting
of sulphide
from a molten
as a productof primary segregation
magma,
can
sulphides
first concentration
how
ore,
has
admissible.
are
cases
metasomatic
In the
and
"
Cassiterite
are
deposits
everywhereconnected with acid eruptives,
and
granite,and occasionally
principally
quartz-porphyry
and
because
for
of
the
this
partly
reason,
rhyolite.Partly
characteristic paragenesisof fluoride,borate, and
phosphate
view that tin-deposits
minerals,he supports the common
are
connected
with
that
various
graniticeruptions,and
genetically
veins
that is, by
processes,1
the
action
of
gases
and
water
at
high
temperature and
pressure.
further urges that they were
formed immediately
after the
eruption,and before the complete coolingof the granite,one
He
pegmatitein
Cassiterite veins
the
of tin-vein minerals
occurrence
in
granite.
of the immediately
admittedly
independent
and
for
this
to be more
reason
seem
adjacent
country-rock,
nearly
of magmatic segregation
related to deposits
than to contact-metamorphic
deposits.
It is probablethat the magmatic segregation
of chromite
in
in
effected
was
some
cases
peridotite
agencies
by pneumatolytic
before the completecoolingof the magma.
It is not uncommon
find chromite
to
having
1
been
are
in vein-like
masses
that have
segregatedin cavities of
Pneumatolysisis a term
action of gases and water.
firstused
by
the appearance of
in the pasty
contraction
Bunsen
Digitized
by
THEORIES
OP
VEIN
131
FORMATION.
Pegmatite veins,
generallyconnected
to be of later formation
seem
eruptions,
than
with
granitic
They
Teall has
is an eutectic
suggestedthat micropegmatite
lowest
the
at
presents
crystallises
possible
temperature, and refrom which the
in certain rocks the final mother-liquor
minerals have crystallised
out.
different phasesof after-action must
into
necessarily
merge
other, and
each
minerals
and
expect to find,as we
may
cassiterite in veins of pegmatite.
hence
even
do, tin-vein
we
of contact-metamorphicorigin,Vogt includes
ore-deposits
within
the
ore-bodies which
occur
metamorphosed
of deep eruptives,
contact-zone
granite.
especially
several
The
He
distinguishes
types of contact-deposit.
that appear to have
Christiania type includes iron-ore deposits
Among
the
formed
been
of the
before the solidification
granitic
magma.
but alwaysin the
granite,
adjacentrocks. If they had been introduced after the coolingof
in the granite.
the magma,
they would also have been deposited
The
is believed to be the source
of the
eruptive magma
These
metal
ores
which
are
is
never
found
in
expelled
in the
the heated
steam
rocks.
1902, Weed1
In
classificationbased
on
proposedthe followingprovisional
genetic
that of Vogt :
"
J. Igneous(magmaticsegregation)
"
(a) Siliceous.
(b)Basic.
II.
deposits)
Igneous(emanation
"
deposits.
(a) Contact-metamorphic
to magmatic veins and
(b)Veins (related
division IV.).
III. Fumarolic.
IV.
deposits
Gas-aqueous(pneumatohydato-genetic)
(a) Fillingdeposits.
"
(b)Replacementdeposits.
1
W.
Inst.
H.
Igneous Contacts,"Trans.
Digitized
by
Amer.
132
GEOLOGY.
MINING
V.
Meteoric
waters
"
(a)Underground.
(b)Superficial.
this classification the
In
segregationat
magmatic
the
major
one
groups
phasesof eruptiveafter-actions.
Weed
divides
Siliceous and
subdivisions
end and
The
based
upon
at
deposition
into
magmatic segregations
Basic.
are
cold aqueous
latter embraces
groups, namely,
of iron,copper,
deposits
two
at
connected
genetically
veins,are
seated
and
eruptions,
each
into
merge
increases
the
formation
of
with
the
after-actions of
deep-
such
as
other.
of formulatinga satisfactory
classification,
difficulty
subdivision
the
proposedby Weed.
hardlyjustifies
The syntheticexperiments of Daubree
to support the
seem
other observers who
views
of Vogt, Beck, and
maintain
that
formed by gaseous and aquecassiterite and pegmatite veins are
ous
and
direct
not by
emanations,
segregation.
Gold is commonly associated with acid rocks,but it does not
in such
to suggest direct segregation.In
occur
a
manner
as
Queensland,New South Wales, and New Zealand it is found in
but in these cases
in graniteand quartz-porphyry,
the
quartz-veins
fillcontraction-cracks.
veins manifestly
Weed
stronglydissents from the view expressed
by Van Hise,
that meteoric waters are an
mation
importantcreative factor in the forHe thinks,however, that primary hot oreof ore-veins.
rise into the zone
of
bearing solutions and hot vapours may
meteoric waters, heatingthe latter and chargingthem
circulating
with metallic salts and such active mineral solvents as fluorine,
his views relatingto the
He summarises
chlorine,and boron.
"Contact
of intrusive
contact
or
of
deposits
impure
as follows :
contact-deposits
occur
metamorphicore-deposits
"
masses
in
the
limestone
actinolite-calcite
minerals
are
of
zone
economic
about
the
margin
of
value
metamorphosed sedimentaries.
only where
occur
have
been
rocks,
with
or
blocks
of
as
garnetiferousor
crystallised
oreconsequent porosity. The
associated
intimately
1
strata
The
with
these aluminous
silicates,
134
MINING
GEOLOGY.
The
efficient
an
as
cause.
Theory of Lateral
is assumed
that
meteoric
waters
certain
Secretion.
which
"
dioxide
alkalies,dissolve out
depositedin fissures,
and
afterwards
are
therebyforming mineral-veins.
originof the theoryis unknown, but it is certain that
Lasius
Delius
in 1770, Gerharde
in 1781, and
in 1789, were
latter
the
his
of
basing
conceptionsupon a careful
supporters it,
The
mountains.1
examination
Geology,discusses
meteoric
rocks.
with
His
in this branch
research
veins, and
being found
created
work
scientific basis of
new
contended
geology. He
of economic
obtained
were
ores
and
waters
contact
take placewhen
processes which
in
different kinds of aqueous
solutions come
the chemical
leachingfrom
traversed
rocks
the
by
of
suggested the possibility
rocks.
in the adjacent
that
by
the
vein-constituents
the
chemist
of Copenhagen,
1855, Forchhammer, the famous
and
zinc
in
the
of
found traces
lead, copper,
roofingslates of
which
held to afford conclusive
North
was
Wales, a discovery
In
proofof
In
the
originof
1873,Professor
results obtained
the meagre
rocks,directed his attention
traversed
of the rocks
by
from
to
the examination
chemical
systematic
ore-veins in different
by
sedimentary
investigation
mining centres in
of
the Black
In
in small
quantity.
Sandberger'sresults
satisfied
means
extended
of
He
and
vein-contents
between
to
his
the
that
the
country-rock
; but he
originof the heavy metals.
to
investigation
an
by
largesamplesof
solutions
of
rock and
different
elements
silicates thus
crystallised
and
by this means
analysis,
no
ingly
accord-
He
the
stituents
con-
separatedthe
isolated
were
constituent
Samples
were
found
of
the
subjectedto
all the
usual
by
was
of
examination
densities.
individual
careful
relationshipexisted
close
igneousrocks.
crushed
minerals
as
showed
on
the
Hartz
Mountains,"
Ores
and
THEORIES
Thus
in olivine he
VEIN
OF
135
FORMATION.
found
sought for.
In
contents
of veins
but
the immediate
from
derived,not
were
from
the
unknown
some
mineral
depth,
wall-rock.
Gold-bearingveins
are
slates and
in
common
sandstones
of
marine
to the announcement
origin; and as sea-water,according
of Sonstadt in 1872,and of Professor Liversedgein 1893,contains,
accordingto
amounts
latter,
ranging from 0*54 to 1 grain to
the
exponents of lateral secretion that the
by
marine
the source
of the goldin veins traversing
is,therefore,
the
the
ton, it is held
sea
sedimentaries.
It is maintained
of the
they must
sea
sea-water, and
the
that
sediments
when
are
entanglea
necessarily
that
when
sediments
these
formed
on
the floor
certain
of
proportion
become
consolidated
gold must
remain in them.
of
theory lateral secretion received a new impulsefrom the
researches of Sandberger. It seemed
competent to explainthe
The
origin of
Professor
ore-veins, and
many
Stelzner,of
bram, it found
Freiberg,and
support in America, in
much
more
or
less
modified form.
Thus
the
the
Emmons,1 discussing
Leadville
were
ore-deposits
ore-formation
on
in
generalas
have
(1) Ore-deposits
he considers
in which
manner
produced,summarises
follows
his views
:
"
depositedfrom solution,rarelyin
most frequently
by metasomatic interchange.
open cavities,
come
(2)Solutions do not necessarily
upwards,but
directly
simplyfollow the easiest channels of approach.
The
within limited and
material was
derived from sources
(3)
been
Emmons,
disclaims the
of the
while
narrow
of lateral secretion,
supportingthe principle
who limited the source
views of Sandberger,
vein-contents
to
the
wall-rock
in immediate
contact
with
the vein.2
In
the
Professor
critical discussion
Posepny'spaper
were
on
which
"The
followed
Genesis
the
of
publication
in
Deposits,"
of Ore
S. F. Emmons, "The
Genesis of Certain
Inst. M.E., vol. xxx.
125.
p.
2
The Genesis of Ore Deposits,
1901, p. 199.
8 Loc.
cU.tp. 188.
Ore
Trans.
Deposits,"
Am.
136
GBOLOGY.
MINING
Becker, while
from
Posepny'sview
stronglydissenting
of producingsuch
replacementwas incapable
metasomatic
ore-bodies
of the
"
those at
as
makes
Leadville,
like solution,
must
Eeplacement,
and
ore-bodies will
metasomatic
nounced
proclear statement
He
metasomatic
supposed operationof
processes.
alongfissures or
occur
that
says,
channels,
to the
form
in
presentanalogies
"
of solution
cit,p. 206).
(loc.
spaces of caves
Rickard discusses the problem of ore-formation
open
and
standpoint,
is not
dogmaticsupporter of
of either ascension
there is
water
no
at
lateral secretion.1
or
the
all
that
wide
trines
doc-
extreme
affirms that
He
from
reservoir of
ascending water
been
water.
descending
So far
in regardto meteoric waters.
water is concerned,his view is not
as the existence of deep-seated
in accord with the hydro-fusion
theoryof modern penologists.
of
a
Rickard,possessing
personalknowledgeof the goldfields
Australia and New
Zealand, discusses the probableoriginof the
must
at
one
This last
can
veins of the
main
only be true
Thames
in
goldfield
the latter
country ; and
Professor
the extreme
270).
He
each, and
J. Le
Conte, in
views
of both
makes
reconcile
that he leans
as
considers both
by
cesses
pro-
attempt
to
combine
their differences. It
to
favourably
althoughnot defined
in the
carefully
preparedthesis,combats
cit.,p.
Posepnyand Sandberger(loc.
earnest
an
formed
is
what
is true
in
manifest, however,
such.
terms
sides
"
using the
(1)Ore-deposits,
place from
many
in its widest
term
kinds
of
waters, but
alkaline
solutions;for
these
metallic
and
sulphides,
metallic
of such
form
original
1
Loc.
are
the
sense,
natural
solvents
of
usuallythe
take
from
especially
are
sulphides
deposits.
cit.,
pp.
may
Digitized
by VjOOQIC
THEORIES
(2) They
take
may
placefrom
mainlyfrom
pressure, but
under heavy pressure,
solvent
such
power,
137
FORMATION.
VEIN
OF
waters
at
those at
because,on
waters
temperature and
high temperature and
of their great
account
any
heavilyfreightedwith
are
metals.
be moving in any direction
waters may
(3) The depositing
coming,
updownsometimes
moving, or even
horizontally
but
going,
mainlyup-coming,because by losingheat and
to deposit
are
sure
pressure at every step, such waters
their contents
abundantly.
take
(4) Depositsmay
placein any kind of waterway in open
in incipient
in
fissures,
cracks, and even
fissures,
joints,
in great open
fissures,
porous sandstones,but especially
"
"
because
from
these
the
highways of ascendingwaters
greatestdepths.
(5) Depositsmay
of
the main
are
kinds
and in many
in many
regions,
regions,and in metamainlyin mountain
be found
rocks,but
Some
Hise,in a classic paper on
Principles
1
ing
of Ores," defines his views in the followcontrolling
Deposition
sentences
(1) That
"
the
work
greaternumber
of
(2) That
the
within
(3) That
"
is the
ore-deposits
undergroundwater.
material for ore-deposits
is
the
by
of
result of the
derived from
rocks
of fracture.
zone
far the
the water
major part of
ores
depositing
is
meteoric.
(4) That
the
(5) That
the waters
flowageof
stress.
gravitative
of
by
undergroundis caused chiefly
water
which
perform the
firstwork
in the
genesis
waters.
are
ore-deposits
descending
(6) Lateral
secretion is
an
tion
essential step in the first concentra-
ore-deposits.
Many ores in their first concentration
precipitated
by ascendingwaters.
sulphideores are generally
depositedby ascending
of
are
(7) That
waters
in trunk
channels.
of
transportation
the
causes
metals
the
explaining
of lodes ; but
whether
ward
It is believed that the down-
character
this be
Loc. cit.,
p. 282 ; also Trans. Amer.
is the
so
most
of the
or
important of
upper portions
not, their
peculiar
138
GEOLOGY.
MINING
characters
due
certainly
are
the effect of
to
descending
waters.
That
the
(8)
if not all,are
majorityof ore-deposits,
partly
i
n
and
ments
deposited pre-existing
openings, are partlyreplaceof wall-rocks.
From
the above
he
genetic connection
to attach
seems
existingbetween
much
processes ; and places
of meteoric waters.
Professor Kemp * contends
show
to the
too littleimportance
and
eruptive
ore-deposits
dependenceupon the formative power
in America
mining operations
drier with increasing
depth;
that
and
adds
seems
Van
Hise admits
that there
igneousorigin,but
to Kemp
rejoinder
with
and
thinks
he
meteoric
they are
limited
of
to somewhat
seems
that
the rdle of
have
direct
In
extent.
modifyhis
admits
depth
contention
water.
which
ore-deposits
are
Zealand
in
former
his
ception
con-
in vein-formation,
waters
igneous intrusions
may
be
very
considerable.2
It has
been
contained
primary,but
not
are
suggestedby
the
opponents
lateral
of
constituents.
secondary,
of
secretion
eruptiverocks
Accordingto
their
Ascension
assumed
In
his
classic memoir
laid
great
at
Similar
conditions
Nevada, where
of formation.
iron and
we
The
copper
who
Sandberger,
brought
in
of Ore
Deposits,the
of
from
Steamboat
gaseous
emanations
Springs in
and
Western
mineral
vein in process
siliceous vein-stone containmatrix
ing
and
metallic
gold.
sulphides,
sulphur,
an
exampleof
is banded
was
an
to this
secretion,
objected
is
formation
exist at
have
Genesis
the
stress
waters.
J. F.
theory,it
hypothesis,
occurrence
sulphur and
upon
impregnatinga decomposedbasalt,and
Posepny,an
hot mineral
fillsa
The
on
ardent
SulphurBank
stillmildlyin process of
The
which
this
the lode.
late Professor
cinnabar
According to
solution from
of
vicinity
"
equallystrenuous supporter of
view, on the ground that he knew
lateral
of
no
THEORIES
OF
VEIN
139
FORMATION.
mineral incrustations on
springwhich deposited
channels.
He regardedthe SulphurBank and
phenomena as exceptional.
made
Springs
at
examination
of the deposits
special
SulphurBank and Steamboat Springs,
strongly
opposedthe views
of the extreme
And with regardto the originof
ascensionists.
the deposits,
he expressed
the following
The evidence
views :
is overwhelmingthat the cinnabar,pyrite,
and goldof the quicksilver
mines
their present positions
of the Pacific slopereached
in hot solutions of double sulphides,
leached out from
which were
1
and
itself."
the
the
Further
masses
granite
underlying granite
he says : "I regardmany
of the gold veins of California as
on
having an origin entirelysimilar to that of the quicksilver
deposits."
Becker's views postulate
which
lies midway
new
a
hypothesis,
Becker, who
"
"
between
and
the ascension
lateral-secretion
our
views
extreme
descendingwaters
leachingthe
nearlythan
more
the
of
Accordingto the
the
and expresses
theories,
rocks
became
in the
charged with
region of vadose
by
mineral
the
latter,
matter
circulation.
On
by
the
other
of metalliferous matter.
repository
hypothetical
The modification suggestedby Becker
favours the ascension
theory,and differs only from the lateral-secretion hypothesisin
for the mineral contents
of the veinassuming a deeper source
matter.
Summary.
we
deduce
may
the
From
"
the
data
recorded
in the
preceding
pages,
the genesisof
followingconclusions respecting
:
ore-deposits
"
connected
are
genetically
majorityof ore-deposits
with igneousintrusions which may be plutonic
or volcanic.
and
the
That
(2)
circulating
underground waters
gases are
primary
principal
agents concerned in the dissolution,
and deposition
of vein-matter.
concentration,
do not
pre-existing
(3) That ore-deposits
necessarily
occupy
(1) That
the
fissures and
cavities.
in many
was
(4) That vein- filling
replacement.
waters
are
(5) That vein-filling
deep-seated.
necessarily
1
G.
F.
"
Becker,
Slope,"United
The
States OeoL
cases
effected
by
metasomatic
ascending waters,
but
not
Pacific
140
(6)That
the mineral
to the
(7) That
MINING
GEOLOGY.
contents
are
of fracture
zone
or
zone
contiguous
metamorphism.
the
more
less
or
(9) That
to
orderlyhorizontal
precipitation.
of
is,in the majority
cases, due
higher to a
secondaryenrichment
the
place
in accordance
zones
governingsolution and
and
lower
waters.
The
based
on
ascension
fundamental
the
cavities
filling
of solutions
the
mineral
assumption that
from
waters.
deposited
circulating
was
matter
Their
(b)That
(2) The
matter
filling
rocks by
adjacent
ascension
(a) That
to
the
:
"
the work
of
descending
waters.
the
the
are
theoryassumes
was
obtained
principally
process of
from
leaching.
:
"
open fissures.
(b)That the mineral
from
and
metallic contents
mineralised
deep-seated
were
derived
zone.
and descending
waters are
ascending
termed
be
a
hydrauliccircuit,the
may
assisted by capillary
action
interchange
beingcaused by gravitation,
and descending
and the difference of temperature of the ascending
that
waters.
Much
towards
It
that
and
it is claimed,is necessarily
of the movement,
lateral,
channels filled with ascending
waters.
was
maintained
by
descendingwaters
Posepny and
merely oxidisingand
Professor
were
Dr
Raymond
of
incapable
fully
has,however, been successby Emmons, Becker,Van Hise,and other American
disproved
sulphides.This contention
depositing
who
geologists,
both
zone
above
and
of vadose
have
below
shown
the
existence
of
or in what
water-level,
circulation.
secondarysulphides
may
be termed
the
CHAPTER
ORES
AND
VII.
MINERALS
CONSIDERED
ECONOMICALLY.
Aluminium
Arsenic"
Asbestos
Antimony
Borax
Bismuth
Cement
Chromium
Coal
Asphaltum
Cobalt
Diamond
Fluorite
Gold
Copper Cryolite
Fireclay
Iron
Lead
Mica"
Graphite Gypsum
Magnesite" Manganese
Oil
Nickel
Shale
Petroleum
Phosphate Rock
Molybdenum
Silver
Slate
Platinum
Quicksilver
Tin
Sulphur Talc
Tungsten"Zinc.
Contents
Alum
"
"
"
"
"
Barytea
"
"
"
mining
"
"
possess
"
"
general knowledge
commonly
"
useful
and
ores
of
minerals
of the market
intended
minerals
the
of
the
"
"
"
"
should
which
; and
in Nature
occur
"
"
"
student
"
"
"
"
Every
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
and value
condition,
quality,
and
metallurgical
manufacturing
for
purposes.
market
The
quotationsgiven
the
are
must
subjectto
be
continual
regarded more
The
selling-prices.
order.
alphabetic
standard
in
values
of
minerals
and
and
fluctuations,
as
a guide than
a
ores
are
dealt with
Alum.
of alum
sources
principal
cryolite.
The
and
Alunite
the most
and
by
in
masses
formed
been
in veins
occurs
alunite,alum
are
shales,bauxite,
eruptive rocks,and
date,in
which
for
it has
probably
replacement attending waning
metasomatic
solfataric action.
At
occurs
in
the
Mountain, in New
from
pure
silica. The
alunite
South
to
an
depositis over
Wales.
impure
a
mile
It consists of minerals
form
containing40
ranging
per cent, of
of a
long,nearlythree-quarters
ORES
mile
AND
wide,and
It is
yardswide.
thickest
the
mineral
is
as
of stone
follows
slates. The
60
varies from
70
to
with felsiticdykes,which
connected
genetically
Carboniferous
traverse
band
143
ECONOMICALLY.
CONSIDERED
MINERALS
average
compositionof
the
"
10000
by calciningand
is obtained
Alum
evaporatingthe liquors.
in
Natural alum is obtained in considerable quantities
and Scotland from the coal-shales and alum-clays.
of alum and aluminium
Bauxite is an importantsource
alum) in America,
(concentrated
aluminium-iron
hydrate
aluminous
an
"
France, and
England
sulphate
It .isan
Germany.
form of limonite
ing
contain-
"
from
generally
American
Of
the
in
State
Alabama.
The
bauxite
in
deposits
mostlymassive
and
oolitic,
in old lake
occur
The
originof
the mineral
around
is still doubtful
been
have
supposed to
is
action in and
the
Only the
varieties of bauxite
of alum.
manufacture
some
writers it
with
solfataric
lakes.
in the
by
connected
genetically
the ancient
At
; but
occurs
free from
and
oolitic,
iron oxide
grainsin
as
be utilised
can
The
purer gradesare
f
rom
which the metal aluminium
hydrate,
of aluminium
preparation
is manufactured.
of alum, stillcontinues
another importantsource
Cryolite,
derived from the mines at Ivigtut,
in Greenland.
The
alunite of New
The
American
the
domestic
French
Wales
South
"3
per ton.
14s. to
is valued at about
bauxite
bauxite
railroad-freight
charges.
to be
the
domestic mineral
on
seaports
account
of
144
GEOLOGY.
MINING
Aluminium.
in Germany, America, and
manufactured
largely
from bauxite principally
produced in the Department of
Southern
France.
Alum.")
(ForBauxite, see
This
metal
France
Var, in
is
"
Antimony.
The
only commercial
antimonite
antimony is the sulphide,
;
the oxides are
the
The
found
near
secondaryproducts,
outcrop.
in veins in schist,
occurs
slate,and sandstone ;
sulphidegenerally
and also associated to a small extent
with ores
of lead,bismuth,
of
ore
and
copper.
The principal
of antimonite
producers
France, Algeria,
Italy,
are
depositsoccur
of
is generally
The
South
too low
Wales
be very
cent, in the mine
Under
below
do not
In
New
its gangue.
Antimony-oresare bought by
of
and
grade to be
must
ore
25 per
from
ore
in New
45
to
America,
an
touch
is
no
discount
ores
arsenic,copper, and
on
until the
value.
commercial
containingunder
marketable
to be
ore
that
smelters
zinc.
One
per
limit is
reached,
English smelters
must
Considerable
Canada.
be free from
must
cent, of lead
lead,
will render
the
unsaleable.
The
size of the
material,which
ore
should
not
be
broken
in
piecessmaller
than
hazel-nut.
An
is made
allowance
for
gold
and
silver when
present in
determined
reliable.
by
the
wet
assay, the
being sufficiently
of
type-metal.
Arsenic.
The
arsenious
oxide of
commerce
is manufactured
from
arsenical
,
which
pyrites,
is
mined
generally
in association with
ores
of
gold,
ORES
145
ECONOMICALLY.
is largely
Mispickel
producedin Germany,France,
England.
tin.
or
copper,
CONSIDERED
MINERALS
AND
Canada, and
Asbestos.
is found
This mineral
of the world's
Russia,United
veins in
as
serpentine.Over 90 per
Canada, and the balance
from
supplycomes
a
States,Italy,nd Cape Colony.
cent,
from
is 1 inch
width
common
to
inches,and
the
veins
cross
and
recross
Nos. 1, 2, and
"
the longestand
finest
from
fibre,
inches
No. 1
3.
is used
upwards
"
"
for
It is used
upwards.
contains stillshorter
for engine-packing.
No.
principally
mixed
fibre,
cleaned, it is used
When
fire-proof
paper,
in
the
and
serpentine
manufacture
relative value
The
etc.
with
iron oxides.
of
of the three
cardboard,
is
qualities
4:2:1.
The
to be broken
Canadian
to obtain
contain
mines
of asbestos.
ton
ground
ton
Asbestic
fossil-meal
and
steam-pipesand
value
"2,
from
as
rich
mines
as
50
raw
of rock
of rock to the
from
used
They are
fire-proof
plaster.
material varies according
to
boilers and
of the
tons
yieldonlya
manufactured
are
of tons
Accordingto Klein,few
short-fibre asbestos.
low-gradeand
The
the number
productiondepends on
cost of
ton
for every
the
refuse
for
covering
"
as
the
quality,
10s. to "20.
ASPHALTUM.
in a soft,viscous state,as a solid,
or
Asphaltor bitumen occurs
limestones
and
bituminous
earths,sands,sandstones,
impregnating
of no particular
age.
land,
of supplyare Trinidad,Italy,
The chief sources
France, SwitzerUnited States,Germany, Venezuela,Russia, Spain,Turkey,
and
Hungary.
The
from
tons
Pitch Lake
20
of
of Trinidad
feet to 30
feet
has made
asphalt
occupiesan
deep.
The
littleapparent
forms
sheet
area
removal
146
of
GEOLOGY.
MINING
lake
The
rain-water.
everywherethe
Accordingto
Malo,1
follows
asphaltis as
contains
is firm
deposit
the
liquidasphalt.Nearly
no
to walk
enough
upon.
compositionof
average
the
crude
"
Per cent.
Bitumen,
Water,
Clay,
.34
.30
.36
100
from
bituminous
various
sandstone
of California
points between
contains from
12 to
San
Francisco
18 per cent, of
in
limestones
are
France,Switzerland,Cuba,
Indian
in the United
Territory
Val
The
the
de
at
largequantities
and
Los
lower
the
being
nearlyhorizontal
in
occur
Angeles.2It
remainder
bitumen, the
the most
and
in
occurs
quartz-sand.
of Kentucky
The asphaltdeposits
sandstone
belonging to
fine-grained
period.
Bituminous
is obtained
production
and
Kentucky. The
Carboniferous
importantsource
the States of
of
asphalt
States.
limestone
there
to 20
are
Travers
used
extensively
beds of bituminous
seven
feet in
for
At
paving purposes.
Seyssel
limestone,varyingfrom 10 feet
and containing
from
thickness,
4 to
10
per
cent, of
bitumen.
The
Turkish
is found
as
in schists and
irregularmasses
stone.
lime-
world's
obtained
is principally
production
Britain,United
States,and
Leon
p.
Belgium.
from
One
Germany,
largest
of the
1888.
Malo, VAsphalte, p. 20, Paris,
its Uses."
Trans. Am.
355, 1888.
Digitized
by
AND
ORES
known
CONSIDERED
MINERALS
occurs
deposits
Silver
at
147
ECONOMICALLY.
the north
Island,near
end
of
Lake
Superior.
Barytesis now largelyemployed in
The
priceof the
the
raw
Bauxite.
manufacture
of
paints.
(See"Alum.")
Bismuth.
Metallic bismuth
in veins in
occurs
generally
and
schist,
gneiss,
cobalt,lead,wolfram, zinc,
clay-slate
accompanying ores of silver,
derived from the silver and cobalt mines
and gold. It is chiefly
in
Saxony and
The
Bohemia.
commercial
of
ores
principal
value
sulphide,
the
are
world's
mines
in
South
Saxony.
Wales,
The
supply of
and
bismuth
Small
the State
from
principally
comes
Colorado, New
from
quantitiescome
Queensland.
supplyis greaterthan
the
than
demand, and
leave
no
less
containing
ores
margin
of
profit.The
Borax.
This mineral
occurs
as
incrustations
less
in rain-
Peru,
is
and
Italy,
derived
chiefly
Boric
Turkey.
from
The
the
United
of the
production
the colemanite
in
deposits
States,Chili,
United
States
California.
acid,which
from
Cement.
cement
considered,
Chemically
and clay. There are two kinds
artificialand
1
Marius
R.
is an
intimate
of cement
admixture
in the market
"
of lime
namely,
natural.
Campbell,
"
Reconnaissance
of
of the
the U.S.
Borax
Oeol.
Depositsof
Survey, No.
Washington,1902.
Digitized
by
Death
200,
148
MINING
Artificial cements
Natural
more
or
United
in almost
all civilisedcountries.
produced direct
requisite
proportionsof lime
New
from
cement
rock
from
containing
clay. France,
Zealand
considerable
produce
quantities
limestone depositsof great
argillaceous
are
States,and
of natural
made
are
cements
less the
GEOLOGY.
and
extent.
The
hydrauliclimestone
15
feet
is
cement
at
in the
thick,interbedded
follows
as
world
which
is
produced, occurs
Its
compact limestone.
in
position
com-
:
"
Per cent.
Silica,
.
13-40
100-00
The
hydrauliclimestones
in
New
Zealand
17-37
to
10000
are
of
Upper
Cretaceous age.
They vary from 20 feet to 140 feet in thickness.
manufactured
from the rock at Mahurangi showed
Cement
the
followingcomposition:
"
Per cent.
Silica,
Alumina,
Iron
25-44
....
i 15-76
oxides,
.
Lime
5506
carbonate,
Magnesia carbonate,
Alkalies and loss,
2-05
1-69
100-00
The
iron
seldom
exceeds
per
cent.
It
mostly
occurs
as
grainsof glauconite.
Natural
are
often
Chromium.
Chromite
of iron
in peridotite
and
irregularmasses
world's
is
serpentine.The
supply
produced by
principally
Turkey, New Caledonia,Greece, New South Wales, Canada, and
occurs
in
150
MINING
hydrousoxide
GEOLOGY.
mixed
of manganese
with
variable percentage of
cobalt.
The
of cobalt
ores
nickel and
found
generally
are
and sometimes
silver,
cobaltiferous
those
thin
alternating
bands at
beds of mica-schist
with
impregnated
cobalt
pyrites,
The
little chalcopyrite.
So far
those of
accompanying
and
the
quartz-schist,
cobaltiferous
glance,
they have
not
latter
and
mispickel,
provedof
much
value.
Caledonia
is largely
hydrated oxide of cobalt of New
and
It
associated
America.
occurs
exportedto Europe
intimately
which
with hydratedoxide of manganese,
is found in irregular
pocketsof red clayin serpentine.This cobaltiferous wad contains
from 2| to 5 per cent, of cobalt,and at present is the principal
of the world's supply.
source
The
Up
supplyof
United
the
States
considerable
obtained
was
treatment
Missouri.
portionof
Mine
La
as
the domestic
by-productin
the
Copper.
chief
sources
"
metal
the
payable. The
is
the
placed in
"
and
associated with
market
iron
is
great bulk
of
the
copper
annually
produced from
and
pyrites,
often
silver.
The
time
in
of
importantcopper-mines
those of Mansfeld, in Germany
most
are
Spain;
San
Domingo,
the
Arizona, in
and
in
the world
; Rio
Portugal; Lake
United
States; and
at the
present
Tharsis,
Superior,Montana,
Tinto
Mount
and
Lyell,in
Tasmania.
The
to over
of copper amounts
580,000 tons,
production
the United States producesover 55 per cent.
in Michigan,
the copper is
At Lake
States.
Superior,
world's
of which
United
"
found in beds
flows
of
of
and
series,
which
probablyof pre-Carabrian
age.
the most
The conglomerates
are
productive.In them the copper
been deposited
as the cementing material ; it has evidently
occurs
diabase
The
flows
in
solution.
are
from an aqueous
amygdaloidal
the lower side also may
be
and occasionally
their upper layers,
vesicular.1 They contain rich patchesof native copper associated
Keweenawan
is
of Lake Superior,
p. 25,1905,New
York.
ORBS
AND
Copper is
MINERALS
also found
CONSIDERED
151
ECONOMICALLY.
in fissure-veins
crossingthe
Keweenawan
the
The
in the
occurs
copper
in masses, the
state,being
weighingnearly600
largestmass
in this
productivemines
most
native
and
generally
tons.
and
Hecla," "Osceola,""Tamarack,"
former
have
shafts reaching the great depth of nearly5000
"
feet.
It should
littleas
the
be noted
T5
Lake
per
the
as
extremelylow-grade
ore, containing
made
in
to
are
yieldlargeprofits
To
Superiordistrict.
of ore
quantities
The
that
of copper,
cent
are
mined
and
this
achieve
result
enormous
stamped.
features
distinguishing
of the
are
Michigan copper-mines
The
main
has
of
copper is found
lode,which runs
and
Arizona
the
near
Spain
granite. The
Parrot
mines,
of 3 miles
The
copper occurs
the proportion
silver-bearing,
are
and
oz.
producelargequantitiesof
copper-mines
carbonates,which
often
Anaconda
distance
which
as
principally
sulphides,
of silver varyingfrom \ oz. to
The
lodes in
width
average
west
the
through
for
provedproductive
The
and
in east
in
occur
pointof
contact
or
near
with
Carboniferous
or
granite,
oxides
limestone,
with sandstones.
The
Rio
at
Tinto,
copper-deposits
consist
Tharsis,and San Domingo are of great extent.
They
of compact pyritescontainingfrom 1 to 2| per cent, of copperPortugal.
and
pyritesdisseminated
Next
to
the
Germany.
worked
"
The
since the
lying bed
of
throughoutthe
Calumet
copper-minein the
"
and
whole
mass.
is the
greatest
globe.
'
Mansfeld
twelfth
in Saxony
copper-mines
century.
shale
cupriferous
of
The
Upper
ore
have
is found
Permian
age,
in
been
a
flat-
withstandin
and, not-
and
152
MINING
4 inch
rich,and
are
oz.
on
cent,
an
of
mania,
Lyell Mine, on the west coast of Taswealth
in the Commoncopper-producers
principal
Mount
"
of the
one
GEOLOGY.
of Australia.
At
the lode
the surface
dark
friable
and
haematite
the oxidised
Below
South
New
In
the
zone
talcose schists
between
estimated
on
Wales
side and
one
there
5000
from
at
of dense
huge gossan, consisting
limonite containinggold and silver.
ore
passedinto massive pyriteslying
a
was
is
It is situated in
Darling,Bogan, and
miles.
square
the
the
Lachlan
The
rivers.
traversed
by
is
country-rock
fissure-veins.
variously
area
copper-bearing
6500
to
the other.
on
conglomerates
None
slate,which
Silurian
of the mines
have
is
worked
been
continuously.
Cryolite.
is
This
51
about
whole
the
fluoride of
of sodium
cent,
per
of
sodium
world's
the
and
aluminium,
fluoride when
supply is
pure.
obtained from
containing
Practically
the
Danish
coast of Greenland.
the west
at Ivigtut,
on
cryolite-mines
which
The white cryolite
in great snow-white
occurs
masses,
in
are
partially
transparent. It constitutes a large bed or mass
a granitic
dyke which traverses a gray gneiss.
Associated with the cryolite
are
quartz,siderite,
galena,
pyrites,
wolframite
also
cassiterite.
and
fluorite,
chalcopyrite,
mispickel,
;
The
ore
is confined
demarcation
passes.
and
The
100 feet
The
to
mineral
or
more
Greenland
the
it and
between
but there is no
granite,
the surroundingrock
is mined
by
open
cuts
about
clear line of
into which it
200 feet wide
deep.1
producenearly8000
mines
tons of cryolite
a
"3
valued
about
the
the
The
bulk
of
at
ton
mines.
at
year,
per
of
output is exportedto the United States for the manufacture
of sodium
forming in
an
and
aluminium
which
fluoride,
is used to
and
salts,
for the
tions
preventincrusta-
steam-boilers.
extent
French
in the manufacture
of
porcelain.
Diamond.
Until the discovery
of the mines at Jagersf
ontein and Kimberley,
in the years 1870 and 1871, there is no record that diamonds had
been found except in alluvial deposits
or conglomerates.
1
Mineral
Resources
of United States,
1901, Washington,p.
883.
ORES
CONSIDERED
MINERALS
AND
Kimberley Diamond
in
occur
be old volcanoes.
with
peridotite
do not
which
There
of
are
The
black
They
occur
4000
on
are
believed to
serpentinised
shale,granite,and
diorite
radius
gentlyundulatingplateauat
an
feet above
characteristic of breccias
or
in the
pipesof
old volcanoes.
The
smallest
pipe,known
the
Kimberley Mine
sea
agglomerateswhich
the
as
De
area
this field
on
elevation of about
the
pipesor
diamonds
craters of what
breccia is mainlycomposedof
fragments of
few miles.
above
Mines. "The
the
filling
breccia
153
ECONOMICALLY.
is as follows
Beers
have
consolidated
Mine, has
of 45
surface
acres.
pipe penetratesin
the
"
Feet.
debris,
30
...
1557
Total,
The
is noteworthythat the
are
Professor T. G.
vol. lxv.
of the RoyalSociety,
Bonney,F.R.S.,Proceedings
p. 223, 1899.
2
Gardner
F. Williams,"The
Genesis of the
Diamond," Tram.
Am.
Inst.
M.R, Pamphlet,Sept.1904.
3
Phenomena
of the Diamondiferous
E. F. Heneage,"The
Depositsof
South Africa." Trans. Inst Min. and Met., vol. xii.p. 115. lfifiSHk~-V "-iv*^*
UNlVEi
154
blue
GEOLOGY.
MINING
or
dark-greencolour
in
varieties
places,resembling some
of
serpentine.
forming the blue ground is a darkwhich contains glistening
platesof brown
green dense serpentine,
mica, small dark-red garnets (mostlypyrope),largedark-green
crystalsand grains of olivine,besides enstatite,smaragdite,
chromite, magnetite,and ilraenite. Small fragments
chrome-diopside,
to
of altered black shale are often so abundant
as
give the
material
Four-fifths of the
rock
brecciated appearance.
CL
ground,
the
blue
weather
Kimberley Diamond
Blue ground,
Slates.
gt
aa,
phyre. f,Quartzite.
The
Cb
is greasy to
time it soon
the
ground
for
Basalt
ft,
Pipe.
sheet,
touch.
c, Shales,
When
and
disintegrates,
being afterwards
extracted
d, Mela-
exposed to
then easily
is
by washingand
hand-picking.
The
late Professor
H. C. Lewis
volcanic peridotite
of
porphyritic
Kimberlite."
proposedthe name
described
the blue
basaltic structure
ground
as
for which
he
"
It has been
of the material
mine
1
Professor H.
Meeting, British
noted
C.
Lewis, "The
Matrix
of
the
Association,
Aug. and Sept.1887.
the
composition
each
in all,
same
is so distinctive
"
Diamond,
Manchester
ORES
that
MINERALS
AND
expert buyer
an
certain
seldom,
or
usuallysay
can
155
ECONOMICALLY.
from
which
mine
any
is derived.
particularstone
A
CONSIDERED
the
of
proportion
perhaps never,
diamonds
have
the
broken
and
crystals,
correspondingpieces been
are
found.
diamonds
of the
Many
pieces or splinterwhen
being cut.
Professor
of the
other
minerals
diamond
carbonaceous
a
which
formed
was
matter
usual
by
magma
as
by
the
the
as
the
molten
of
or
from
up
when
primary
believes that
action of steam
forced
and
garnet,mica, and
He
action
flyto
some
is
volcano,but was
in some
differentiation,
of
afterwards
was
much
stage of the
processes
which
by
nor
diamond
the
it is associated.
neither
subsequent solfataric
the
that
igneousrock
with
of stress,and
from their matrix
state
removed
believes
Bonney1
constituent
in
are
hot
the
rock
on
in
water
segregrated
deep-seated
below
into
the
that
the
pipes.
F. Williams2
Gardner
blue
ground
forced
mud
Professor
be
the
embedded
Kimberlite,as well
with
in the hard
surfaces
polished
Lewis
Professor
formed
shale
regarded
Williams, who
do
as
shales
are
those
lava.
that
diamonds,
in the
to be
Parent
with
states
contain
not
such
the
enclosed
true
pebblesand
as
diamonds
boulders
if water-worn.
advanced
carbonaceous
as
as
of broken
frequentoccurrence
theorythat
hydrocarbons derived
from
Bonney
below
from
up
of
nature
must
with
agrees
This
all the
while
Pretoria
from
the
in
the
were
the
fragments
ground, which
blue
view
diamonds
is
contested
by
of
he
Mr
diamonds
exist in
where
district,
no
some
mines,
carbonaceous
found.
Rock
Of Diamond."
Mr
Williams, while
agreeing
stituent
Bonney that the diamonds are a primary conof some
deep-seatedigneous rock, denies that eclogite
is the parent rock of the gems at Kimberley.
Professor Bonney,3in 1899, reportedthe discovery
of diamonds
in specimens of a coarsely
rock,related to
crystalline
garnetiferous
obtained
from the Newlands
mines, situated about 40
eclogite,
miles
from
this discovery,
he
Kimberley. Commenting on
Professor
Professor T.
G.
Bonney, Proceedingsof
the
Royal Society
\ vol. lxv.
228, 1899.
p.
2
F.
"
156
MINING
concluded
that
the
was
eclogite
Africa, a
South
GEOLOGY.
view
which
parent-rockof
has
diamond
the
generallybeen
in
acceptedby
that
the
eclogitewas
originalmatrix of the
diamond
caused Mr Williams, for many
years General. Manager of
the Kimberley mines, to carefully
the eclogitewhich
examine
all
treated
in
in
the
where
it
is
tons
rock.
waste
occurs
as
pipes,
collected and tested by crushing
Twenty tons of this rock were
and jiggingin a test-plant,
but not a singlediamond
found
was
statement
in the
material.
examined
diamond,
found
Mr
hundreds
had
nor
Williams
of
he
in this rock
further
heard
ever
during
that
states
eclogite,but
pieces of
of
all the
the
years
had
also
found
never
diamond
he
having
had
mines
been
been
worked.
The
of diamonds
from Newlands
Mine
eclogite
and not general. That a peridotite
be regarded as sporadic
must
the parent-rockof South
ultra-basic igneous rock was
or
some
African diamonds
be
the laws of magmatic
inferred
from
may
paragenesis.
Genesis of Diamond.
Assuming the diamond to be a primary
constituent
of an
igneous rock, the originalcondition of the
carbon is stilla matter
for conjecture.Did the gem
crystallise
occurrence
in the
"
carbonaceous
from
or
carbide]
known,
remember
to
the
Of
of
or
matter, from
small
inferred
the
carbon
nothing definite is
the processes
preventedits oxidation along
with which
It is important
it is always associated.
that the diamond-bearingpipes in the Transvaal
source
shales.
that
mentions
ones,
that
the
of
dioxide,
hydrocarbon,carbon
which
penetrate carbonaceous
Williams
while
the
ordinarylaws
largediamonds
twins
formation
are
or
have
been
found
in a magmatic solution
crystallisation
of
ing
enclos-
which
it may be
rare, from
growth of the diamond followed
not
of rock-
material.
of carbon
excess
microscopicdiamonds
been
found
abnormal
in
took
In this way
place under pressure.
diamonds
have
Microscopic
formed.
were
pressure
is not
necessary
experiment.
The experiments of
Dr
the natural
of diamonds.
formation
Friedlander
a centimetre
piece of olivine,
1
E. F.
ensure
have
Friedlander
diameter,by
means
that
in
success
closer
"
The Phenomena
of the Diamondiferous
Inst, Min, and Met,, vol. xii. p. 125.
Heneage,
Africa,"Tram.
in
to
inferred
it is
the
bearingupon
fused
of
small
gas blow-
Depositsin
South
158
GEOLOGY.
MINING
conglomerate beds
providedthe material
The conglomerates
contained in them.
are
chiefly
composed of a
is
the
micaceous
which
sandstone
not
originalmatrix
manifestly
The
of the diamonds.
were
probablyderived from some
gems
rock-surface subjected
at the time the sandstone
to denudation
ravines
to
the
which
being formed.
was
'
"
3024*75
is
reportedto weigh
inches by 4 inches.
is said to be
from
comes
have
is the
the
free from
in 1903
Kimberleymines, which
to the value
producedstones
flaws.
supply of diamonds
world's
of the
of
It
in the world.
largeststone
great bulk
The
This
at
millions
nearlyfour
present
reportedto
are
sterling.
Fireclay.
material
This
association with
and
should
fireclays
As
fusible
by
also
use
as
coal,
Good
fireclay.
52 to 62 per cent, of
10 to 14 per cent, of water.
22
silica,
from
useful
and
injurious,
presentthe
the
contain
be
to
in
generally
beds
layersor
which
found
underlain
not
are
of coal.
seams
is the soil on
are
Fireclays
in stratified
occurs
for
when
clay should
3 per
over
be
The presence
renders a clay
soda
Iron
fireclay
purposes.
to 32
oxides
are
the
protoxideis
tains
conStourbridge
fireclay
cent,
discarded.
of
about
2 per cent.
China-clayor kaolin is found
placeswhere
granitehas
in veins and
in
irregular
deposits
been altered probablyby the emanation
of steam
other
and
highlyacidic
That
weathering.
katamorphism
rocks
is not
the
decompositionof
does take
result of
the
noted
New
in
atmospheric
mere
in the
felspars
has been
kaolinisation which
South Wales, Queensland,and
fumarolic agencies.
graniteand
but
the
zone
of
deep-seated
Zealand
must
be ascribed to
ORES
CONSIDERED
MINERALS
AND
159
ECONOMICALLY.
Fluoritb.
is generally
found in
mineral, often called "fluorspar,"
It also
veins in limestone,gneiss,sandstones,and
clay-slate.
This
as
occurs
the gangue
Fluorite is
used
chiefly
employed in the
is
manufacture
of
quantity
and
opalescentglass,
for the
acid.
of hydrofluoric
production
world's
The
which
output
United
the
to
amounts
States
60,000
over
producesabout
about
tons
one-third
and
year, of
Prussia
""1,2s. per
16s. to
ton.
Gold.
is found in veins in
This metal
The
situation.
or
age, composition,
Palaeozoic
those
traversing
regard to
veins
nearlyall kinds
are
of
rock,without
productive
most
sedimentaries,ancient
those
and older TertiaryerUptives,
especially
granites,
basic
of
semi-
type.
of
denudation
The
of
quantities
gold-bearingrocks
gold,which
become
have
liberated
has
more
or
gravels
placers found of all ages,
extendingfrom Middle Tertiaryto recent times.
The gold found in veins traversingrocks of Palaeozoic or older
of high value,while that derived from
Secondaryage is generally
is commonly
veins in andesite and other older Tertiaryeruptives
with
silver.
of low value,being largely
alloyed
derived from rocks of
The gold of Australia,
mainlyor entirely
in alluvial
or
placers.These
large
less concentrated
are
Tertiaryandesites in Auckland
with one-third in weight of silver.
alloyed
The
feature
same
Northern
The
vein
that
of
Russian
the andesites of
and
the
value,being
gold produced
goldis of
high
in
the
value,while that
is of low value.
Transylvania
placergoldof
Nevada
later
traversing
with
characterises
Hemisphere.
derived from
but
is of low
the
from
and
is of
eruptives,
low
grade,being generally
alloyed
largeproportionof silver.
peculiar
phenomenon is too generalto be accidental. It is
at present be
can
happeningof which no adequateexplanation
This
offered.
A
considerable
quantityof goldis
derived
from
silver,
copper,
160
MINING
lead
and
; and
ores
The
value
smaller
from
amount
ores
of
antimony,
and tungsten.
arsenic,manganese,
estimated
GEOLOGY.
of
the
world's
productionof gold
for 1904
was
"75,000,000.
gold producedby the five great producingregionsin
1905,accordingto Mr F. Hobart, was as follows :
at
The
and
1904
"
Transvaal,
United States,
Australasia,
Russia,
Canada,
The
1904.
1905.
"15,624,548
16,144,640
"20,259,192
17,267,540
17,104,425
17,420,170
5,015,071
3,280,000
centres
goldfield
productive
Creek.
Cripple
most
4,800,000
2,883,625
in the
globeare
the
Rand,
and
Kalgoorlte,
In
the
of
Commonwealth
of Australia
and
United
States,which
continental
dimensions,the gold-bearing
depositsoccur
conditions.
varyinggeological
many
Victoria.
In this State the gold is derived from three principal
from Tertiarydeep-leads,
and
sources
namely, from quartz-veins,
from recent graveldrifts.
The deep-leads
consist of placergravelsof Miocene and Pliocene
The latter have proved the most productive,
and are in many
age.
places,as, for example,near Ballarat,protectedby a thick sheet
of basalt,the lava having flowed down
the ancient valleyand
covered up the river gravelsand sands.
The quartz-veins
occur
mainly in Silurian slates. The goldclass of orebearing veins at Bendigo belong to the interesting
are
under
"
"
termed
deposits
arches, and
more
less
or
which
saddle-reefs,
send
down
with
parallel
occur
in the
crown
of anticlinal
or
tapering prolongations
legs,running
the
of
country-rock.
bedding-planes
of black
carbonaceous
in the Silurian
pyriticslate,which occur
and consequentlyconstitute a distinct member
or horizon
slates,
The
slates stand
in a
of the country-rock.
nearly vertical
while
contained
the
lie
veins
zontal.
nearly horigold-bearing
position,
Along the plane of intersection of the quartz-veins and
indicators there
Western
which
wide
form
occurs
generally
Australia.
the
"
basement
belts of ancient
In
rich
ore.
this State
rocks of the
the
schists
crystalline
traversed
by
country are
dioritic
are
or
eruptives
eruptives. These
hornblendic in different places,
and are often so much
altered that
At
their originalcharacter
is not
always easilydetermined.
Kalgoorliethe hornblendic belts have been altered and silicified,
ORES
AND
probablyby
MINERALS
solfataric
These
structure.
CONSIDERED
action,and
mineralised
generallyexhibit
belts
161
ECONOMICALLY.
the
form
schistose
oregold-bearing
bodies.
other
In
wide
by
and
parts of Western
often
schistose
in
traversed
are
diabase,nearlyalwaysmuch
These
structure.
altered,
as
greenstone-schists,
bodies of quartz ; or
termed,contain gold-bearing
they are locally
traversed
w
hich
of
intersected by
are
they are
granite,
by dykes
veins.
gold-bearing
New
South
Wales.
In this old colonypayablegold occurs
in
"
veins
slates
intersecting
Accordingto
age.
; and
between
Goldfield,
andesite
The
the contact
In
of
not
veins
worked
Mudgee.
are
at the
In the
ferous
Carboni-
of
common
Hargraves
Lucknow
in
irregularveins
serpentinebelt.
occurs
a
conglomeratesforming the
the
been
and
ore
gold-bearing
near
of Silurian and
Pittman, bedded
Hill End
but
gold-bearing,
are
sandstone
have
saddle-reefs
occurrence
the
and
in
trict
dis-
augite-
in payablequantity.
apparently
field the
Timbarra
in veins in granite,
and
gold occurs
also in pyritesdisseminated throughout the graniteitself. G. W.
Card1 has reportedthe occurrence
of gold in unaltered
granite
and
eurite.
of the
Many
in
deep-leads
this State
are
covered
by
flows of
basalt.
Queensland.
shallow
of
The
"
alluvial
goldobtained
placersand
Devonian
age
where
State,particularly
are
the
from
in
quartz-veins.Slates
and
stones
sand-
in
gold-bearing
have
strata
parts of the
many
been intruded by dykes
diorite,
diabase,or porphyrite.
of
of
the
most
are
belt
of diorite.
The
celebrated
at Mount
gold-deposit
Morgan is a siliceous
the gossan of a huge pyritic
contact occurring
haematite,
apparently
the
altered
sedimentaries
of
Permo-carbonnear
boundaryof
iferous age and a dyke of hornblendic
granite. The strata are
also intruded by later dykesof porphyritic
dolerite. The eruption
of these dykes is believed to have originated
the solfataric action
of
the pyritic
the alteration of the upper
to which
part
body is
ascribed.
Tasmania.
and
1
in
"
In
this small
quartz-veins.The
State
latter
Auriferous
Some
Rock Specimens from
Card, "On
1895.
N.S.
fT.,p. 154,
Timbarra, Becards,QeoU Surveyof
G.
W.
Granite
at
"
DigitizecMV^OO
162
MINING
Silurian
In
age.
Lisle and
the
a belt
intersecting
in veins
New
Zealand.
In
"
and
placers,
Tertiary
veins
GEOLOGY.
Goldfields
Golconda
of
granite.
colony gold
this
is found
The
and
in recent
in
and
Hauraki
occurs
occur
stones
gold
conglomerates and
quartz
at
cements
age ; and
in the
Tertiaryage.
the
base
of
the
Middle
seldom
contain
water-worn
gold, but
Tertiary coal-measures
in payable quantities.It is noteworthy,however, that
of
the richest placersin Otago and Westland
are
a rewash
many
of these ancient gravels.
United
States.
The gold of this country is obtained
from
veins,or from placersresultingfrom the erosion of gold-bearing
"
the
State
"
Lode
Mother
of
the veins
at
particularly
in and
this
placersalong
gold
belt
masses
high quality.
A second gold
the veins
belt of
among
remarkable
occur
stretch
The
richest in
of
contained
of the
Colorado
and
andesites,
phonolites,
North
gold-bearing
gold is of
the watershed
in
the
are
The
age of this
is believed to be Cretaceous.
within
the
Nevada
intrusive
near
America.
veins
as
and
more
occur
contents.
vein-system known
the
California,
is contained
of Carboniferous
counties,and
of the valuable
River.
fornia,
Cali-
In this belt
trachyteof
probably
Middle
and associated
Tertiaryage. The gold is alloyedwith silver,
with silver-ores,
etc.
pyrites,
The largerpart of the gold-production
of California is obtained
from
The
from
tuffs and
Creek
breccias,which
district.
well
These
are
developedin
typically
igneousrocks,which
consist of
the
Cripple
heavy flows
as
as
America.
The
The
bulk
of
not
are
placer-deposits
the
gold
of Montana
Waldemar
Lindgren, "The
of North America," Tram. Am.
Inst. Min.
of
great extent.
is derived
Features
Geological
from
lead-silver
ORES
MINERALS
AND
in Archaean
163
ECONOMICALLY.
CONSIDERED
from
rocks,or
Butte.
developednear
principally
age,
In
State
the
of Palaeozoic and
and
basalts.
of
andesite.
of
Southern
The
value
in
In
the massive
are
gold.
groups.
lodes of the
The
silver-lead
phyry,
por-
of
ores
carry one-third
De
Lamar, in
mine
gold-silver
Nevada, occurs
of
gold-bearingdeposits
two
dykes of
many
and
eruptives,
near
The
in Palaeozoic
belong to
by
sedimentaries
are
by Tertiaryrhyolites,andesites,and
Lode, long celebrated for its dry gold-
Comstock
The
age, intruded
Mesozoic
smothered
rocks
quartzites.
Black
Hills,in South
Dakota,
important,there
which consist of
district,
the most
one
group,
Homestake
belt of Archaean
long and
only rendered
feet
The
feet wide.2
2000
veins
older
intersecting
the
Kootenaydistrict the
gold occurs
The
gold
the
of
Douglas
which, accordingto
diorite,
silicifiedby solfataric
or
dykes in
follow.
theyclosely
occurs
as
which
A. C.
and
Mesozoic
intrusive
Spencer3
series of intrusions
which
distance of about
is
placers
In
in copper-bearing
principally
Mesozoic
age.
Treadwell
from
Professor
Mines,
mineralised
Becker, has
been
on
albitealtered
that
states
from
Palaeozoic rocks.
celebrated
and
is derived
veins,which
"
ore
Columbia
of British
and
Alaska.
by
profitable
gold output
The
appear
ore-bearingdykes belong to a
along the strike
interruptedly
3000
feet
miles,in a zone approximately
In
the
of
intruded area
wide.
the greater part
are
exposures
and
side
the
toward
small
the
centre
few,
only
dykes outcrop on
for
of
the
island.
limited,but
defined
by
slates and
On
next
a
to
this
side
the
shore
heavy bed
the
intrusive
the
adjacentchannel.
the
known
of
minable
ore
the
zone
of Gatineau
Inst. Min.
channel
irregularly
the border is
the
dykes,and
The
occur
Features,etc.,p. 829.
Lindgren,Geological
Ore Depositsof
B. Carpenter,"The
Am.
be
to
with
greenstone running parallel
2F.
Trans.
seems
the Black
Hills of
Dakota,"
Ore
Alaska,"Pamphlet,
Deposits,
Digitized
by
164
MINING
GEOLOGY.
and
thus constitutes the hanging-wallboth of the intrusion zone
of the ore-bodies. Many of the dykes of albite-diorite away from
the hangingaltered and impregnatedwith
wall have been greatly
pyrite,but workable ore-bodies have not yet been discovered
in them.
The relations of the mineralised
diorite dykes to the associated
shown
country-rockare
Fig.68.
"
in the
accompanying diagram.
gold
The
is
placers.
the whole of the gold of this State is
Practically
derived from beds of pyritic
interbedded
quartzose conglomerate,
Palaeozoic age.
The
banket reefs,as
of Lower
with quartzites
these gold-bearing
conglomeratesare locally
termed,vary from a
in
south
feet
thickness.
inches
4
at angleswinch
to
few
They dip
The most productive
are
steeperat the outcrop than elsewhere.
about 115 feet thick.
in a belt of quartzite
beds occur
contained
in
the quartz pebbles,but in the
The gold is not
The bankets are remarkable for their
siliceous cementing matrix.
Transvaal.
great
extent
"
and
of the
description
Russia.
from
"
uniform
value
over
chief banket-beds
Almost
all the
on
placer-deposits
gold
the western
wide
stretches.
is given in
detailed
Chapter II.
produced in Russia
flanks of the Ural
is derived
Mountains.
foothills on
R. A.
the western
Kinzie,"The
Pamphlet,p. 9, Trans.
166
MINING
the
At
present time
world's
output.
amounting to 30
France
follow
Then
GEOLOGY.
than
producesmore
the
United
with
States,with
houses, and
for
Great
Paris,of
agricultural
purposes.
from 6s.
pricevaries,accordingto locality,
The
output
an
8 per cent.,and
the
half
Iron.
The
ores
of iron of commercial
value
haematite,magnetite,and haematite
brown
limonite,or
siderite,
are
or
iron.
specular
carbonate
carbonaceous
The
spathicores
or
years to occupy
many
iron and steel.
Beds, nodular
dominant
and
layers,
many
of little value.
outside
ore,
which
The
of
the
Among
importedinto Great
They occur in beds
The
brown
and
manufacture
of
those of Cleveland,
England.
depositsof Bilboa,in Spain,are
about
limestone
for
in
spathiciron occur
small
and
generally
of spathose
deposits
70 per cent,
haematite
value.
are
Britain
Lias of
haematite
furnish
of
veins
the
coal-measures,are
in the Middle
brown
veins
valuable
most
Carboniferous
occur
red and
the
The
ore.
iron-ore enabled
in
position
even
formations.
geological
black-band
as
of Cretaceous
of the
deposits
embrace
of the
ore
steel.
age.
United States
all the
raw
of iron and
are
of
great
varieties of
hydrated
o
f
iron
recognisedas limonite,gbthite,turgite,
bogsesquioxide
The
the
States
of
etc.
are
principalproducers
Virginia,
ores,
West Virginia,
Alabama, Colorado,and Pennsylvania.
extent
The
Huronian
They
and
Lauren
America
contain
vast
1
2
The
The
Mineral
Mineral
Resources
Resources
ORES
Red
AND
CONSIDERED
MINERALS
haematite
167
ECONOMICALLY.
constitutes 83
the
of supply are
sources
Superiorregion. The principal
Mesabi Range, in Minnesota, with an annual output of 14,000,000
tons; the Menominee
Range, in the States of Michigan and
with
an
Wisconsin,
output of 5,000,000 tons ; MarquetteRange,
in Michigan,4,000,000tons ; and Gogebic Range, 4,000,000tons.
annual
The
been
Range has never
output of the Mesabi
reached by any other iron-ore region in the world, the closest
in Biscayan Spain, which
competitorbeing the Bilboa district,
produces7,500,000tons.
to nearly
output of iron-ore in Great Britain amounts
and
haematite ores.
13,500,000 tons, being mainlyspathic
The magnetite and specular
iron-ore deposits
of Scandinavia,
of Sweden, are
of great extent.
more
especially
They occur
districts as
rocks, in some
regional
generallyin crystalline
The
What
Iron
that
at
Port
Augusta, in
contain
In New
enormous
the
commercial
of
value
Knob
and
Iron
not
are
described
has been
as
very
abundant
in
most
important
is
the
shores of Taranaki
Iron-ores
and
Patea.
40
containingless than
rarelysmelted,and
only those
per
cent,
containingover
of the
50
A
rich commercial
considered rich.
sample of
should contain from 60 to 65 per cent, of the metal.
A
of
depositof
metal
are
cent,
are
per
red haematite
value must
be of
of any market
rich ore, be free from silica,
sulphur,
iron to become
contain
and
of the world.
easy reach of the great markets
and
deleterious matter
found in iron-ores,
Silica is the most
within
exceed
10
of no
are
mercial
comSulphide-ores
value for the production
of iron, as the whole of the
sulphurcan onlybe removed by a dead oxidisingroast,which is
facture
however, is mined for the manua costly
operation. Iron-pyrites,
acid. Depositsof rich haematite are someof sulphuric
should
H.
not
Y. L.
Brown,
"
per
Notes
on
cent.
the Iron
Supplementary Mining
Australia,"
and
PhosphateDepositsof
Records, 1905, p. 6.
Adelaide.
South
168
MINING
times
rendered
valueless
GEOLOGY.
the
by
sulphide-ore.
Arsenical pyrites
is generally
of
except it contains goldor tin.
The
in
no
presence
free from
sulphur
phosphorusmay
arsenic,
available for
smelting
the other
On
be
practically
rich
hand, ores
of basic steel.
used for the manufacture
the
the
whole of
nearly
phosphorus
be
blast-furnace work
present in the
For
coke
per cent.
of acid steel must
phosphorus.
or
In normal
of
source
or
The
as
percentage of
1
sulphurexceeding
contain
not
value
no
sulphur,copper,
case
must
of
of
presence
of
iron-ores,as
regardstheir phosphorus-contents,
dependson
For
For
An
Bessemer
the
Bessemer
average
sampleof
being about
"
Per cent.
Silicon,
Sulphur,
Manganese,
Phosphorus,
Ores
limits
of
0-50-1-00
0-05-0-15
0-35-2*00
l'OO-3'OO
between
containinga phosphorus-percentage
are
suitable for
phosphorusis very
the
in which, however, an
foundry-work,
objectionable.
above
excess
Lead.
The
most
valuable
abundant
and
ores
of lead
are
galena and
are
cerussite,which
generallyfound in veins in limestones,
in gneiss,
calcareous slates,and
sandstones, and occasionally
and
andesite.
Cerussite
found
in
in
the
shallow
mica-schist,
only
parts of
of
lead-mines.
Galena
2
silver,
varying from
usuallycontains
3
to
oz.
oz.
small
to hundreds
of
proportion
ounces
per
26
world's
productionof
tons, of which
the
lead
1,000,000
States' domestic output is equal
United
The
Hill
Broken
to about
New
amounts
other
chief
South
of
producers
Wales.1
in
Proprietary
Company (Limited),
The Mineral
lead
vol. xiii,
1904.
Industry,
Digitized
by
New
ORES
AND
MINERALS
169
ECONOMICALLY.
CONSIDERED
Magnesite.
This
mineral
serpentine. The
is
generallyfound
world's supply comes
Austria,the Island of
in
Eubcea, in
in
veins
and
in
masses
from
principally
Styria,
Calcined
of
material
non-conducting
etc.
boilers,
steam-pipes,
market
value of crude
as
to
per ton.
Manganese.
The
of
ores
principal
pyrolusite.
They are
and
in
or
beds, veins, or
the
are
manganese
found
generally
in
masses,
oxides,psilomelane
in
slates and
superficial
masses,
slatyshales,often
Rich
are
of manganese,
and is then in
Bessemer
in
and
Siemens plants.
using
per
cent,
convenient
form
for
Silica in manganese
should not exceed 12 per cent.
The
ores
best ores contain less than 0*10 per cent, of phosphorus
; but on
the London
the value of the ore
metal-market
is not seriously
affected even
if the percentage reaches 0*20.
Beyond this limit
it diminishes the sellingvalue of the ore.
A few years ago, when spiegeleisen
was
was
demand
good
for
used
ores
manganiferous-iron
there
extensively,
containing20
to
extent
For
bleaching-powder.
carbonates
The
as
these
over
purposes
it must
be
free from
as
possible.
countries
great manganese-producing
are
Russia, United
States
producedabout
third and
Russia
about
third.
and
170
MINING
GEOLOGY.
Mica.
Mica
is
commercial
value
capableof
The
constituent
when
valuable
veins
or
inch
square
in micaceous
from
vary
pegmatiteveins,or dykes,as
in
or
minerals
felsparand
the
Valuable
mica
other times
Mica
several
to
writers suppose
found
and
and
the
is found
mica
is found
uniform
coarse
in those veins in
masses,
in
is
mica
apatite.
called blocks
crystals,
mineral
more
colour
in
Canadian
in the vein in
on
better-coloured
the harder
resemble
in largemasses.
crystallised
in small
are
them
and
quartz,felspar,
"
rough
evenly distributed throughout the
contact with the country-rock.
the
near
when
The
occurs
books,sometimes
mica
hornblende
inches
few
some
have
quartz
usuallyof littlevalue.
and
generallyin
gneissin
varyingproportions.They commonly
in general the best mica is found
the constituent
Where
or
in size.
more
occur
and
granite,
which
a
possesses
that are
masses
abundant, and
mica"
only
feet thick.
These
to
The
not
and
granite,
in
blocks
in
occurs
are
deposits
mica-schist.
hundred
it
rocks, but
many
pegmatiticveins
and
of
lower down
at
mass,
Clearer
cracked.
in the solid ; and
the
substance.
depth.
of commercial
contain mica
value,except as scrap-mica.
As
is
is less than
sheet-mica
and
India
and
Canada
3 per cent.1
the chief
are
the United
Europe
depositsin
States.
but
places,
many
few
The
coloured
Sheet
of
greatest
mica
is
furnace
used
largely
clear and
and
free
stove
from
colour,white mica
of little value.
range
1
from
Mineral
1"
is
there
3 square
and
doors, lamp-protectors,
For
of commercial
are
use
doors
is for
insulators
in
value,and
is found in
best mica
sheets
at
India.
from
the
of
and
for
stove
ruby-
windows
electrical
the material
choicest
is in
Biotite
blocks
or
and
machinery.
windows
next.
being preferred
Resources
used
upwards.
for furnace
spots. The
mica
mainlyderived
inches
and
the
latter
Bengal in India,the
demand
from
variety,
of
sources
The
black
be
must
of winemica
is
stated above
Smaller
Washington, 1901.
sizes
ORBS
AND
MINERALS
grainare
essential characters.
The
of the mica
bulk
placedon
in the
principally
171
ECONOMICALLY.
CONSIDERED
fineness
the market
construction
size and
of
dynamos,alternators,
For these uses
the sheets must be flexible,
free
etc.
transformers,
and must
from cracks,capableof withstandinghigh temperatures,
essential
for
be non-conducting,
low
of
iron
a
being an
percentage
purposes,
perfectcleavageis of
the
Colour
thickness,and
is often
gauged to
"
be of uniform
must
the thousandth
part of
an
inch.
condition
"
of mica
"
saleable
readily
for 2 in.
by
auction
will yieldare
crystal
at
present
pricesranging from
at
by
the native
T*Fin. to J in. is
All qualities
saleable.
but it is obviously
are
saleable,
impossible
estimate of probable
two
to givean
a
s
no
yield
prices,
properties
similar mica, and it would be necessary to see a case or
precisely
the
of
actual stuff before anything approachinga final
two
judgment could be passedupon it.
The mica crystals,
One or two important
points
may be made.
be trimmed
after being split,
with ordinaryhand-shears,all
may
exceed
not
must
Anything
in.
from
"
cracked
aiming
such
"
edges being
of
regularity
at
waste, remember
The
chief
material
to be used
next
even
in
as
secure
is sound
laminae
and
is used
"
for
due
as
material
by
without
possible,
area
without
would
cracks,for it is
militate
against a
secure
flat surface
perfectly
'
pn
between
to
itselfin
varietyof
far
as
the
electricinsulator.
an
importanceis to
the
waste
are
rectangular
preferred.
plates
not
cracks
microscopic
that
The
Do
shape, but,
that
thing to
obvious
"
removed.
'
purposes,
but
is useless for
insulating.
Summarising :
(a) Avoid marginalcracks.
"
The New
Zealand
Mines
Record,February1905,
p. 299.
not
'byt^oogle
Digitized
172
MINING
For
some
Ground
thickness.
is used
mica
The
market.1
and
cleanly
platesshould
and
flawed pieces,
The
be about
J in. thick,and
cut
rectangularshapesif possible.
sorted
so
as
crumpled
to cut
to
according
varies
mica
priceof
should
be trimmed
The
or
lubricant
sheet
sharplyinto
and
as
must
greatestcare
for the
cemented
useless,are
The
small
purposes
GEOLOGY.
away any
their colour.
accordingto
colour.
It
rapidlywith
rises
sheets
2 in.
by
bo
cl
Fig. 69."
a,
Section
throughPegmatiteVein.
MeUmorphic
(AfterH.
K.
Scott.)
schist ; b, decomposedpegmatitewith
mica
books
; c,
quartz.
Molybdenum.
commercial
The
ores
of this metal
are
the sulphide
molybdenite,
;
Canada.
In
the
Haliburton
in Ontario, it
district,
with
occurs
in
and
pyrrhotite,
pyrites,
chalcopyrite.
At
Wolfram
Camp,
has
molybdenite
1
H.
Kilburn
for
Preparation
been
in the
found
Hodgkinson Goldfield,Queensland,
in payablequantities
in clean white
its
174
MINING
has been
and
attended
with
great
the
of nickel
production
longenjoyedby the New
so
broken
success
has been
so
Caledonia
large that
mines
has
the
been
years,
monopoly
completely
up.
addition to
In
2*8
GEOLOGY.
cent., and
per
platinum,about
In the
about
cobalt
oz.
0*8 per
lb. of nickel matte.
in 1000
ore-bodies
copper about
cent., and a little
contains
is
regularvein-system. The
no
in detached groups.
or
separately,
depositsare commonly lenticular,
pinching out
The
occur
directions and
Huronian
conforming to
schists.
The
ore
the
general strike
of the
in,and
always occurs
in
both
enclosing
ments
frag-
contains
Accordingto
within
C. W.
Dickson
this
the
ore-bodies
its contact
with
the
either well
occur
other
eruptiveor
prevailing
or
district,
quartzite,
namely,granite granitic-gneiss,
the metamorphosed representative
of a series of basic sedior
mentaries,now termed
greenstones by the Survey of Canada.
at
rocks of the
"
"
Cliff
SE
NW
Fig.
Three
main
H.
Collins.2)
Pyriticore-body.
associated
tites
micro-pegma-
as
recognised,
designated
Northern,Middle,and
at
respectively.
They are,
present, mapped as
and
but
genetically
mineralogically
they are essentially
separate,
the Southern
belt is the most important.
identical. Economically
are
Southern
now
the
belts
C.
ORES
CONSIDERED
MINERALS
AND
175
ECONOMICALLY.
brecciated nature
during,
or
the
of
ore
have
must
been
due
to
deposition
after,the metamorphism.
of
important use of nickel is in the manufacture
nickel-steel,
containingabout 3" per cent, of nickel. Considerable
quantitiesare used for platingiron goods,and in the coinageof
The
most
the United
States and
European countries.
many
Oil-Shale.
of a stratified formation.
layersas members
mineral oil by slow distillation.
It yields
The originof the hydro-carbonaceous
in these shales is
matter
obscure.
In many
been
it
has
shown
somewhat
scopic
cases
by microThis
in beds
occurs
observation
or
be due
to
lived in shallow
which
to accumulations
fresh-water
lakes and
of
gelatinous
algae
lagoons.
in the Lothians
of Scotland
of great
are
shale-deposits
and
The
Broxburn8
shales
of
extent,
yieldfrom
poor quality.
The
24 to
per
crude
30
ton, while
oil and
is maintained
The
the
by
oil and
Drumshoreland
the
of
production
Permo-carboniferous
shales
sulphate
yield 20
gallonsof
shales
sulphate.The industry
bye-products.
Zealand
New
of
places,
New
of
generallyin
occur
oil-shales of
They are, in
ammonia.
lbs. of ammonium
42
60 lbs. of ammonium
about
high grade,but
nearlyexhausted.
The
crude
gallonsof
thin
are
of
South
seams.
Middle
Wales
They
of
are
are
now
Tertiaryage.
generally
poor
and
low in
Petroleum.
Mineral
commercial
the Middle
oil is found
"
1
2
Trans.
Inst. Min.
Eng.,vol.
176
MINING
In
America
it is found
GEOLOGY.
mostly
Carboniferous,and in Eastern
to
and
Eocene
in rocks
ranging from
Europe and
Silurian
Miocene
periods.
speaking,
petroleum is
Generally
found
beneath
the
of
crowns
anticlinal
sandstones.
folds,
saturatingporous uncemented
The genesis of natural oil has not yet been satisfactorily
French
school maintain
that it is chemical,
explained. The
alkali
the
reaction
of
metals
from
at
a high temperature
resulting
and carbon
steam
on
the
as
same
dioxide.
natural
Crude
in many
petroleum,
respects
preparedsynthetically
by Berthelot in
oil,was
this way.
The
hydrogen of the water and the carbon of the
carbon dioxide having been deprived
of their oxygen, unite to form
an
oilysubstance closelyresemblingrock-oil.
destructive
The
animal
and
the
carbon
same
having
producesan
hydrogen
natural
oil
of
the
Pennsylvania.But, on the other
compounds as
matter
different
rock.
The
found
rock in which
limestone
of Silurian age,
with animal life. Tt
apparentlybe
can
in
the oil is
is a thickly
bedded
imprisoned
in a deep sea swarming
probablydeposited
assumed
is generally
that the oil,which
liberated
only
it
porous
Experimentshave
to slow destructive
crude
gallonsof
that
shown
the
of
broken, is
is
Pennsylvaniaare
of shale
fossilseaweed
in
distillation,
some
ton
of
than
more
this fucoidal
oil to the
rock
occurs.
sandstones
oil-bearing
comformably by a formation
fossilanimals and
thick,containing
50
when
lain
under-
1000
feet
in vast
quantities.
shale,when
subjected
yields
cases
as
much
as
This
rock.
oil in many
the natural crude oil.
from
hardlybe distinguished
is
commonly acceptedtheory that petroleum is a natural
remains imprisoned
distillate from carbonaceous
in rocks.
or animal
rise into the overlying
The distillate would naturally
strata,where
respectscan
The
it would
The
of
condensed
; and
where
the
rocks
were
porous
it
accumulate.
would
from
become
heat
requiredfor
have
been
plutonicor volcanic,from
igneous intrusions,
the
heat
due
metamorphism, or
deep-seated
in
cases
where
the
strata
have
from
been
the
involved
in
derived
reactions
to- sure
prescrustdeep
folds.
Mineral
in
quantities
the
United
States,
AND
ORES
West
MINERALS
Virginiaamounts
of the United
CONSIDERED
to about
third
of the total
production
States.
Phosphate
Mineral
177
ECONOMICALLY.
phosphates are
fertilisers.
used
now
in
quantitiesas
vast
found
in many
the chief producers
countries,
States, and Algeria. The
output of
They
being Canada, United
are
Florida and
Rock.
United
South
of
63
per cent.
The
formation
have
been
rocks
due
by
followed
is generallybelieved to
phosphate-deposits
the leachingor lixiviation of phosphate-bearing
of
to
by
the
and
containingcarbonic
waters
favourable
to
concentration
subsequent
conditions.
In
some
other
of the
organic acids,
phosphateunder
their
they deposited
cases
calcium
Ottawa,
brown
Canada,
of
rock-phosphate
derived
the
from
rocks
in
occur
Tennessee
of
Laurentian
is believed
underground weathering of
layers in
the
Lower
of middle
Tennessee.
Silurian
These
but
stratigraphical
position,
limestone
layersdo
to
certain
which
The
age.
have
been
phosphatic
the basin
forms
occupy an unvarying
in various horizons in the Lower
occur
not
Silurian formation.1
The
in the
phosphate-deposits
and
Belgium occur
Algeriaand Tunis
nodules
in marl
been
or
estimated
associated
South
of
England, in France,
Cretaceous
with
Those
chalk.
of
as
by
M.
are
of Eocene
Chateau, a French
to
mining engineer,
contain from 150,000,000 to 300,000,000tons of phosphaterock,
it is considered riskyto mine rock containingless than 60 per
has
cent,
The
of the
tricalcic
celebrated
in detached
pocketslying on
limestone,and
1
William
Memoirs
phosphate.2
in Peninsular
phosphate-deposits
in Western
the
Florida
uneven
on
surfaces
Miocene
Florida
of
an
occur
Eocene
limestone.
Hayes, Annual
Rept. U. S. Oeol. Survey,p. 633, 1898-99.
the
French
of
Societyof Civil Engineers,August 1897.
178
The
beds of South
once-famous
Post-Pliocene
The
considered to be of
are
lime
West
Indies, was
at Aruba
formerlyworked
a
originally
and
Sombrero,
converted
limestone
coral
of water containing
phosphoric
percolation
derived from the overlyingdeposits
of bird-guano.
valuable deposit
discovered in 1901 at
of rock-phosphate
was
into
acid
A
the
phosphateby
Carolina
age.1
phosphate of
in the
in
GEOLOGY.
MINING
limestone,as shown
Fig. 71.
A,
Loose
Section
"
determine
in the
It
Zealand.
New
hollows
occurs
surface of
the upper
on
diagram :
following
"
of Clarendon
Rock-phosphate.
phosphaticsands ; 8, rock-phosphate
; C, limestone,generally
glauconitic
greensands.
; D, glauconitic
geologicalconditions
The
Otago, in
pockets and
eroded
chemically
Miocene
of
which
presence of
favourable
a
and
accompany
depositsof
formation
phosphate-bearing
at
doubtless
phosphateare the
the surface,lyingin
able
positionfor underground weathering over considerconcentration
of
subsequent
phosphate by replacement
areas, and
or
The
secondaryenrichment.
in
phosphate deposits
in
occur
and
caves
to be of
reported
for
limestone.
They are
situated
favourably
of commercial
value
should
phosphate-deposit
fulfil
"
of such
and
other
winning of
1
Penrose, U.S.
J.
Cambrian
Australia,
followingrequirements:
(1) Be
xxxv.
Peninsula,South
working.3
To become
the
fissures in
Yorke's
Park, "The
p. 391, 1902.
mineral.
Oeol.
Rock-phosphatesof
1898.
N.Z.
Tram.
Otago,*
Inst.,vol.
MINERALS
AND
ORES
179
ECONOMICALLY.
CONSIDERED
(2) Be
of
"
overburden
with
also
must
it exceeds
When
the
20
and
shallow
be
easilyremoved.
strippingruns
away
profit.
horizontal.
The
stratum
mined
was
to
depth of
300
feet below
the
matrix
The
the
and
local market.1
remunerative
Platinum.
This valuable
in
in olivine,
metal
is
found
generally
sparinglydisseminated
and
olivine-gabbro,
serpentine,
other
ultra-basic rocks
Zealand.
It is found in
Russia,2Germany, France, and New
gold placersin many parts of the world in small quantities.
of iron, which also has
It is commonly associated with chromite
in
of Rambler
ores
County, in
have
shown
the State of
Wyoming.
Bow
Refined
in minute
traces
in many
parts of the world.
sulphide-ores
3 records the
occurrence
Hundeshagen
in
wollastonite
which
He
augite-diorite.
big lens of limestone
to
is associated
thinks
that
imbedded
the
in the
of
with
Mountains
methods
exists in
in the
copper-
Albany
of
of
analysis
cupriferous
platinum in
Sumatra
schists,granite,and
was
ore-deposit
a
originally
altered
schists,
subsequently
depositsin the
1
2
s
Ural
mainlyderived
Mountains, mostly situated on
from
placer
the western
21st Annual
Rept. U.S. Qeol. Survey, u. 494, 1899-1900.
J. F. Kemp, Bull. U.S. Qeol. Survey, No. 193, p. 72.
L. S. Hundeshagen, Trans. Inst. Min. and Met., vol. xiii.1904.
180
GEOLOGY.
MINING
to 14,230 lbs.,
slopes. In 1904, the output of Russia amounted
equal to about 90 per cent, of the world's production. In
found
at
September of that year two lumps of platinum were
360
Krestowosdwischensk, one weighing 756 lbs.,the other over
A small part of the domestic
lbs.
requirementsof the United
States is obtained as a secondaryproduct from the gold-placers
in
and
Shasta
Counties
California.
in
Trinity
Some
of the gold-placers
of Colombia,Alaska,Siberia,
Australia,
and New
Zealand contain platinum,but rarelyin payablequantity.
The Fifield Goldfield,
in New
South Wales, yielded,
in the year
of
valued
375
at
In
the
"750.
1902,
oz.
same
platinum,
year
Russia produced 234,478 oz., which represented
90 per cent,
over
of the world's output. The balance is mainly furnished by the
State of
Colombia, in South
America.
Quicksilver.
The
only valuable
which
occurs
of this metal
ore
in veins
in altered andesites.
all ages
in most
and
all
by
along
seminated
sandstones,or disfound
in
rocks
of
is,however,
preferencefor sandstones,and
lines of
been
volcanic disturbances.
Some
cinnabar
by
volcanic
up
It
kinds,but shows
is found
cases
affected
is
traversingslates and
has
been
depositedfrom
hot
Hot
springs. At Ohaeawai
formed
were
cinnabar-deposits
Zealand, the
solutions
brought
Springs, in New
in
this manner,
as
probably were
The principalquicksilver-producing
mines at the present time
situated at Almaden, in Spain,New
Almaden
in California ;
are
those of Almaden.
average
of
containingas
profit.The grade of
but
Carniola,in Austria
ores
ores
; and
is from
Russia.
7 to 10 per cent.,
littleas
the
with
1 per
cent.
Silver.
horn
or
Among the principalores of silver are kerargyrite,
the subsulphide. Large masses
silver,embolite,and argentite,
of
the
South
two
former
Wales, disseminated
Masses
of native
Mountains, but
Peru, and
copper.
were
the
in the
found
at the
Broken
Hill
throughoutkaolin clay.
silver have
been
found
in
Saxony and
discovered
were
largestmasses
Superior mines,
Lake
mines, in New
Hartz
in Mexico
associated
with
and
native
182
GEOLOGY.
MINING
durability.Marcasite is objectionable
it oxidises readily.Cubical pyritesdoes not oxidise
in slate,
as
and
readily, is therefore not so objectionable.
A good slate should be capableof being splitinto smooth thin
laminae parallel
to the planesof slaty
cleavage.
The specific
gravityof slate varies from 2*7 to 2*9.
slates
inferior in
often
are
slate
Large quantitiesof
France, and
are
quarried in
the
United
States,
England.
Sulphur.
Greece.
crude
priceof
The
."3 to "i
The
per ton.
acid.
sulphuric
producersof pyritesfor
principal
in the
facture
manu-
of
The
acid
Spain,France, United
are
phuric
of sul-
the manufacture
States,Germany, Norway,
mineral
massive
Talc is used
as
flour is used
The
known
generally
as
occurs
in beds
chloritic schists.
It
is
manufacture
as
steatite
or
soapstone.
and
flour-talc,
as
forms
granularlimestone.
is
form
talcose and
in
lens-shapedmasses
and
massive
base
as
for
lubricant.
.
tips.
harder
The
varieties of
talc
produced in
the
United
States is valued
at about
ton.
Thorium.
This
rare
and
monazite, which
rare
earthy metals
valuable
metal
is obtained
from
the
mineral
is
an
essentially
MINERALS
AND
ORES
CONSIDERED
formula
is described
by
lustre.
to vitreous
thoria
proportionof
light-yellow,
honeyin
with
a
yellowish-green colour,
yellow,reddish,brownish, or
resinous
variable
Pratt
J. H.
183
ECONOMICALLY.
as
It is translucent
to subtranslucent
size.
specific
gravityis high, and
from
ranges
4*64
to 5*3.
insoluble
incompletely
It is
in
acid,but completely
hydrochloric
and
water
acid, a
the
precipitateis
due
brick-red,
Before
filtered and
residue
with
to the presence
of cerium
mineral
blowpipe the
the
dissolved
becomes
ignition,
oxide.
turns
grey, but
the flame
sulphuricacid it colours
due to phosphoricacid.
Monazite is found in granite,
rocks, and
gneissic
If heated
the
with
Mountains
Maritime
other
many
monazite
of
quantity. The
from
placersresulting
beach
occur
as
deposits
used
in
the
chiefly
gaslights.
is
incandescent
of the
in
region of
in
only
from
minute
sands
or
rock.
mineral-bearing
sands.2
manufacture
4d. per
is about
value of monazite
bluish-green,
mica-schist
is derived
commerce
is infusible.
Mountain
places,but
the denudation
Brazilian
Thorium
The
Brazil,in South
Carolina, and
North
The
of
hydrochloric
of
mantles
for
pound.
Tin.
The
only
of this metal
ore
which
cassiterite,
alluvial drifts.
Tin-ore is found
and
eruptives,
etc.
granite,
At
Mount
globe,the
in
occurs
in
in
of the
one
Bischoff,8
2Loc.cit.ip.
951.
Fawns,
P.
and
which
sedimentaries
Inst. Min.
lodes,beds, and
value
is the
oxide,
stockworks, and in
and
granite,felspar-porphyry,
Sydney
of commercial
"Notes
on
have
intruded
sandstones
Resources
the
been
other
Mount
of
are
the
intruded
United
Bischoff Tin
on
acid
by
the
by dykes
States,p. 1163,
Mine," Trans.
184
MINING
GEOLOGY.
felsite which
carries topaz both
and
crystalline
porphyritic
amorphous. The topazisationwas probablya pneumatolytic
from deep-seated
of the
granite. The felspar
process proceeding
recorded
is replacedby topaz. The analysis
by
ground mass
of
showed
Groddeck
Von
Baron
payablequantityin
The
the
alkali.
no
of quartz,topaz,and
practically
tin.
consisted
rock
does not
in
occur
topaz tin-ore.
associates of tin-ore
common
The
Wolfram
are
tourmaline.
65 per cent, of the world's supplyis derived
placersin the Straits Settlements and Dutch East
About
the
hundreds
gravelscover
tin-bearing
world's annual
The
of square
is about
production
the tin-
from
Indies,where
miles.
100,000 tons.
commercial
of the
dry
Tungsten.
The
of
ores
principal
the
wolfram,
tungstateof manganese.
lime ;
Wolfram
in
veins
is
the tungstateof
tungsten are scheelite,
iron
of
and
megabasite,the
tungstate
;
usuallyassociated
schists and
in
quartz. When
happens, the
the
with
tinstone.
Scheelite
occurs
sandstones, generallyassociated
with
vein-stuff contains
scheelite
be
can
by-product.
best-known
The
depositof megabasite is
it
5 feet to 15 feet
acid.
of tungstic
occurs
wide,and
Patterson
at
with
wolfram
assayingfrom
that
in
Creek, in the
in
vein
the
Ima
state
varying
of
from
The
ferro-tungstenore
Hungary,
(England),
sold
on
the
wolfram
New
tungsticacid
South
basis.
is
mainly producedin
Wales,
Wolfram
and
Cornwall
Queensland. It is
to be marketable
Digitized
by
must
ORES
brought
be
AND
to
MINERALS
an
average
It is essential that the ore
CONSIDERED
185
ECONOMICALLY.
and
unit of
W03,
FeO,
MnO,
CaO,
:
"
60-76
.8-10
.9-12
0-4-1
time commanded
The
chief
as
much
of
tungsten
in
with
conjunction
of
tungsten
the
of
steels,which
self-hardening.
special
property
possess
Recentlytungsten has been added to a copper-aluminium
alloy,
to which it imparts greater strengthand toughness. Tungstate
soda
of
use
is used
fabrics non-inflammable.
for
renderinglight
by dyers as a mordant,
starch
It is also used
and to
hardeningplaster-of-paris,
for
small extent
in the arts.
Zinc.
The
of the zinc of
source
principal
or blende,and to a less extent
sphalerite
Zinc-ores
are
commonly
associated
is the
commerce
the
with
often copper.
The principal
countries
zinc-producing
sulphide,
carbonate,calamine.
galena,pyrites,and
are
Germany,
United
States,Belgium,Italy,
Sweden, England,and Austria.
The ores of Broken
Hill,in New South Wales, contain a large
percentage of zinc,the economic extraction of which has proved
a
difficultproblem.
Digitized
by
CHAPTER
MINE-SAMPLING
Contents
VIII.
AND
ORE-VALUATION.
:
Sampling Equipment Sampling Intervals" Record of Samples
Breaking the Sample Sampling Reduction of Sample Assay of
Future
Samples" Calculating Value
Prospects"Sample Values and
Mill Values" Sampling Dumps and Heaps.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
In the
with
majorityof mines sampling proceedssimultaneously
the mine development,
the results being recorded
on
assay plans,
which
the
are
or
generallylongitudinal
stope plans. Where
has
been
and
sampling during development
carefully
cally
systematishould
the
those
obtained
done,
by the
approximate
averages
mine-examiner.
Sampling
canvas
Equipment
6 ft.
5 lb. hammer
of small
number
number
distinctive
includes
gad
canvas
or
tags
stripsof
or
; and
mark
or
9 in. wide ;
and
long
metal
sample bags of
new
stout
or
sheet,about
This
"
stout
custodyof samples.
Begin
Sampling Intervals.
soft
wood, each
with
lock-up sack
canvas
"
end
main
of the
respect to
When
drive
survey station.
width
the whole
of the
underfoot,and
the
to
the
sample
to
customary
the back
Divide
cross-cut, or
samplingof
point
some
level at the
easilylocated
with
it is
lyingon
at
the
of the
level,as
often covered
with
vein
the
of the
divisions with
is
exposed in
the
mud
ground
open
seam
the lower
or
and
water.
ft.,10
ft.,or
and
according
more,
character
of
ore.
Mark
candle-
flame.
it is well
respect to the sampling intervals,
With
that
often
wide
largenumber
more
of small
reliable than
samplestaken
small
number
of
to
at short
remember
intervals
largesamplestaken
are
at
intervals.
When
the
ore
is known
to
186
be
consistent
in
value, and
is
MINE-SAMPLING
the
is somewhat
vein
Record
width
A
of
Samples.
simple and
may be 20 ft.
irregularin width and
results.
trustworthy
most
and
record
the
accurate
intervals,widths,and
give the
intervals
Carefullymeasure
"
187
ORE-VALUATION.
AND
of
recording the
is to draw
sample numbers
sampling
diagram in
.5
IQ
to
*.
Fig. 72.
"
Showing Record
of
field-book
Fig. 73."
The
completingthe record.
Section
Longitudinal
of Block
values
between
are
150 and
commonly recorded
inks, accordingto
on
different coloured
mine-assayplans
the
individual fancy of the engineer; but this is not necessary in the
examiner's field-book,
which is a privaterecord.
In the above figurethe widths of ore are shown
in inches under
in
188
the
intervals
entered
values
the
fresh
expose
level.
The
sampling
the
are
the
not
assay
in
different processes
recovering.
the face down
Dress
"
Johannesburg,the
at
section
which
recovery
to be capableof
Mine,
continuous
values
estimated
are
Charlton1
upon
the
values,but
use
and
Meyer
the
dots.
by
represented
are
the
In
as
GEOLOGY.
MINING
surface,and,
with
pick,so
if necessary,
clean
sample
each
it with
water.
With
the
allowingthe
felt hat
The
or
and
material
to fall on
wall to
the
In
is taken
shown
in
the
where
by
at
sheet,or
canvas
interval,
into
stiff
assistant.
an
from
to the
cut
groove
in other
dip; or,
wall,as
cases
break
gad
box held
narrow
sample
plane of
level
hammer
at
rightanglesto
the
words, across
thickness
the
from
fig.72.
width
of the
is less than
vein
that of the
or
4 in. to
from
vary
uniform
fairly
of
ore
hardness
in.,and
cation
that is with
2 lbs. to
Wide
ribbon-structure
to determine
separately
band
each
lodes should
also be
values
the
sometimes
are
Where
the
level is driven
is
ore
exposedfor
management
the
lode
metalliferous
at
"
where
sampled in
10
foot
it is advisable
to
sample
the commercial
on
wide
of 2 ft. or
ft.,as
progress of
of 20 ft. or 50
of the
ore.
during the
character
of crustifi-
times
by the foot-wall portion,someor
by the central portion. In such
from wall to wall may convey quite
examination.
intervals
bands
carried
for the
in. to
arranged in distinct
is
vein-matter
the
"
bed.
or
When
"
from
weigh from
sample will generally
of vein
the width
These
developmentto
cut
cross-
ft.,accordingto
cross-cuts
the
will afford
an
wall in such
the
stopes.
It often
has been
1
Now
T.
A.
happens,in
driven
on
Rickard, The
York, 1904.
the
case
of
veins,that
flat-lying
Sampling
and
the level
Estimation
of
Ore in
Minet p. 174,
190
MINING
GEOLOGY.
of
Sample.
The
"
broken
the
to
to the size of
all their
with
sheet.
down
broken
to
rejectedand removed
method
of mixing the ore
to
care
in
taken
be
must
from
to
insure
that
removed
completely
material
in the
the
two
The
two
the sheet.
from
the
on
sampling-sheetis
other.
fines
are
In
not
this process
concentrated
evenly distributed
before each quartering.
In three-quarterings,
a
sample weighing 80 lbs. will thus be
down
cut
to 10 lbs.,
which is about the maximum
capacityof the
of
particularpart
throughoutthe whole mass
one
sample-bags.
The time required
to
the
contents
quartersretained in the
side to the
one
be
been done,
again quartered.
two
first operationare
common
must
it
The
into
broken
When
ore.
this has
being
rejected,
the
finesfrom
remainingquartersis then
of the
When
walnut.
of
hardness
sample
sample-bag,the sheet
place underground, and its
convenient
down
interval.
of the
weight
down
carried
at each
break
sample, but
down
hour, and
extend
number
of
weight.
and
may
several
to
needed
quarterings
The
into
samplingof
It seldom
upon
half an
is less than
to reduce
largemine
the
may
sampleto
occupy
the
convenient
several
weeks,
pounds.
Assay
Samples.
sample should be dried,
crushed
in a rock-breaker
in the laboratoryto pass through a
10-mesh
and
sieve,mixed,
sampled by quarteringtill reduced to
in weight,all of which should be finally
a pound or two
pulverised,
60-mesh
and
divided
into
a
sieve,
through
mixed,
passed
again
two
portions. One portionis handed to the assayer, while the
other is retained as a duplicate
sample for subsequent reference
run
of
and
"
verification if the
Carelessness
in the
in the
The
whole
of the
should arise.
necessity
all the
laboratory
may stultify
care
exercised
sampling underground.
If the
mine-examiner
submit
his
samples to
assayer whose
take care
be
to
an
unknown
to him, he should
are
qualifications
and final
present during the crushing,pulverising,
assay samples.
The duplicatesamples should be put into small
division of the
calico
or
stout
MINE-SAMPLING
AND
191
VALUATION.
ORE
percentage of metal
for veins up
ten samples from a
by
average
the number
of
per ton
When
band
of
average
by
for
the
8 feet
vein, as
gold-bearing
is found
the
sum
width
of the
case
the
case
of
"
of the widths
sum
have
we
y6^6 356
=-"
no
value, which
assay value
two
,,
"
"
widths
bands
cannot
is ascertained
A be 18 inches
B
by dividingthe
as
under
sum
of the
^3/ff86*7 dwts.
of 35*6 inches.
of "2
Then
follows
in this
found
assay-valueis
vein contains
"
Take
by dividingthe
samples. Thus,
Let band
feet thick.
10
or
d. per ton.
s.
expressedin
conveniently
is most
ore
"
or
gold or bullion,
width.
inches average
The average
inch-dwt.
be stated in dollars
to
width
The
of low- valued
case
The
ton ;
of
be
as
payableore separatedby a
out economically,
the
sorted
follows
wide, and
"
have
assay value
an
per ton.
worthless.
worth
"
18 4- 6 + 12
"0-per
"3
per ton.
tun.
192
MINING
GEOLOGY.
If it is practicable
to sort out half of the worthless
band, then
the average assay value of the ore will be found as under :
"
(J^2H
In
(12x3)=
(3^
18
3
12
+
estimatingthe
net
in sightin
profit
that
High
Assay
Values.
high assay-value
may
discarded entirely
and
3a
'
"
the
not
8d
ton
exceptionally
sample giving an
be
not
or
It may be
ascertain
example :
Five
Samples
values
gave
dwt., 120
ton.
of 10
The
dwt., by
dwt., 20 dwt.,
average is 40 dwt.
40 dwt., and then
"
exposedon
Before
the block is
Where
reasonable.
engineerto
it is advisable
consider the
carefully
(1) Is there
change
any
the
or
future
mining
followingquestions
enclosingthe
:
"
of rock-formation
lode
does
influence
If so, what
any part of the mine?
this change of country exercise upon the value of the ore 1
(2) Is there any indication of barren zones of ore, either in
of the
depth or horizontal extension,along the course
in
lode?
(3) Are
the
values in the
are
the
of oxidation
unoxidised
likelyto
tained
be main-
portion?
in depth %
of impoverishment
probabilities
in the
(4)What
zone
T. A.
42.
MINE-SAMPLING
Sample Values
obtained
values
broken
by
and
the
Hence
Manifestlythe
Returns."
assay-
Mill
193
ORE-VALUATION.
AND
the
The
variations
deduced
values
only be regarded,even
approximations.
in the
at
value of the
variable
clearly
emphasisethe
mean
obtained
value
of
most
due
mining engineerwith
to
one
or
enumerated
several
causes,
which
among
the
be
followingmay
"
sudden
(1)A
of width
increase
of
without
ore
corresponding
increase of values.
sudden
(2) A
decrease in values ;
horse
by
levels.
into
(3) A
is a
contained
was
contingencyvery
in the
vein
narrow
less in width
where
cases
stripping
easy,
the
is not
ore
stretch of
ore
both
carried out
the
the
(5)Inadequateallowance
mine
is sent
the
vein
breast
are
proportionof
two
to
the
samples. This
in the
of the
split
breakingof
the vein
or
well denned
tonnage of
ore
is
In
face.
and
where
to be very great, especially
likely
before it is broken.
is stripped
(4)Imperfect
tallyof
sampling of
rock
or
occur
width
the
walls of
the
between
where
stopes, especially
than
the
reunite
in the examiner's
liable to
be
payshootmay
which
The
legs
two
the
or
sent
to the mill.
for moisture.
for valuation
and mentally.
physically
ing,
purposes is most exhaustWhen
has been
the work
and conscientiously,
the
carefully
mine-examiner
should
be
silence about
to the
cuts
of
Dumps
is divided into
or
other.
Sampling
ore
trenches
or
number
of Ore.
Paddocks
of small
passingthrough
the
blocks
ore
at
"
The
stack of
by two systems of
rightanglesto each
194
MINING
GEOLOGY.
be sampled separately
(a) Each block can now
by picking
piecesof ore from its four sides.
(b)Or the material excavated from the trenches can be wheeled
to a clean piece of ground, spawled into small
pieces,
until a sample of convenient
mixed, and quarteredrepeatedly
size is obtained.
largerpiecesof
in the
must
ore
Before
quartering the
each
be broken
quartering.
preceding
from
the
trenches
be crushed
can
tillthe
in
assay
rock-
sample
is obtained.
Sampling
of
Tailings. If the accumulation
be sampled in separate sections,as
liable to vary considerably
in value in
of
Heaps
is large it should
tailings
largepilesof sands are
different
parts.
Stake
off the
heap, so as to
Make
a
diagram
yards square.
Record
sections.
each
section
by
Sample each
(1)With
dimensions
the
field-book
in
of the
as A, B, C, etc.
letter,
section,beginningwith section A
from
and
to
corresponding
is
over
values
the
for every
foot of
depth.
sampling-ironavailable,holes
quarteringto
4 feet
to
obtained
sand
6 feet.
or
clean
convenient
the
into another
be taken
no
not
are
to
intervals of every
holes are wheeled
the
required,
that
believe
to
top
two.
or
the lower
bag
samples can
there
and distinguish
sections,
same
(3) If
divide
If
"
The
place,mixed,
dug
are
at
from
the
reduced
by
depths can
be
sands
and
size.
from
different
kept separate.
Salting of
enrichment
Mines.
of the
ore,
By
"
with
the illegal
"salting" is meant
the
the object of giving
property
fictitious value.
a
-
The
mine-examiner
should
by unscrupulous persons,
of his principals.
A
and
common
for this
method
reason
so
is to
the
to be able to
adopted
protectthe interests
in safe
been
custody
enriched
It is therefore a wise
samples were
put into them.
precautionto keep the sample-bags in a lock-upsack until they
before
the
MINE-SAMPLING
required.And
are
case
Fraud
rich
foot
having
intervals
obscured
by
liberal
and
mud.
In
stacked with
been
at
the
at
splashesof
prepared.
have
ore
been
different
Dumps
with
more
or
mine-examiners
on
by stretches
practised
built
into
the
wall
of a level
skilfully
been
has
ore
bag
vigorouslybefore use.
soft ore has been artificially
enriched
gold-mines,
of
each
turn
shake
of
depth of
gold.
to
it is advisable to
then
even
195
ORE-VALUATION.
AND
the
rich
same
on
ore
artificial
way
top surface.
materials
of
or
placedat
test those
days of
these
In
should
in this
stackingor
circumvented
intended to
his
in
ore
the watchful
by
supplyhis
disposal.
mine- valuation
saltingof the
either
own
assay
by systematicsampling,cases
the mine are rare, and easily
examiner.
But, besides
covert
acts
the examiner
beguile,
may be misled by the suppression
of importantdevelopments,
of workings
or by the blocking-up
results might be obtained.
where unfavourable
his
On
an
the
management.
honest
as
most
men
In
the
; and
from
must
writer's
if
they
experience,miners
sometimes
put
the
in
to
enrich
a
one
would
your
clever rogue,
man
you
laboratory.
mislead
wilfully
samples.
and
must
But
needs
take
the
close
no
you, or
hundredth
watching;
are
best
employers
than
unlawful
use
man
and
is
one
means
generally
because
as
side
or
of this
in the
IX.
CHAPTER
VALUATION
AND
EXAMINATION
THE
OF
MINES.
Contents
:
Concerns
Valuation
"
"
of Metal
Valuation
Classification of Ore
of Alluvial Ground.
Mines"
in
Developed
Mine
Mines
Valuation
"
and
of Coal
Going
Areas
"
is manifestlya
payable ore in a vein or coal in a seam
certain finite quantity; therefore the greatestcoalfield and largest
And
must
if the
eventuallysee a day of exhaustion.
ore-deposit
total quantityof ore or coal and the annual
output are known,
is a matter
of simplecalculation.
the date of exhaustion
The
with
that is,
good constitution
valuable
of
the
from
a
quantity
ore,
date of discoveryto the point of exhaustion
naturallypasses
the
successive
of
hood,
y
outh,
stages
through
infancy,
full-grownmanA
endowed
"
considerable
with
"
middle
Infancy
existence;youth, the
in the
development stage ; full grown, the payablegoing concern
meridian of life ; middle age, the going concern
past the meridian ;
and exhaustion.
all this is
But
age, the periodof decadence
that survives the earlystages of existence,
true only of the mine
be termed
full and profitable
and lives what
a
life,
leaving
may
old
honoured
an
behind.
name
of
their
later
in early
vigour even
infancy,and others that are weakly in infancy develop into a
The greatestmortality
takes placein infancyand
robust manhood.
vive
youth. Scores of promising mineral discoveries are unable to surbecome
the stage of development. They never
going concerns.
Some
But
mines
sudden
the very
vigorousmines
old
ore
or
reserves
give promise
exhaustion
young
mine.
coming
in
is not
way
to
an
There
sudden
not
affection
are
end
many
peculiarto
notable
through
expected or
the very
examples of
exhaustion
of the
provided for by
the
management.
The
mine-examiner
198
MINING
ledgehas
for the
(b)that
or
seam
located
been
prospector,and
the
legaltitle obtained
Surface Shotv.
prospectedby
the
by
GEOLOGY.
In this
"
and
trenches
width, direction of
the
case
shallow
and
Having providedhimself with the best topographical
will proceedwith
geologicalmaps obtainable,the mine-examiner
his
examination, which
will
embrace
consideration
of
the
followingpoints:
"
(1 )
The
features.
geological
with reference to the
(2) The physical features,particularly
the
of
subsequent working
property, should the results
this course
warrant
such pointsas the backs available
; note
that
"
if not, mention
and
mine-timber
(3)Sample
the
the
mines
(5) Make
at
different
points,noting the
of structure.
peculiarities
proximity,or absence,of valuable
dry,
or
width
worthless
in the district.
as
inquiries
to
officialstatistics when
(6)Gain
but,
etc.
water-power available,
outcrop
of vein and
(4) Mention
worked
be
water-free ;
if sinking is likely
to be wet
or
can
field,obtaining
possible.
of the
personalknowledgeof the local peculiarities
in the neighbouringmines, especially
ore-deposits
noting
a
should make
a
ground, the mine-examiner
he
information
point of acquiringall the generaland particular
obtain
his
future
for
reference
and
can
guidance.
The results of the sampling and observations
factory,
be satismay
but the experienced
mining engineerwill be careful not
to commit
himself to a definite opinionas to the potential
value of
the property upon surface indications alone.
The young
engineer
be afraid to report to his principals that the developnot
must
ment
work
is insufficient to enable me
to form a definite opinion
the probable value of the property."The experienced
to
as
in doing so.
engineerfinds no difficulty
once
on
the
"
Bear
lodes
in mind
are
surface;
that the
lead,zinc,and copper
outcrops of silver,
those
of
gold
they are
are
at
in many
some
cases
depth below
more
the
valuable.
EXAMINATION
THE
AND
VALUATION
OF
199
MINES.
be
guided more
by
considerations than by sampling.
geological
If the outcrop values and generalsurroundings
are
satisfactory,
will in most
the examiner
be warranted
in recommending
cases
further developmentwork being undertaken
in order to open up
must
and
mineralogical
the
ground
for
his
knowledge of
fuller examination.
the
ground,
The
will be
mine-examiner, from
able
In
it will
case
indicate
to
of such
to
his
work.
ing
manifestlybe to the interest of the intendthe
property for
twelve
periodof six,nine, or
interested
parties
specifythe term of purchase,and state
; clearly
which party is under obligation
and
to pay rents,taxes,royalty,
labour
with
the
regulations,
etc.,during the currency of
comply
the option.
The vendor may sometimes
requirean immediate cash payment
of money
the execution of the deed of option,
of an agreedsum
on
such
to be considered
sum
should the
part of the purchase-money
that a certain
covenant
property be taken over; or he may
be spent in mine-development,
either monthly or
sum
specified
the
whole
the
during
period of
option,as a guarantee that the
with vigour.
work will be prosecuted
It should be remembered, however, that the engineerfor the
the
purchaseris generally
spent
reliable
be
of
doinggood
niggardlypolicywith
its own
judgedon
far
So
with
positionof
to
warrant
levels
this
justify
hand,
be lost
hand,
by pursuing
must
case
surface
outcrops gave
taken
developmentbeing under-
keep in
shaft
or
or
ore-body,
by
shafts.
aforesaid levels
mind
permanent
of the
course
therefrom, or by
the
or
shafts it is in
of these
possibility
working of the
mine,
works
should
the
course.
surface
insufficient to warrant
other
further
advisable to
Again, the
the other
Therefore,each
the
that
not
be
to form
of
"
the
selecting
cases
should
vendors.
him
on"
and
business
the
On
should
sum
critical
opening up the ground for a more
of the surface and
According to the configuration
the
"end
cross-cuts
most
to what
to enable
assumed
view
examination.
In
as
merits.
have
we
sufficient values
driven
judge
necessary
of
the
value
of
the
opinion
property.
the chance
a
best
developmentwork
in the
outcrops may
any
the value of the
be worthless
and
the
prospects
on
expenditure
prospecting.On
property may
be
so
obvious
the
that the
200
GEOLOGY.
MINING
mine-examiner
bed-rock
this
until
the examiner
case
no
firm
should
prospecting
optionof
immediate
be undertaken
by
acquiredon
terms.
such
Undevelopedpropertiesof
hence
the
in recommending
justified
is
purchase. In
caution
extreme
recommending
value
be exercised
are
rare,
the examiner
by
purchase. Ledges of
must
immediate
an
obvious
and
before
silver-lead
ore
will seldom
have
much
in
difficulty
purchase)to spend a
It
is,however,
discussed.
nothing.
In
For
iron-mines,or
not
an
example,
oil-wells
of faults
valuable
peggedout
to
up
claim
the
by
on
or
"
area
occurringin the
Section of Valuable
the
strike of
boundary is
formation,in the
same
an
valuable
Deposit.
area
alreadyproved
mines.
proved to
valuable
potentially
Or
be
claim
payable
property. Or
peggedout
on
the
we
by workingcoal-mines,
Bedded
igneous dykes,is
have
already
in
others,
everything
;
cases
surrounded
to
juxtaposition
its
the
positionmeans
cases
some
Fig. 74.
absence
all-fours with
on
dip of
Digitized
by
EXAMINATION
THE
valuable.
Here
AND
and
potentialvalue will
their
of the
ore-body
as
VALUATION
claims
are
pegged
the mine
by
201
MINES.
and
position,
on
the value
depend upon
disclosed
OF
and
istics
characterin the outcrop
working
claim.
the value of claims B and C can onlybe determined
Manifestly
by shafts or by bore-holes. In the majorityof cases boringwill
be resorted to as being cheaper,quicker,
and affording
the means
the deposit
of testing
of points.
at a greater number
Claim D has been pegged out on position.It is next to the
being situated on
counts for nothing.
depositits position
In the
be
case
worth
steeplodes,claims peggedout
of
little commercially,
from
would
mining operations
In this example claim
value than
more
The
The
Claim
valuation
of
mine-examiner
the
the
dip-side
may
which
at
depth
on
extreme
to be conducted.
have
B may
C.
position
propertiespresents many
will
of the
examination
therefore
ore-bodies
in
need
the
*-_-A
Fio. 75.
difficulties.
make
adjoiningmines,
critical
of
the
Section of
"
to
no
SteepLode.
are
principals
(1^Situation
(2) Area
(3) Title
as
follows
"
of claim and
of claim and
"
name
i.e.leasehold
or
means
of
of
access.
owners.
freehold"
with
of rents,
particulars
labour conditions,
etc.
royalties,
features.
(4)Geological
(5) Physicalfeatures,mentioningclimate,forests,
water-power,
etc.
Digitized
by
202
MINING
GEOLOGY.
work done.
(6) Particulars of vein-outcrops,
prospecting
(7) Values obtained from sampling.
(8) Discussion of generalsurroundings.
(9)Opinionas to future prospects,and recommendations.
Three
courses
i.e.the
"
he
may
pursued,accordingto
be
property may
the
circumstances
"
(a) Rejected.
(b) Secured on working option.
(c) Purchased.
If the
engineer recommends
that an
option be secured, he
full
details
the
and
of
character
extent of the proposed
give
for the work, its effect when
work, its probablecost,time required
and
completed,
proposedmethod of supervision.
should
Developed Mines
valuation
of
and
the
upon
"
value
of
and quantity
of
developed,
ore
beingdeveloped.
profit
per ton.
ore
net
annual
certain
output
to
yield a
profitper
net
cent,
on
capitalisation.
commercial
quantityof
further
The
"
mining property in
considerations
following
(2) The
(3) The
Going Concerns.
mine.
that
ore
might
be
expectedto
be
openedup by
developmentwork
ore-bodyand
In all
must
cases
be
not
ore
lost
alreadydevelopedand
basis of mine
valuation
won.
is the net
in sight.
profit
Some
notoriously
patchy,while others are equally
as metal-producers
; hence no safe rule can be laid down
prospectivevalue of undevelopedground. The local
veins
consistent
to the
as
conditions
must
govern
remember
engineer to
more
are
liable to sudden
As in the former
each
case.
that
the
variation than
cases, the
the
those of bedded
proceedto the
and
geological
topographical
mine-examiner
best
once
to
on
pursue
the
the
ground, the
deposits.
will
if any
statistics,
examiner
course
following
of
will find
are
tageous
it advan-
procedure,
althoughit
Digitized
by
THE
be
must
EXAMINATION
AND
understood
clearly
suggestionsgiven here
be modified
to
explainthe
the
with
the
"
mine
the
of the
manager
underground
the
note
physicalfeatures.
and carefully
note
boundary-lines,
the
dip and
being worked
seam
must
mine-plan. Get
surface
respect to
(d) Note
case
The
cases.
and
special,
than
and
geological
(c)Examine
of each
the
alter
circumstances
general rather
workings.
the
(b) Examine
or
that
are
examine
(a)Carefully
VALUATION
relation
of the
course
their
vein
position
ore-body
in the mine.
of the
underground workings
to
the
at
the
surface boimdaries.
(e)Have
look at the
rock
(/) Examine
When
the
on
to
the
surface,also
dump.
ing
equipment,includmills and
all metallurgical
plant and appliances.
and
describingsteam-engines,give the number
and
make
of the surface
note
maker's
cylinders,
size of
by
coming
ore
name,
carried
pressure of steam
boiler,etc.
first
work
facts
offered to you.
side be careful to offer none.
Do
presentedor
your
spent. Make
well
generallytime
is
not
note
of any
and on
opinions,
a
note
the
(g) Examine
(h) Again
examine
them
the mine
plans.
from
intelligently
the
will be able
You
information
you
to
have
follow
gained
underground.
have
You
You
have
among
be the
next
to
determine
questionsthat will
the
condition
the
naturallycome
of
the
examination.
mine
into your
; and
mind
will
:
following
"
(1) Is
this
(2) Is
this
(5) Is
young
mine
with
prosperous
future ahead
of if?
mine doomed
to earlyexhaustion ?
young
1
this mine reached its maximum
pointof production
(3) Has
(4) Is this
The
now
this
answer
an
old mine
an
old mine
to these
approachingexhaustion 1
with the eyes pickedout ?
questionsis
to
be
found
in the
quantity
204
and
GEOLOGY.
MINING
value of
in
ore
Do
sight.
wellforgetthat in a vigorous,
will be commonly two years
not
the developmentwork
managed mine
of the mill.
ahead
(i)Go undergroundwith
(j) Sample the
week
of
scheme
your
out
may
take
This
manner.
systematic
several
or
sketch
sampling.
in
mine
and
assistant,
own
your
"
output of
and
ore
values
mining
exported,
or
verifydoubtful
(I)Before
and
Carefully
points.
leavingthe
district make
tion
examina-
completean
as
will
neighbouring mines as circumstances
permit,noting character of country, ore-bodies being
of the
said
of
returns, methods
costs
of
treatment,
of
output,
ore,
mining
and
milling.
On
own
your
allow
to
yourself
time.
be hurried
Cultivate
in your examination.
deliberate
temperament.
Base
estimates
your
your
Your
you
account
no
Take
next
must
be
on
facts,but
be
sure
and
samples,
If you are
assay office for
The
form
on
skilful
day or
perform your
(m)
in this
so
for you.
imperative
and
tracingsof mine-plans,
your
own
then
tions.
recommenda-
"
(1) Rejected.
(2) Secured on option.
(3) Purchased at once.
it will be
If, in your opinion,the property should be rejected,
unnecessary
to
furnish
elaborate
details
concerningit.
But
if
206
MINING
tained in
more
The
and
phraseore
two,
one,
on
or
sides.
It may thus be
fall
into
disuse.
to
more
defined
simpleand clearly
Ore
(i)
$
(ii)
O""
re
of limited size
treated at
in sightis ambiguous,and
therefore be allowed
A
rectangularblocks
all sides.
by workingson
be extracted
less
or
GEOLOGY.
may
of
"
ore
Blocks
"
is as
ore
can
exposed
ore
and
misleading,
classification of
Developed. Blocks
Partly Developed.
mean
exposed
that
ore
should
follows
"
or
sides.
two
and
being developed,
a
expectantshould
is
ore
no
ore
of
estimates
to make.
upon
vein
case
in
all the
cover
/Cofty
Fig. 76.
exposedin
Ore
and
The
hollows
Section
Longitudinal
One
Dimension.
number
of
There
between
the
patches,or
the
1
New
the
letters a, 6, c,
of a lode.
course
the
on
assumed
samplesselected
be
to
at
obscured
each
outcrop
Manifestlyany estimate of
be mere
guesswork.
that the payable ore is continuous
is nothing to show
the different outcrops It may or may not be so.
Again,
payable ore
been
Course of Lode.
fig.76
In
"
showed
on
overburden.
by
"
the
at
the
truncated
of considerable
ore.
different
remains
dimensions
be
outcrops may
of
mere
local
country.
Rickard, The
York, 1904.
T. A.
Sampling and
Estimation
of
Ore
in
Digitized
by
Mine,
p.
80,
EXAMINATION
THE
In the above
example
in accordance
affords
Ore
with
no
exposed
estimation
proved the
fig.77, and that
sunk
shaft
The
of
triangles
of
the
on
dimensions
of the
equal to
the width
ft.,and
the
ore
ft.,b c=35
or
ft.,and
=
6"
4 ft.
60
Assuming
of the
that the
have
shaft,we
two
mean
payable
triangles
partlydeveloped.
ore
the above
second principle,
get the mining engineer's
ore-bodyexposed in two dimensions givesa triangleof ore
From
TJiat
pay-shoot
sunk
of Lode.
and
of the
that
assume
now
continuance
Section
Longitudinal
"
sight.
will
60 feet.
thickness of pay-ore
values continued to the bottom
width
We
6 exposes two
sides or
c b e for a thickness
at
ore
of the breast of
35
Let a 6
in
ore
"
have
Fig. 77.
207
MINES.
the
Dimensions.
in Two
OF
principle,
proof of the first
are-body exposed in one dimension
an
pointsa to e,
at point b to a depth of
vein
VALUATION
have
we
which
surface excavations
from
AND
an
we
only partlydeveloped.
Ore
driven
the
on
the
"
of the
course
surface,and
Sides.
Four
exposedon
another
In
this
vein,and
rise from
example
rise
to
n.
dotted line
to
snm
shaft.
pay-shooton
b
b
lock
ore
developed
rectangular
efc. The
irregularblock b s m e v" exposed on three sides,and therefore
contains ore not fullydeveloped. The reliance to be placedupon
shows
The
now
the west
side of the
includes the
That an
get the third principle,
dimensions
in
gives a rectangular area
four
exposed
From
the
developedof
above
known
we
approximate
mean
width
and
value.
ore-body
of
ore-
208
MINING
It
is manifest
that
rectangular
body of
be, ef,
and
triangleb k
the
are
is
known
GBOLOGY.
dimensions
three
If in the
ore.
as
the
known
an
unknown
do
above
not
fullyexpose
take sides
examplewe
dimensions, then
the
triangleof
ore
kf
is
unknown.
Fig. 78.
In
Section
Longitudinal
"
developmentwell
the
of Lode.
of which
the
in advance
of the
is cut up into
blocks for stopingafford four dimensions or sides for
rectangular
examination
Only in
twice the
means
ore
and
sampling.
cases
exceptional
height.
The
of
the
lengthof
of Tonnage.
Estimation
should
"
more
block exceed
trustworthy
developed.
This
is found
in
of cubic feet of solid ore contained
The
of cubic feet of solid ore in a ton.
the
by dividing
the block by the
number
number
number
of cubic feet in
gravityof the
specific
the
ore, and varies
lbs.
2000
of
ton
feet
for
cubic
15
a
from 12 to
allowance must
In measuring up groundwhich is fully
developed
horses of rock and pillars
of ore
for faults,
be made
dykes,probable
of
ton
ore
dependson
will
Probable
be
never
be
taken
Ore Reserves.
assuming
working faces or
in
justified
below
the
exercise
"
great caution.
out.
In
deduction
many
that the
cases
the
payable
ore
mine-examiner
extends
above
may
or
he must
open ground. In this matter
His onlyguide is the generalmetalliferous
EXAMINATION
THE
character
of the
VALUATION
AND
extend
pay- shoot may
the face, or below the
The
alreadywon.
ore
level.
Valuation
of Coal
field
knowledgeof
valuation
of
Areas.
"
area.
coal-bearing
the
cut
no
in
out
examiner
'probable
ore.
mining is a
and
of
of coal is a member
seam
providehimself
of its extent
the
with
the
must
examination
in the
should
examiner
to
departmentof
as
geologyso requisite
formation,and
geological
is a geological
problem.
The
In
209
MINES.
OF
best
graphical
topo-
their physical
character,thickness,fossilcontents, the
particularly
in which
horizon
of roof and
the
coal
or
seam
seams
occur,
and
the character
floor of coal.
A visit to the
the examiner
to
obtain much
and
necessary
enable
information
the above.
respecting
The
point is
next
to
measures
determine
to
and
the underlying
the
of
relationship
overlyingformations.
the
coal-
This
is
most
of the
and more
with the members
district,
particularly
will proceedto plotthe boundaries of
the examiner
coal-measures,
of the
the
rocks
coal-bearing
also mark
he will
topographical
map, whereon
strike,dip,angle of dip or inclination
etc.
faults,
dykes,coal-outcrop,
his
the direction of
beds, thickness of
of
on
seams,
cross-section of each
with remarks
to thickness
If the
the
area
as
under
to
geologicalconsiderations.
of the
structure
geological
will be
existed.
And
more
exact
in many
selected
boringat
and depth of the coal.
In
case
field and
and
cases
this
his examination
of the
critical than
if
of the
mines
neighbouringcoalnumerous
he will be warranted
in order to determine
points,
outcrops
recommendin ing
the thickness
210
MINING
majorityof
following
points:
the
In
the
GEOLOGY.
examiner's
the
cases
"
and
(I)Situation
of
means
Area, title,
?2)
owners,
access.
rents
etc.
royalty,
or
powers,
of seams, and
of faults and
Thickness
i?i
Existence
(8)Probable
tonnage
(9) Qualityof
Give
(Thisshould
coalfield.
coal.
be shown
of
presence
on
coloured
stone-partings.
dykes.
and ironstone.
of coal ; presence of fireclay
Is it hard and strong,or soft and friable ]
coal
analysesof
state whether
household, gas,
(10) State
be
water-free,
and
probable
area.
probablecost of
mine-development.
(12) Cost of surface equipment.
(13) State probablecost of production.
Give
(II)
situation
(14) State
transportof
cost of
(15)Discuss
extent
(16)State the
In
outcrops and
to calculate the
and
dykes, the
calculated
on
same.
the
quantityof
it is
ton.
coal is deduced
the
the
approximatearea
for broken
allowance
quantity of coal
basis :
following
coal
that
can
and
coal,
pitchcoal,
bituminous
coal,
cannel coal,
anthracite,
foot of brown
"
thickness
coal,
along outcrop, faults,
extracted
be
"
that
"
of coal and
"
vein
attempt
of
may
be
"
"
Seams
to
surface
exactness.
Tons
For every
from
needless refinement
due
and
coal, access
etc.
market, probablecompetition,
of
few boreholes
Having determined
made
for
probablenet profitper
in which
area
an
of market
beds of shale
is,by cuttinga
planeof the
narrow
per Acre.
1000
1100
1200
1300
.
1500
.
sampled in
the
same
way as a
roof
floor
from
at right
to
groove
Surface outcrops should be dressed
are
dip.
pick before the sample is broken, as outcrop coal is
the cracks are filled with fine
often waterlogged; and sometimes
sediment or sand carried over the exposure by runningwater or rain.
anglesto the
down
with
EXAMINATION
THB
VALUATION
AND
Valuation
Alluvial
op
OF
211
MINKS.
Ground.
The
of alluvial
or
consideration.
Work
The
"
plotit on
areas
under
"
50
acres.
Divide
The
the
shape
ground on
of
the
blocks
the
plan into
will
depend
drainage,and
blocks of 1 to 5
the
on
the
or
surface
acres.
contours,
probabledirection of the
gold-leads.
In
or
are
some
both
the
cases
sides of
in many
Make
blocks
cases
in the centre
mark
stripsituated
in consecutive
of each
block,and
Proceed
order.
to
the
on
then number
the
stake
one
which
valley,
or
the
sites of the
The
very deepground.
Where
the ground is
holes
dry and
not
deep it is customary
to
in
sink
or
excavated
from
washed
capacity,
results recorded.
record of each
The
hole embraces
information
on
the
following
points:
"
of bottom
Character
of
"
that is,whether
slate
or
if beds
gravels(noteparticularly
falsebottom.
of
clay,large
exist in ground).
or drift timber
boulders,
excavated
material
of
in cubic yards,
plus20 per
(4) Quantity
both small and great,must be included
the boulders,
cent, (all
in the
measurement).
(5) Quantityof goldobtained.
(6)Quantityof goldper cubic yard.
In
ground where
the
sinkingof
holes would
considerable extent
by water, itisusual
selected points. The
bore-holes at the
and
the material
wooden
extracted
trough,washed, and
the
to
put
holes
sand
be
down
are
impededto
5-inch
or
lined with
any
6-inch
tubing,
collected in
by
pump,
the goldcontents weighed.
Digitized
by
212
MINING
Record
from
the
depth of
the
excess
calculated
because
from
the
GEOLOGY.
of the
contents
The
per cent.
that the goldvalues
pipe,plus 20
experiencehas
shown
of
displacement
the
pipe
alone
are
always
due to
the actual returns.
This is,no doubt, largely
the circumstance
that a higher extraction or savingof the goldis
higherthan
effected in the
samples from
has
streams
the
faces or
from
open
often led to erroneous
for
impossible
Pannings
the
Furthermore,
the
to
be
a
wages
dividends
In these
places
concentrated,thus renderingit
an
are
inferred
small
approximateestimate
usually very
that
of
misleading.
placerclaim which
will
working mates
working on a largescale.
are
always on the track of
party
to a company
small scale the miners
floor of small
or
of
toe
obtained
not
If the lead is
sides
test
courses
gravel faces and from waterbut inferences
gravelsare interesting,
the
gold
it must
good
necessarily
pay
Working on
a
from
the
practice.
the
of selecting
conclusions.
form
to
gravels.
returns
on
examiner
taken
from
gold.
the
less
or
value of the
through
cut
drawn
the
"
gold is generallymore
the average
in actual
Methods
Wrong
than
samplingtests
of
at
once
; but
ing
work-
of quantity
is an important
shifting
invested,
adequatereturns for the capital
alike
moved, thereby reducing the
are
gravels
where
largescale,
the
and
poor
generalaverage.
the Average Value.
Calculating
found
is
the
by multiplying
yard
"
cubic
and
in
yard found
dividingthe
feet,as
in each
sum
hole
of these
follows :
"
Digitized
by
hole in
of the
feet,
depth
INDEX.
Ages
of
Alluvial
time, 4.
geological
tion
deposits,
samplingand valua-
Blue
ground, 154.
22.
Bog-irondeposits,
72.
71,
Bonanzas,
Borate of soda, deposits
of,25.
Borax, deposits
of,25, 37, 147.
of,211-213.
Alum, 142, 143.
Aluminium, 144.Alum shales,142,
Alunite,142, 143.
143.
Boric
acid,123, 147.
Bornite,occurrence
of,42, 58.
Anamorphism, 68.
5
minerals
found in, 6.
Bosses, ;
Anatase, 91.
in
Brasses
coal,30.
Andesites,minerals found in, 6, 7 ;
Brine springs
70.
7 ; propylitisation
as indicators of salt,
of,112,
affinities,
Bromide of silver,
occurrence
of,44.
113, 116.
of, 29 ; lignite Bunches, 71.
Anthracite, age
changed to, by basalt,30.
Cainozoic
period,4.
Antimonite, 144.
Antimony, 144.
Apatite,177.
occurrence
Argentite,
lodes,54.
Arsenic,144,
22.
of,42,
180 ; in
Calamine, 185.
Calcite,vertical distribution of, 76
quartz pseudomorphsof, 91.
145.
in
Arsenopyrite,
Cambrian
veins,61, 144,
with, 84.
ore
of
contact
occurrence
meta-
Carboniferous age, 4.
Cas8iterite. See Tinstone.
Cat's eye, associated with
of, 33,
Cellulose,absorptionof
Blende, in
at
Cement
ore, 166.
Broken
45 ;
in
veins, 61
Hill,
39,
deposits,
44 ; at
gash veins, 52
by,
Asphaltum.
contact
copper
80.
Bismuth, 147.
See
sapphires,
22.
Black-band
age, 4.
Barytes,146, 147.
of,7.
Basalt,affinity
Bitumen.
127 ;
Duckton,
in
;
; vertical distribution
with gold,16,
placers
17.
Chalybeatespringsas
indicators of
iron, 70.
ore
of,
a
Chiastolite,
product
metamorphism, 127.
Chimney-shoots,71.
214
Digitized
by
of
contact
215
INDEX.
Chloride of silver,
occurrence
of,58.
minerals associated with,84.
Chlorite,
Chromite,minerals associated with,
84 ; in
peridotite,
108, 130 ; in
108, 148 ; uses of,149.
serpentine,
Chromium, 148, 149.
145.
Chrysolite,
*
See Sediments.
Clay,absorptive
power of,for
79, 80 ; formation
of, 79 ;
absorbed
by, 80.
occurrence,
produced in,
varieties
metal,
leum
petro-
by
mode
of
; effects
dykes, 30 ;
of, 29
tion
; stages in forma33 ; world's production
of, 32
of, 32,
of,149.
Coal areas, valuation
Coal seams,
of,209, 210.
positionof,29 ; faulting
of,29, 30.
Cobalt,149,
Denudation, 2, 3.
Devonian
age, 4.
Diabase,affinitiesof,7.
Diamond
21,
placers,
22
Kimberley,38
; at
Earth,
Embolite, occurrence
Colemannite,147.
Enargite,
80.
Comb
structure,67.
3.
Conglomerates,
6 ;
in
the
metals,
in,
evolution of the, 2.
Cobaltine,149.
absorb
sapphires,
Kimberley
156.
Eclogite,
of,to
diamond
150.
Cobalt ores, minerals associated with,
84 ; occurrence
of,150.
Colloids,
power
157.
of,43,
of,62.
180.
Eocene
age, 4.
Equisetums in
Carboniferous
age,
28.
Erubescite,
of,
occurrence
38 ;
in
Contact
contact
39.
deposits,
deposits,
38-46, 124-127.
Contact metamorphism, 124-127.
Excelsior diamond, 158.
of, 34, 35, 38 ;
Copper, occurrence
40 ;
ores
of, in contact deposits,
Fahlbands, 9, 46, 47,82, 127.
ores
of,in veins,70 ; absorption
of,42.
of, Fahlore,occurrence
in
coal
80
in
cellulose,
by
29, 30 ; extent
serpentine, Faults,
seams,
;
30
and
sources
109,
130;
etc.,
of, ; alongveins,72 ; definition,
duction
proof, 150-152.
93, 94 ; dynamics of, 93, 104.
in
contact
Copper-glance
deposits, Felspar,
change of,to kaolin,58 ; to
39
; in
lodes,58.
Copper
stockworks,38 ; in
lodes, 53, 57, 58 ; in serpentine
and
other rocks,72, 73 ; pseudomorphous after wood, 83.
ore
in
occurrence
Copperpyrites,
of,38, 45 ;
in contact deposits,
127.
39,
occurrence
of,36.
Coprolites,
influence
Country,
of, on ore veins,
topaz,184.
Ferns,geological
developmentof,28.
158.
Fireclay,
83.
Flinties,
Floater,67.
Flucan, 72.
Fluorite
159.
(fluor-spar),
Folds
in coal,31, 32.
Forests of Carboniferous
age, 28.
135.
Courses,71.
Galena,
in contact
39, 127
deposits,
Cretaceous
at
Crush
143, 152.
Cryolite,
52 ; in
distribution
veins,61 ; vertical
Cullinan
age, 4.
zone, 42.
diamond, 158.
of,38.
Cuprite,occurrence
Broken
45 ;
in
Hill, 44
; at
Duckton,
gash veins,
pseudomorphsof,after wood,
ore
of,
116.
216
INDEX.
Garnets,associated
minerals
productof
metamorphism,
contact
127.
173.
Garnierite,
bonanzas, 72 ; in clay, 79 ;
indicator beds for,82, 83 ; minerals
Kaolin, 158.
associated with, 84 ; in andesites, Katamorphism,68.
114,
in
115 ;
water, "135
sea
and yieldof,
sources, production,
159-161
; sampling and valuation
of alluvial
deposits containing,
in
Gold
of,
secondaryenrichment
tion
77 ; diminuweathering,
of,with depth,81, 82.
10-19, 159, 160.
placers,
ores,
zone
of
Gossan, 69.
Granite,tin
of,7.
30 ; sources
in, 6
; classification
and
uses
formation
of,
of,165.
of
and
in, 6.
of,
occurrence
ores,
lodes, 53 ; in
36 ;
limestone,
yieldof,168.
in
73 ;
Leader,75.
ores,
in contact
deposits.
40.
in
Lepidodendrons
Carboniferous age,
Lignite,age of, 29
; sources
of,165, 166.
fault,93, 94.
Hornblende, a product
metamorphism, 127.
Hornsilver.
Lead
28.
Great
Hade
age, 4.
5 ; minerals found
Lead-zinc
;
Gravels,3.
uses
Laurentian
Lava,
sources
ore
Graphite,age of, 29
and
Lateral
211-213.
Gold
154.
Kerargyrite,
Koh-i-nor diamond, 158.
See
of
contact
Kerargyrite.
; mode
of
rence
occur-
of,32, 33.
Limestone,3.
Limonite, depositsof, formed
by
descending waters, 23, 24, 166,
167.
Lycopodiums
in
Carboniferous
age,
28.
change of,91.
9, 47-48.
Impregnations,
Indicator beds,82, 83, 160.
occurrence
of,43, 44.
Iodyrite,
and production
of,166Iron, sources
168.
of
Magmatic segregation
ores, 106-
110, 129-133.
Magnesite,169.
Magnetite, in
associated with
sands, 12;
gold,18 ; with tin
beach
ore, 20 ; in contact
minerals
39 ;
deposits,
217
INDEX.
166, 167.
Manganese,depositsof, 23-25
and production
of,169.
; ores
Ore
veins,characters of,59-92.
Marbles,3.
of,
83.
184.
Organisms,gradualsuccession of,in
Megabasite,
See
Quicksilver.
time, 3, 4 ; as indicators of geoMercury.
logical
4.
Mining geology,scope of,1.
periods,
Mesozoic period,
4.
Orthoclase,
pseudomorphs of tin ore
after,90 ; quartzpseudomorphsof,
Metamorphism of sediments,3 ; of
91.
igneous rocks, 6 ; of sedimentary
Osmosis as an agent in ore formation,
rocks,89.
Metasomatic
classification
processes,
of,92.
Metasomatic
replacementof minerals,
89-92.
Mica,
of
product
and
duction
pro-
186-196.
Mine-sampling,
Mineral
deposits,classification of,
8-58
105-128
modes
;
of
of,
geneticclassificationof,
occurrence
106.
Mineral oil. See Petroleum.
and valuation
Mines, examination
of, 196-213
; successive stages in
tion
et seq. ; valua-
developmentof,196
of
metal, 197-209
morphism, Oxide
meta-
contact
127; sources
of,170-172.
90, 107.
94.
Overlapfaults,
Oxidation of minerals,68, 69, 70,
of coal
areas, 209-210.
Miocene
age, 4.
Paleozoic
4.
period,
84.
Paragenesis,
Patches,71.
Pay dirt,10.
Pay shoot,71, 72.
Pay streak,10.
of,12.
Pay wash, 10 ; position
Peat, 32.
Peridot,associated
with
sapphires.
22.
Periods of
145.
Mispickel,
Molybdenite,
113, 172, 173.
Molybdenum, ores, sources
Permian
time, 4.
geological
age, 4.
Molybdite,172.
Petrography,
importanceof,7.
Petroleum,absorption
of,by clay,80 ;
and yieldof,175, 177.
sources
and
Phosphates,sources
yield of,
177-179.
Pipes,71.
and
duction
pro-
of,172, 173.
Placer
Nests, 71.
Nickel in fahlbands,46 ; use of,175.
Nickel-iron in serpentine,
etc.,109,
Nickel ores, minerals associated with,
and yieldof,173-175.
84 ; sources
Nips,30, 31.
Normal
faults,
94, 97.
Nuggets of goldin
19.
shale,175.
minerals
Olivine,
occurrence
associated with, 84 ;
in magmas,
107,
of,
108.
Ore against
ore, 74.
10 ;
of,10-22.
characteristicof different
Plants,types
28.
geological
periods,
Platinum
130.
Oil
deposits,definition of,
various kinds
associated
with
gold, 18 ;
eruptive
and yieldof,
of,109, 110 ; in
occurrence
rocks, 130
; sources
179-180.
Platinum placers,
21.
Pleistocene age, 4.
Pliocene
age, 4.
Plutonic
rocks,forms of,4, 5
tion
; altera-
fication
of, 5 ; contents of, 5 ; classiof,6 ; mineral contents of,
106-110; fusion of, 110, 111;
mineral changes during Cooling
of,
124-127.
218
INDEX.
Pockets,71.
Pot-blows,
SO, 31.
4.
Primaryperiod,
formation
earth's
of, 3;
tinuous
formed of, 3 ; alteration
chiefly
of,3.
minerals associated with,
Serpentine,
crust
of minerals,89, 91.
Pseudomorphism
Psilomelane,
of,23, 24, 169.
deposits
Pyrite. See Iron pyrites.
Pyrolusite,
of,23, 24, 169.
deposits
Pyroxene,minerals associated with,
84.
occurrence
Pyrrhotite,
84.
Shaken
coal,30, 31.
Shales,3.
166.
Siderite,
Silica,depositions
of,77, 111-117
and
absorptive
powers of gelatinous
pulverised,
80; pseudomorph of,
after wood, 116.
Silurian age, 4.
Silver,occurrence
fahlbands,46
; in
of, in veins,
70 ; in limestone,
73 ; in clay,79 ;
gangue of minerals,59,
and yieldof, 180, 181.
vertical distribution of,
sources
Silver-lead ores, in contact deposits,
75 ; absorptionof oxide of iron
40 ; sources
and yieldof,181.
80 ; minerals associated
by pulverulent,
Quartz,
as
66, 67
depositsof
29.
Slips,
with,84
pseudomorphous
orthoclase,91 ;
113, 114,
cbalcedonic,
Smaltite,149.
115.
Solfataric
3.
Quartzite,
sources
Quicksilver,
Realgar,
76.
Recent
and
yieldof,180.
166, 167.
age, 4.
Redruthite,occurrence
of,42.
Regent diamond, 158.
94.
Reversed faults,
affinitiesof,7.
Rhyolite,
Rider,67.
Rocks, temperatureof,85, 88.
Rubies, associated with gold, 18
179.
Sperrylite,
associated with gold,18.
Spinel,
Step-faults,
29, 30, 100.
vertical distribution of,76.
Stibnite,
with
22.
sapphires,
21, 22.
Ruby placers,
RutUe, pseudomorphousforms of,91.
Saddle-backs,
Saddle
30.
161.
Salt,deposits
of,25.
See Copper
Sulphide of copper.
pyrites.
Sulphideof lead. See Galena.
Sulphideof silver. See Argentite.
Sulphideof zinc. See Blende.
of gold,19,
Sulphides,
precipitants
eruptive
rocks,130.
Sands, 3.
Sandstones,3.
22.
Sapphireplacers,
a productof
Scapolite,
morphism, 127.
Strike-faults,
95, 97.
Sulphur,deposits
of,25, 26, 37, 111,
117, 118, 119, 120, 123, 124;
contact meta-
of, 70
; sources
as
and
dicator
in-
an
yield
of,182.
Sulphurdioxide,
111, 123.
formation
Sulphuricacid,
of,78.
31.
30,
Swellies,
184.
Scheelite,
Schists,3.
of,2.
Seas,origination
4.
Secondaryperiod,
first
originof, 2;
Sediments,
sulphuretted
hydrogen
con-
Syenite,affinitiesof,7.
219
INDEX.
Talc,
182.
Telluride
of
gold,
of,
occurrence
56.
of
of, 61-63
filling
68,
Tellurium,minerals
associated
with,
Temperatureof rocks,85-88.
period,4.
Tertiary
Thickness
of
enrichment
ary
of,72 ; secondpoverishme
of, 77-80 ; im-
of, with
beds,27.
; age
outcrops of,
71 ; wall movements
84.
depth, 80-
of lost, 101-104
recovery
theories of formation
of,129-139
Throws,
Thrust
82
29.
plane,98.
;
;
Veins,fissure,
9, 52-58, 112.
20 ; in
57.
Tin placers,
20, 21.
Tinstone, 20, 38
; occurrence
contact
48 ; in lodes,53 ; in granite,72,
130 ; minerals associated with, 84 ;
Want, 30.
pseudomorphous,after orthoclase, Water, action of, 2, 3, 136-140;
when
90; in eruptiverocks, 130, 131,
descending,
22-24, 137, 139,
and yieldof,183, 184.
132 ; sources
140 ; at high temperatures, 110Titaniferous
iron in sands, 21 ; in
123 ; when
ascending,122, 123,
rocks,130.
eruptive
137, 138, 139, 140.
Topaz,associated with gold,18 ; with
Weathering,belt of,68.
sapphires,22 ; change of felspar Wolfram, minerals associated with,
to, 184.
Trachyte,affinitiesof,7.
of
contact
product
metamorphism,127.
of gold,19 ; of
Wood, a precipitant
Triassic age, 4.
horn
Troubles,29.
pseudomorphs
Trough-faults,
100, 101.
Tungstateof lime,185.
Tungsten,184, 185.
116 ; and
83
silver,
; of copper
of
ores, 83 ;
galena after,
of silica after,
116.
Wulfenite,172.
Zinc, sources
Zinc
Upthrow,
of,173.
; occurrence
Wollastonite,a
ore
in
and yieldof,185.
limestone,73.
96.
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BY
NEILL
AND