ICP Textbook PDF

Introduction to
Computer Programming
(DCE2364)
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Rev 1, Feb 2006
Outcome 1
Outcome 1
Computer Systems,
Computer Systems,
Programming Languages and
Problem Solving Using Programming
Problem Solving Using Programming
Content
Content
Introduction and Objectives
1-1
1-1
Computer and Their Uses
1-3
1-3
Operating System
1-7
Operating System
1-7
Computer Hardware
1-11
Computer Hardware
1-11
Outcome 2
Outcome 2
History of Compiler,
History of Compiler,
Interpreter and 4GL
Interpreter and 4GL
Content
Content
2-1
2-1
Compiler & Interpreter
2-2
2-2
Computer Programs and Programming Languages
2-4
Computer Programs and Programming Languages
2-4
Basic Keywords of Programming
2-8
Basic Keywords of Programming
2-8
Outcome 3
Outcome 3
Programming Tools and Concepts
Programming Tools and Concepts
Content
Content
3-1
3-1
Development of Algorithms
3-2
3-2
Pseudocode
3-5
Pseudocode
3-5
Flow Charting
3-17
Flow Charting
3-17
Summary
3-24
Summary
3-24
Outcome 4
Outcome 4
Variables, Operators and
Fundamental of Input and Output
Fundamental of Input and Output
Content
Content
4-1
4-1
Programming Concepts
4-2
4-2
The Structure of C Program
4-8
4-8
Statements
4-14
Statements
4-14
A First Look at Function
4-15
4-15
Introduction to MS Visual C/C++ 6.0
4-17
4-17
Operators
4-23
Operators
4-23
Summary
4-27
Summary
4-27
Outcome 5
Outcome 5
Basic Program Control Structures
Basic Program Control Structures
Content
Content
Controlling Programs Execution
5-1
Controlling Programs Execution
5-1
Outcome 6
Outcome 6
Selection Control Structures
Content
Content
6-1
6-1
6-2
6-2
Summary
6-14
Summary
6-14
Outcome 7
Outcome 7
Array, Pointer and Character String
Array, Pointer and Character String
Content
Content
7-1
7-1
Definition
7-2
Definition
7-2
1-Dimensional Array
7-3
1-Dimensional Array
7-3
2-Dimensional Array
7-7
2-Dimensional Array
7-7
Examples
7-12
Examples
7-12
Pointers
7-14
Pointers
7-14
Character Strings
7-19
Character Strings
7-19
Summary
7-23
Summary
7-23
Outcome 8
Outcome 8
Structure and Function
Content
Content
8-1
8-1
Introduction to Structure
8-2
8-2
Function
8-9
Function
8-9
Summary
8-17
Summary
8-17
Appendix
Content
Appendix
Content
C Keywords / Reserved words
C Keywords / Reserved words
Appendix Outcome 4
Appendix Outcome 4
Appendix Outcome 5
14
Appendix Outcome 5
14
Appendix Outcome 6
22
Appendix Outcome 6
22
Appendix Outcome 7
35
Appendix Outcome 7
35
Appendix Outcome 8
67
Appendix Outcome 8
67
Outcome 1
Outcome 1
Computer Systems,
Computer Systems,
Problem Solving Using
Problem Solving Using
Programming
Programming
Chapter
In this chapter, you will learn about
Chapter
In this chapter, you will learn about
Objectives
What computer is
Objectives
What computer is
Types of computers
Types of computers
o Special Purpose computers
o Special Purpose computers
o General-purpose computers
o General-purpose computers
o Microcomputers
o Microcomputers
o Minicomputers, mainframes and
o Minicomputers, mainframes and
supercomputers
Computing modes
supercomputers
Computing modes
o Standalone computing
o Standalone computing
o Multiprogramming and timesharing
o Multiprogramming and timesharing
o Distributed and client/server computing
o Distributed and client/server computing
Computer hardware & software
Computer hardware & software
Fundamental capabilities of computer hardware
Fundamental capabilities of computer hardware
Outcome 1: Computer Systems, Programming Languages and Problem Solving Using

Programming
1-1

Programming
1-1

Introduction
Today, computers are used for solving problems in most all

Introduction
Today, computers are used for solving problems in most all
fields and professions. No matter what your major, you should
fields and professions. No matter what your major, you should
develop the ability to solve problems, and its very likely that
develop the ability to solve problems, and its very likely that
you will need to use computers problem solving. In our
you will need to use computers problem solving. In our
studies, we will learn how to identify problems that can be
studies, we will learn how to identify problems that can be
solved using computers, how to specify such problems,
solved using computers, how to specify such problems,
analyze them, design a method of solutions for them,
analyze them, design a method of solutions for them,
implement the method of solution using a computer
implement the method of solution using a computer
programming language, and get solutions using a computer.
programming language, and get solutions using a computer.
To develop this problem-solving ability, we must have three
To develop this problem-solving ability, we must have three
tools:
tools:
1. A knowledge of computer fundamentals
1. A knowledge of computer fundamentals
2. An understanding of problem-solving strategies and
2. An understanding of problem-solving strategies and
techniques
3. A programming language
techniques
3. A programming language
The programming language we will study is C. C is a general-
The programming language we will study is C. C is a general-
purpose, state-of-the art language that is powerful and
purpose, state-of-the art language that is powerful and
versatile. But before we can begin learning C, we should
versatile. But before we can begin learning C, we should
become knowledgeable about computers, programming, and
become knowledgeable about computers, programming, and
programming languages. Thats what this chapter is all about.
programming languages. Thats what this chapter is all about.

Programming
1-2

Programming
1-2
What is a
A computer is an electronic device that can input and store a
What is a
A computer is an electronic device that can input and store a
computer?
set of instructions designed to perform a specific task, input
computer?
set of instructions designed to perform a specific task, input
and store data, process the stored data according to the
and store data, process the stored data according to the
instructions, and produce output to be relayed to its user.
instructions, and produce output to be relayed to its user.
Some computers are designed to process a permanent set of
Some computers are designed to process a permanent set of
instructions, and therefore perform one specific task; others
instructions, and therefore perform one specific task; others
are more flexible and can execute various instructions.
are more flexible and can execute various instructions.
Accordingly, computers are classified as either special-
Accordingly, computers are classified as either special-
purpose or general-purpose computers.
purpose or general-purpose computers.
Special-Purpose
A special-purpose computer is a computer designed for a
Special-Purpose
A special-purpose computer is a computer designed for a
Computers
particular function, executing the same stored set of
Computers
particular function, executing the same stored set of
instructions whenever requested.
instructions whenever requested.
General-purpose
Computers that can be used for solving many different types
General-purpose
Computers that can be used for solving many different types
computers
of problems are called general-purpose computers. All
computers
of problems are called general-purpose computers. All
computers can store instructions in their memory, can input
computers can store instructions in their memory, can input
and store data, can process data and can produce data.
and store data, can process data and can produce data.
A set of instructions that perform a specific task is called a
A set of instructions that perform a specific task is called a
program. Computer programs are written by computer
program. Computer programs are written by computer
programmers using special languages called programming
programmers using special languages called programming
languages. A programmer takes a problem, analyze it and
languages. A programmer takes a problem, analyze it and
design a program that, it correct, will produce the desired
design a program that, it correct, will produce the desired
solutions to the problem. The program must be written in a
solutions to the problem. The program must be written in a
computer language so that the computer can understand the
computer language so that the computer can understand the
instructions that make up the program.
instructions that make up the program.

Programming
1-3

Programming
1-3
Microcomputers
General-purpose computers are available in many sizes and
General-purpose computers are available in many sizes and
have a wide range of capabilities. They can be classified as
have a wide range of capabilities. They can be classified as
follows:
follows:
Microcomputers
Microcomputers
o Laptop computers
o Laptop computers
o Desktop computers
o Desktop computers
o Workstation
o Workstation
Minicomputers
Minicomputers
Mainframe Computers
Mainframe Computers
Supercomputers
Supercomputers
Microcomputers are widely used for many applications
Microcomputers
Microcomputers are widely used for many applications
ranging from computer games, to word processing, to solving
ranging from computer games, to word processing, to solving
quite complex problems. Because one person commonly uses
quite complex problems. Because one person commonly uses
them at a time, microcomputers are also called personal
them at a time, microcomputers are also called personal
computers.
computers.
The smallest microcomputers are known as laptop or
The smallest microcomputers are known as laptop or
notebook computers. These computers can run on battery
notebook computers. These computers can run on battery
power. Desktop computers are compact microcomputer
power. Desktop computers are compact microcomputer
systems that fit on a desk and designed for use by individuals.
systems that fit on a desk and designed for use by individuals.
And a workstation is the largest type of microcomputer and
And a workstation is the largest type of microcomputer and
is generally used in scientific and engineering applications.
is generally used in scientific and engineering applications.

Programming
1-4

Programming
1-4

Minicomputers,
Mainframes
and
Supercomputers
Computing modes
These are computers that are more powerful and substantially
Minicomputers,
more expensive than microcomputers. They can store more
Mainframes
data
Supercomputers
and
operate
at
significantly
faster
speeds.
These are computers that are more powerful and substantially

and
more expensive than microcomputers. They can store more

data
and
operate
at
significantly
faster
speeds.
Minicomputers are smaller and cheaper compared to
Minicomputers are smaller and cheaper compared to
mainframes.
mainframes.
Mainframes
computers
are
large-scale
Mainframes
computers
are
large-scale
computers that are used to process large volumes of data.
computers that are used to process large volumes of data.
Supercomputers are very powerful computers that can
Supercomputers are very powerful computers that can
process enormous amounts of data at very high speed. They
process enormous amounts of data at very high speed. They
are used in many areas of scientific research, weather
are used in many areas of scientific research, weather
prediction, aircraft design, nuclear weapons research, and so
prediction, aircraft design, nuclear weapons research, and so
on.
on.
Depending on their capabilities and the number of users they
Computing modes
Depending on their capabilities and the number of users they
can support concurrently, computers are used in several
can support concurrently, computers are used in several
computing modes. These include:
computing modes. These include:
1.
Standalone computing
1.
Standalone computing
2.
Multiprogramming and timesharing
2.
Multiprogramming and timesharing
3.
Distributed computing
3.
Distributed computing
4.
Client/server computing
4.
Client/server computing
Standalone
When used by one person at a time, a microcomputer is said
Standalone
When used by one person at a time, a microcomputer is said
Computing
to be in a standalone-computing mode. In this mode, all
Computing
to be in a standalone-computing mode. In this mode, all
computing resources, including the machine, programs, and
computing resources, including the machine, programs, and
data are at the disposal of only one user.
data are at the disposal of only one user.

Programming
1-5

Programming
1-5
Multiprogramming
Minicomputers, mainframes and supercomputers are designed
Multiprogramming
Minicomputers, mainframes and supercomputers are designed
and Time Sharing
to be share by many different users in educational and
and Time Sharing
to be share by many different users in educational and
scientific institutions, businesses and government agencies.
scientific institutions, businesses and government agencies.
One minicomputer, mainframe, or supercomputer can be used
One minicomputer, mainframe, or supercomputer can be used
to simultaneously execute many programs.
to simultaneously execute many programs.
This mode of operation for a computer system is called
This mode of operation for a computer system is called
multiprogramming. A special form of multiprogramming is
multiprogramming. A special form of multiprogramming is
timesharing, in which a single computer system is accessed
timesharing, in which a single computer system is accessed
by many users through terminals.
by many users through terminals.
Distributed
In many computing labs in colleges, industry and business,
Distributed
In many computing labs in colleges, industry and business,
Computing
several microcomputers are linked together in computer
Computing
several microcomputers are linked together in computer
networks. This mode of computing is referred to as distributed
networks. This mode of computing is referred to as distributed
computing, in which each user of the system may have access
computing, in which each user of the system may have access
to programs and/or data stored anywhere in the network. In
to programs and/or data stored anywhere in the network. In
general, a distributed computer system can consist of one or
general, a distributed computer system can consist of one or
more computers or any type. It may include many
more computers or any type. It may include many
microcomputers linked to one or more minicomputers,
microcomputers linked to one or more minicomputers,
mainframes or supercomputers. It may also include input-
mainframes or supercomputers. It may also include input-
output devices such as printers, plotters and so on, which are
output devices such as printers, plotters and so on, which are
linked to computers located elsewhere.
linked to computers located elsewhere.
Client/Server
In some distributed computer systems, or one or more
Client/Server
In some distributed computer systems, or one or more
Computing
computers, called file servers, store programs and data, and
Computing
computers, called file servers, store programs and data, and
other computers, connected to then by a network, called
other computers, connected to then by a network, called
clients, can make use of these programs and data. This type of
clients, can make use of these programs and data. This type of
distributed computing is known as client/server computing.
distributed computing is known as client/server computing.

Programming
1-6

Programming
1-6
Operating System
Operating System
The Operating
The operating system is the main collection of programs that
The Operating
The operating system is the main collection of programs that
System
manages a computer systems operations.
System
manages a computer systems operations.
NOS
Primary function to manage and control computers
Primary function to manage and control computers
resources. E.g. the allocation of hardware, programs and data
resources. E.g. the allocation of hardware, programs and data
resources to users.
resources to users.
Example of Operating System
Example of Operating System
MS-DOS
MS-DOS
Windows 95/98/2000/ME
Windows 95/98/2000/ME
Windows NT
Windows NT
Unix
Unix
Linux
Linux
The 3 common components found on operating systems are:
The 3 common components found on operating systems are:
Command Language Translator transforms the needs of
Command Language Translator transforms the needs of
users into actions that the operating system takes. Operating
users into actions that the operating system takes. Operating
system has its own language called the command language
system has its own language called the command language
which users and programmers issue command.
which users and programmers issue command.
Input/output control system (IOCS) interacts with input
Input/output control system (IOCS) interacts with input
and output hardware devices.
and output hardware devices.
Librarian software elements that catalogs and manages
Librarian software elements that catalogs and manages
data, programs, file space and users.
data, programs, file space and users.
A NOS is a network operating system. Network
NOS
A NOS is a network operating system. Network
operating systems implement protocol stacks as well
operating systems implement protocol stacks as well
as device drivers for networking hardware.
as device drivers for networking hardware.

Programming
1-7

Programming
1-7
Operating System
Operating System
Some operating systems, like Windows 98 Second Edition,
Some operating systems, like Windows 98 Second Edition,
also add custom networking features like Internet Connection
also add custom networking features like Internet Connection
Sharing (ICS).
Sharing (ICS).
Network operating systems have existed for more than thirty
Network operating systems have existed for more than thirty
years. UNIX was designed from the beginning to support
years. UNIX was designed from the beginning to support
networking. In its early forms, Windows did not support
networking. In its early forms, Windows did not support
networking, so Novell NetWare became the first popular NOS
networking, so Novell NetWare became the first popular NOS
for the personal computer (Windows 95 and Windows for
for the personal computer (Windows 95 and Windows for
Workgroups were Microsoft's first NOS products). Today,
Workgroups were Microsoft's first NOS products). Today,
nearly any consumer operating system qualifies as NOS due
nearly any consumer operating system qualifies as NOS due
to the popularity of the Internet and the obvious need to
to the popularity of the Internet and the obvious need to
support Internet Protocol (IP) at a minimum.
support Internet Protocol (IP) at a minimum.
Unlike operating systems, such as DOS and Windows95,
Unlike operating systems, such as DOS and Windows95,
which are designed for single users to control one computer,
which are designed for single users to control one computer,
network operating systems (NOS) coordinate the activities of
network operating systems (NOS) coordinate the activities of
multiple computers across a network. The network operating
multiple computers across a network. The network operating
system acts as a director to keep the network running
system acts as a director to keep the network running
smoothly.
smoothly.
The two major types of network operating systems are:
The two major types of network operating systems are:
Peer-to-Peer
Peer-to-Peer
Client/Server
Client/Server
Windows for Workgroups are examples of programs that can
Windows for Workgroups are examples of programs that can
function as peer-to-peer network operating systems.
function as peer-to-peer network operating systems.

Programming
1-8

Programming
1-8
Operating System
Peer to Peer
Client Server
Peer-to-peer network operating systems allow users to share
Operating System
Peer to Peer
Peer-to-peer network operating systems allow users to share
resources and files located on their computers and to access
resources and files located on their computers and to access
shared resources found on other computers.
shared resources found on other computers.
In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are considered equal;
In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are considered equal;
they all have the same abilities to use the resources available
they all have the same abilities to use the resources available
on the network. Peer-to-peer networks are designed primarily
on the network. Peer-to-peer networks are designed primarily
for small to medium local area networks. AppleShare and
for small to medium local area networks. AppleShare and
Client/server network operating systems allow the network to
Client Server
Client/server network operating systems allow the network to
centralize functions and applications in one or more dedicated
centralize functions and applications in one or more dedicated
file servers. The file servers become the heart of the system,
file servers. The file servers become the heart of the system,
providing access to resources and providing security.
providing access to resources and providing security.
Individual workstations (clients) have access to the resources
Individual workstations (clients) have access to the resources
available on the file servers. The network operating system
available on the file servers. The network operating system
provides the mechanism to integrate all the components of the
provides the mechanism to integrate all the components of the
network and allow multiple users to simultaneously share the
network and allow multiple users to simultaneously share the
same resources irrespective of physical location. Novell
same resources irrespective of physical location. Novell
Netware and Windows NT Server are examples of
Netware and Windows NT Server are examples of
client/server network operating systems.
client/server network operating systems.

Programming
1-9

Programming
1-9
Operating System
Operating System
Examples of
The following list includes some of the more popular peer-to-
Examples of
The following list includes some of the more popular peer-to-
network operating
peer and client/server network operating systems.
network operating
peer and client/server network operating systems.
systems
o Microsoft Windows 95 / 98
systems
o Microsoft Windows 95 / 98
o Microsoft Windows NT Server
o Microsoft Windows NT Server
o Microsoft Windows NT Work Station
o Microsoft Windows NT Work Station

Programming
1-10

Programming
1-10
Computer Hardware
Computer Hardware
Since a computer consists of many components that function
Since a computer consists of many components that function
together to do an assigned task, it is a system. A computer
together to do an assigned task, it is a system. A computer
system is made up of hardware and software. Tangible or
system is made up of hardware and software. Tangible or
physical computer equipment is known as hardware.
physical computer equipment is known as hardware.
Components of
Hardware for a typical computer system include the following
Components of
Hardware for a typical computer system include the following
computer
components:
computer
components:
hardware
Main Memory
hardware
o Main memory
o Main memory
o Central Processing Unit (CPU)
o Central Processing Unit (CPU)
o Input devices
o Input devices
o Output devices
o Output devices
o Secondary memory devices
o Secondary memory devices
A computers main memory is an electronic device that stores
Main Memory
A computers main memory is an electronic device that stores
information necessary for a program to run. The information
information necessary for a program to run. The information
that can be stored in main memory can be the machine code
that can be stored in main memory can be the machine code
representations
representations
for
program
instructions,
numeric
or
for
program
instructions,
numeric
or
nonnumeric data values, pictures, sound, and so on. Each unit
nonnumeric data values, pictures, sound, and so on. Each unit
of information is stored in memory cell.
of information is stored in memory cell.

Programming
1-11

Programming
1-11
Computer Hardware
Computer Hardware
Central Processing
The central processing unit (CPU), also called the processor,
Central Processing
The central processing unit (CPU), also called the processor,
Unit
is the hardware component that does most of the work in
Unit
is the hardware component that does most of the work in
Input Devices
executing a program. The processor consists of two functional
executing a program. The processor consists of two functional
units (a control unit and an arithmetic-logic unit), and a set of
units (a control unit and an arithmetic-logic unit), and a set of
registers. It retrieves each instruction and the corresponding
registers. It retrieves each instruction and the corresponding
data from the main memory and executes the instruction using
data from the main memory and executes the instruction using
the data as its operands.
the data as its operands.
The control unit of the processor supervises all activities of
The control unit of the processor supervises all activities of
the computer systems. It accesses and fetches each instruction
the computer systems. It accesses and fetches each instruction
of a program from the main memory in correct order and
of a program from the main memory in correct order and
writes it to an instruction register. It analyzes the instruction,
writes it to an instruction register. It analyzes the instruction,
determines its type, and breaks it into a series of simple
determines its type, and breaks it into a series of simple
actions. Then it sends coordinating signals to the appropriate
actions. Then it sends coordinating signals to the appropriate
computer components.
computer components.
The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) is the electronic circuitry
The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) is the electronic circuitry
capable of performing arithmetic operations (addition,
capable of performing arithmetic operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division) and comparison
subtraction, multiplication and division) and comparison
operation.
operation.
We use input devices to communicate programs, data and
Input Devices
We use input devices to communicate programs, data and
special instructions to the computer. An input device accepts
special instructions to the computer. An input device accepts
information and transforms it to digital codes that the
information and transforms it to digital codes that the
computer can process. The keyboard is the common input
computer can process. The keyboard is the common input
device used in developing application programs for problem
device used in developing application programs for problem
solving.
solving.

Programming
1-12

Programming
1-12
Computer Hardware
Output Devices
An output device communicates the solutions of problems
Computer Hardware
Output Devices
An output device communicates the solutions of problems
produces by using computers to the user. Computer output
produces by using computers to the user. Computer output
comes in three forms; hard copy, soft-copy, and machine-
comes in three forms; hard copy, soft-copy, and machine-
readable. Hard-copy output is produced on a hard medium
readable. Hard-copy output is produced on a hard medium
such as paper or film. Soft-copy output is temporarily
such as paper or film. Soft-copy output is temporarily
displayed on a surface, typically a video screen. Output in
displayed on a surface, typically a video screen. Output in
machine-readable form is sent to a secondary memory device,
machine-readable form is sent to a secondary memory device,
which can be a magnetic disk or a magnetic tape drive.
which can be a magnetic disk or a magnetic tape drive.
Secondary
A secondary memory device uses a permanent, nonvolatile
Secondary
A secondary memory device uses a permanent, nonvolatile
Memory Devices
medium on which information can be stored and from which
Memory Devices
medium on which information can be stored and from which
information can be retrieved. The most common secondary
information can be retrieved. The most common secondary
memory devices are magnetic disk drive and magnetic tape
memory devices are magnetic disk drive and magnetic tape
drives. Microcomputers may have floppy disk drive and hard
drives. Microcomputers may have floppy disk drive and hard
disk drives. Floppy disks are removable, transportable, and
disk drives. Floppy disks are removable, transportable, and
inexpensive. However, they have limited storage capacity. On
inexpensive. However, they have limited storage capacity. On
the other hand, hard disks have substantially larger capacity;
the other hand, hard disks have substantially larger capacity;
but they are fixed, cannot be removed, and are more
but they are fixed, cannot be removed, and are more
expensive.
expensive.

Programming
1-13

Programming
1-13
Outcome 2
Outcome 2
History Of Compiler,
History Of Compiler,
Interpreter and 4GL
Interpreter and 4GL
Introduction and Objective

Introduction
Computer usage is increasing in almost every field of
Introduction
Computer usage is increasing in almost every field of
endeavor. In an era of steadily rising costs, computing costs
endeavor. In an era of steadily rising costs, computing costs
have been decreasing dramatically due to rapid developments
have been decreasing dramatically due to rapid developments
in both hardware and software technology.
in both hardware and software technology.
Software technology is based on programming languages. In
Software technology is based on programming languages. In
order to understand programming languages better, it is
order to understand programming languages better, it is
important to understand its fundamentals.
important to understand its fundamentals.
The fundamentals involve terminology like compiler,
The fundamentals involve terminology like compiler,
translator
translator
and
4GL.
The
history
and
evolution
of
and
4GL.
The
history
programming languages also helps,
programming languages also helps,
The objectives of this module are
and
evolution
1. Differentiate between the compiler and translator
1. Differentiate between the compiler and translator
2. Explain what is programming language and its
2. Explain what is programming language and its
evolution
3. Understand
evolution
the
basic
terminology
used
programming
. 4. Understand the Operation System & Multi-tasking
Outcome 2: History of Compiler, Interpreter and 4GL

2-1
in
3. Understand
the
basic
terminology
used
programming
. 4. Understand the Operation System & Multi-tasking

2-1
in
of

Compiler
A compiler translates a computer program written in a human-

Compiler
A compiler translates a computer program written in a human-
readable computer language (like Java) into a form that a
readable computer language (like Java) into a form that a
computer can execute. You have probably seen EXE files on
computer can execute. You have probably seen EXE files on
your computer. These EXE files are the output of compilers.
your computer. These EXE files are the output of compilers.
They contain executables -- machine-readable programs
They contain executables -- machine-readable programs
translated from human-readable program.
translated from human-readable program.
A compiler translates the code into machine code (1s and 0s),
A compiler translates the code into machine code (1s and 0s),
and saves it in an executable file format with extensions
and saves it in an executable file format with extensions
.COM or .EXE.
.COM or .EXE.
A compiler translates source code into object code. The
A compiler translates source code into object code. The
compiler derives its name from the way it works, looking at
compiler derives its name from the way it works, looking at
the entire piece of source code and collecting and
the entire piece of source code and collecting and
reorganizing the instructions. Thus, a compiler differs from an
reorganizing the instructions. Thus, a compiler differs from an
interpreter, which analyzes and executes each line of source
interpreter, which analyzes and executes each line of source
code in succession, without looking at the entire program. The
code in succession, without looking at the entire program. The
advantage of interpreters is that they can execute a program
advantage of interpreters is that they can execute a program
immediately. Compilers require some time before an
immediately. Compilers require some time before an
executable program emerges. However, programs produced
executable program emerges. However, programs produced
by compilers run much faster than the same programs
by compilers run much faster than the same programs
executed by an interpreter.
executed by an interpreter.

2-2

2-2

Interpreter
4GLs
An interpreter translates program a line at a time as they are

Interpreter
An interpreter translates program a line at a time as they are
being run.
being run.
The interpreter translates each line of code as it is read and
The interpreter translates each line of code as it is read and
executes that line before translating the next line. No
executes that line before translating the next line. No
executable file is created or used. Because of this, if a line is
executable file is created or used. Because of this, if a line is
to be repeated, as in iteration, it must be re-translated every
to be repeated, as in iteration, it must be re-translated every
time it is used. Obviously, interpreted languages are much
time it is used. Obviously, interpreted languages are much
slower than compiled languages. However, there are
slower than compiled languages. However, there are
advantages to interpretation. JavaScript scripts in Web pages
advantages to interpretation. JavaScript scripts in Web pages
on the Internet, for example, are interpreted so that the
on the Internet, for example, are interpreted so that the
executable code does not have to be downloaded from a host
executable code does not have to be downloaded from a host
machine. The interpretation is accomplished by the user's
machine. The interpretation is accomplished by the user's
browser. The advantages here are:
browser. The advantages here are:
o Downloaded scripts are smaller in size than codes.
o Downloaded scripts are smaller in size than codes.
o They are usually easier to program.
o They are usually easier to program.
The can be quickly modified since compilation steps are not
The can be quickly modified since compilation steps are not
necessary.
necessary.
Features of 4GLs are
4GLs
Features of 4GLs are
1. Many are easy to learn and use
1. Many are easy to learn and use
2. Developed for use by end-users
2. Developed for use by end-users
3. Designed to use in database environments
3. Designed to use in database environments
4. Require fewer instruction to perform the same tasks,
4. Require fewer instruction to perform the same tasks,
programming time shorter

5. Commands are very English like.

2-3
programming time shorter

5. Commands are very English like.

2-3
Computer Program and Programming Language
Computer
A computer program is a set of step-by-step instructions that
Computer
A computer program is a set of step-by-step instructions that
Program and
tells the computer how to solve a problem or complete a task.
Program and
tells the computer how to solve a problem or complete a task.
Programming
Subcategories of System Software
Programming
Subcategories of System Software
Language
Language
So programming language is a sub category of system
So programming language is a sub category of system
software.
software.
Programming Languages allow programmers to program
Programming Languages allow programmers to program
computers using English-like instructions that are translated
computers using English-like instructions that are translated
into the 1s and 0s (binary code) of machine language.
into the 1s and 0s (binary code) of machine language.
There are four general groups of programming languages:
There are four general groups of programming languages:
1. Machine Language
1. Machine Language
2. Assembly Language
2. Assembly Language
3. Procedural Languages; Fortran BASIC, C, Pascal, Turing,
3. Procedural Languages; Fortran BASIC, C, Pascal, Turing,
etc.
4. Functional,
etc.
Object
Oriented
and
Declarative
Languages Miranda; Java, VRML, Oracle, etc.

2-4
4. Functional,
Object
Oriented
and
Declarative
Languages Miranda; Java, VRML, Oracle, etc.

2-4
History of
1957 FORTRAN
History of
1957 FORTRAN
Programming
1958 ALGOL
Programming
1958 ALGOL
Language
1960 LISP
Language
1960 LISP
1960 COBOL
1960 COBOL
1962 APL
1962 APL
1962 SIMULA
1962 SIMULA
1964 BASIC
1964 BASIC
1964 PL/I
1964 PL/I
1966 ISWIM
1966 ISWIM
1970 Prolog
1970 Prolog
1972 C
1972 C
1975 Pascal
1975 Pascal
1975 Scheme
1975 Scheme
1977 OPS5
1977 OPS5
1978 CSP
1978 CSP
1978 FP
1978 FP
1980 dBASE II
1980 dBASE II
1983 Smalltalk-80
1983 Smalltalk-80
1983 Ada
1983 Ada
1983 Parlog
1983 Parlog
1984 Standard ML
1984 Standard ML
1986 C++
1986 C++
1986 CLP(R)
1986 CLP(R)
1986 Eiffel
1986 Eiffel
1988 CLOS
1988 CLOS
1988 Mathematica
1988 Mathematica
1988 Oberon
1988 Oberon
1990 Haskell
1990 Haskell

2-5

2-5
The Origins of C
The 'C' programming language was originally developed for
The Origins of C
The 'C' programming language was originally developed for
and C++:
and implemented on the UNIX operating system, on a DEC
and C++:
and implemented on the UNIX operating system, on a DEC
PDP-11 by Dennis Ritchie. One of the best features of C is
PDP-11 by Dennis Ritchie. One of the best features of C is
that it is not tied to any particular hardware or system. This
that it is not tied to any particular hardware or system. This
makes it easy for a user to write programs that will run
makes it easy for a user to write programs that will run
without any changes practically on all machines. C is often
without any changes practically on all machines. C is often
called a middle-level computer language as it combines the
called a middle-level computer language as it combines the
elements of high-level languages with the functionalism of
elements of high-level languages with the functionalism of
assembly language.
assembly language.
C allows the manipulation of bits, bytes and addresses- the
C allows the manipulation of bits, bytes and addresses- the
basic elements with which the computer functions. Another
basic elements with which the computer functions. Another
good point about C is its portability, which makes it possible
good point about C is its portability, which makes it possible
to adapt software written for one type of computer to another.
to adapt software written for one type of computer to another.
C was created, influenced, and field-tested by working
C was created, influenced, and field-tested by working
programmers.
programmers.
C++ is an enhanced version of the C language. C++ includes
C++ is an enhanced version of the C language. C++ includes
everything that is part of C and adds support for object-
everything that is part of C and adds support for object-
oriented programming (OOP). In addition, C++ also contains
oriented programming (OOP). In addition, C++ also contains
many improvements and features that make it a "better C",
many improvements and features that make it a "better C",
independent of object-oriented programming. C++ is actually
independent of object-oriented programming. C++ is actually
an extendible language since we can define new types in such
an extendible language since we can define new types in such
a way that they act just like the predefined types which are
a way that they act just like the predefined types which are
part of the standard language.
part of the standard language.

2-6

2-6
Released in 1985, C++ is an object-oriented programming
Released in 1985, C++ is an object-oriented programming
language created by Bjarne Stroustrup. It maintains almost all
language created by Bjarne Stroustrup. It maintains almost all
aspects of the C language, while simplifying memory
aspects of the C language, while simplifying memory
management. In addition, Stroustrup added classes and
management. In addition, Stroustrup added classes and
several other features to allow object-oriented programming.
several other features to allow object-oriented programming.
While having features allowing low-level access to memory,
While having features allowing low-level access to memory,
it also containing high level features which simplify the
it also containing high level features which simplify the
programming.
programming.

2-7

2-7
Basic Keywords for Programming
Basic keyword for
1. Source Code
Basic keyword for
1. Source Code
programming
Program instructions in their original form. The word source
programming
Program instructions in their original form. The word source
differentiates code from various other forms that it can have
differentiates code from various other forms that it can have
(for example, object code and executable code).
(for example, object code and executable code).
Initially, a programmer writes a program in a particular
Initially, a programmer writes a program in a particular
programming language. This form of the program is called the
programming language. This form of the program is called the
source program, or more generically, source code. To execute
source program, or more generically, source code. To execute
the program, however, the programmer must translate it into
the program, however, the programmer must translate it into
machine
machine
language,
the
language
that
the
computer
language,
the
language
that
the
computer
understands. The first step of this translation process is
understands. The first step of this translation process is
usually performed by a utility called a compiler. The compiler
usually performed by a utility called a compiler. The compiler
translates the source code into a form called object code.
translates the source code into a form called object code.
Sometimes the object code is the same as machine code;
Sometimes the object code is the same as machine code;
sometimes it needs to be translated into machine language by
sometimes it needs to be translated into machine language by
a utility called an assembler.
a utility called an assembler.
Source code is the only format that is readable by humans.
Source code is the only format that is readable by humans.
When you purchase programs, you usually receive them in
When you purchase programs, you usually receive them in
their machine-language format. This means that you can
their machine-language format. This means that you can
execute them directly, but you cannot read or modify them.
execute them directly, but you cannot read or modify them.
Some software manufacturers provide source code, but this is
Some software manufacturers provide source code, but this is
useful only if you are an experienced programmer.
useful only if you are an experienced programmer.
2. Program
2. Program
An organized list of instructions that, when executed, causes
An organized list of instructions that, when executed, causes
the computer to behave in a predetermined manner. Without
the computer to behave in a predetermined manner. Without
programs, computers are useless.
programs, computers are useless.

2-8

2-8
3. Instruction
3. Instruction
A basic command. The term instruction is often used to
A basic command. The term instruction is often used to
describe the most rudimentary programming commands. For
describe the most rudimentary programming commands. For
example, a computer's instruction set is the list of all the basic
example, a computer's instruction set is the list of all the basic
commands in the computer's machine language.
commands in the computer's machine language.
4. Variables
4. Variables
A symbol or name that stands for a value. For example, in the
A symbol or name that stands for a value. For example, in the
expression x + y, x and y are variables. Variables can
expression x + y, x and y are variables. Variables can
represent numeric values, characters, character strings, or
represent numeric values, characters, character strings, or
memory addresses.
memory addresses.
Variables play an important role in computer programming
Variables play an important role in computer programming
because they enable programmers to write flexible programs.
because they enable programmers to write flexible programs.
Rather than entering data directly into a program, a
Rather than entering data directly into a program, a
programmer can use variables to represent the data. Then,
programmer can use variables to represent the data. Then,
when the program is executed, the variables are replaced with
when the program is executed, the variables are replaced with
real data. This makes it possible for the same program to
real data. This makes it possible for the same program to
process different sets of data.
process different sets of data.
Every variable has a name, called the variable name, and a
Every variable has a name, called the variable name, and a
data type. A variable's data type indicates what sort of value
data type. A variable's data type indicates what sort of value
the variable represents, such as whether it is an integer, a
the variable represents, such as whether it is an integer, a
floating-point number, or a character.
floating-point number, or a character.
The opposite of a variable is a constant. Constants are values
The opposite of a variable is a constant. Constants are values
that never change. Because of their inflexibility, constants are
that never change. Because of their inflexibility, constants are
used less often than variables in programming.
used less often than variables in programming.

2-9

2-9
5. Computer Program
5. Computer Program
A computer program is a set of instructions that tell a
A computer program is a set of instructions that tell a
computer exactly what to do. The instructions might tell the
computer exactly what to do. The instructions might tell the
computer to add up a set of numbers, or compare two numbers
computer to add up a set of numbers, or compare two numbers
and make a decision based on the result, or whatever. But a
and make a decision based on the result, or whatever. But a
computer program is simply a set of instructions for the
computer program is simply a set of instructions for the
computer, like a recipe is a set of instructions for a cook or
computer, like a recipe is a set of instructions for a cook or
musical notes are a set of instructions for a musician. The
musical notes are a set of instructions for a musician. The
computer follows your instructions exactly and in the process
computer follows your instructions exactly and in the process
does something useful -- like balancing a checkbook or
does something useful -- like balancing a checkbook or
displaying a game on the screen or implementing a word
displaying a game on the screen or implementing a word
processor.
processor.
6. Programming language
6. Programming language
In order for a computer to recognize the instructions you give
In order for a computer to recognize the instructions you give
it, those instructions need to be written in a language the
it, those instructions need to be written in a language the
computer understands -- programming language. There are
computer understands -- programming language. There are
many computer programming languages -- Fortran, Cobol,
many computer programming languages -- Fortran, Cobol,
Basic, Pascal, C, C++, Java, Perl -- just like there are many
Basic, Pascal, C, C++, Java, Perl -- just like there are many
spoken languages. They all express approximately the same
spoken languages. They all express approximately the same
concepts in different ways.
concepts in different ways.

2-10

2-10
Outcome 3
Outcome 3
Programming Tools
Programming Tools
and Concepts
and Concepts

Introduction
Before writing a program to solve a problem, it is essential to
Introduction
Before writing a program to solve a problem, it is essential to
have a thorough understanding of the problem and a carefully
have a thorough understanding of the problem and a carefully
planned approach to solve the problem.
planned approach to solve the problem.
1. Understand the basic concepts in programming
1. Understand the basic concepts in programming
2. Pseudocode
2. Pseudocode
3. Flow Chart
3. Flow Chart
Outcome 3: Programming Tools and Concepts

3-1
3-1
Algorithm
An algorithm is a sequence of a finite number of steps
Algorithm
An algorithm is a sequence of a finite number of steps
arranged in a specific logical order which, when executed,
arranged in a specific logical order which, when executed,
produces the solution for a problem.
produces the solution for a problem.
Stated somewhere differently, an algorithm is a procedure that
Stated somewhere differently, an algorithm is a procedure that
takes a set of values as input, and transform them into a set of
takes a set of values as input, and transform them into a set of
values as output. Obviously, not any arbitrarily constructed
values as output. Obviously, not any arbitrarily constructed
series of steps can be regarded as algorithms. An algorithm
series of steps can be regarded as algorithms. An algorithm
must satisfy some requirements:
must satisfy some requirements:
1. Input it must have input. It is conceivable that an
1. Input it must have input. It is conceivable that an
algorithm may have no input. An example could be one
algorithm may have no input. An example could be one
that generates a fixed report form. However, such
that generates a fixed report form. However, such
algorithms are rather trivial, and quite rare.
algorithms are rather trivial, and quite rare.
2. Output it must produce at least one output. An
2. Output it must produce at least one output. An
algorithm that does not produce anything is worthless.
algorithm that does not produce anything is worthless.
3. Unambiguousness it must be unambiguous. In most
3. Unambiguousness it must be unambiguous. In most
cases, we develop an algorithm so that it can be translated
cases, we develop an algorithm so that it can be translated
into a computer program to be executed by computers.
into a computer program to be executed by computers.
Computers cannot cope with ambiguities. Therefore, every
Computers cannot cope with ambiguities. Therefore, every
step in an algorithm must be clear as to what it is
step in an algorithm must be clear as to what it is
supposed to do, and how many times it is expected to be
supposed to do, and how many times it is expected to be
executed.
executed.
4. Generality it must have generality. A procedure that
4. Generality it must have generality. A procedure that
prints the message One inch is 2.54 centimeters is not
prints the message One inch is 2.54 centimeters is not
an algorithm; however; one that converts a supplied
an algorithm; however; one that converts a supplied
number of inches to centimeters is an algorithms.
number of inches to centimeters is an algorithms.
5. Correctness it must be correct and must solve the

problem for which it is designed.
5. Correctness it must be correct and must solve the

problem for which it is designed.

3-2
3-2
6. Finiteness it must execute its steps and terminate in
6. Finiteness it must execute its steps and terminate in
finite time. An algorithm that never terminates is
finite time. An algorithm that never terminates is
unacceptable.
unacceptable.
7. Efficiency it must be efficient. An algorithm that is
7. Efficiency it must be efficient. An algorithm that is
designed for a specific computer is not worth much if it
designed for a specific computer is not worth much if it
takes days to solve a relatively simple problem or if it
takes days to solve a relatively simple problem or if it
requires more memory than what is available on that
requires more memory than what is available on that
computer.
computer.
There
are
techniques
developed
expressly
for
the
There
are
techniques
developed
expressly
for
the
representation of algorithms. We will discuss two of them in
representation of algorithms. We will discuss two of them in
this chapter: Pseudocoding and flowcharting.
this chapter: Pseudocoding and flowcharting.
Example of
Let's say that you have a friend arriving at the airport, and
Example of
Let's say that you have a friend arriving at the airport, and
Algorithm
your friend needs to get from the airport to your house. Here
Algorithm
your friend needs to get from the airport to your house. Here
are four different algorithms that you might give your friend
are four different algorithms that you might give your friend
for getting to your home:
for getting to your home:
The taxi algorithm:
The taxi algorithm:
1. Go to the taxi stand.
1. Go to the taxi stand.
2. Get in a taxi.
2. Get in a taxi.
3. Give the driver my address.
3. Give the driver my address.
The call-me algorithm:
The call-me algorithm:
1. When your plane arrives, call my cell phone.
1. When your plane arrives, call my cell phone.
2. Meet me outside baggage claim.
2. Meet me outside baggage claim.

3-3
3-3
The rent-a-car algorithm:
The rent-a-car algorithm:
1. Take the shuttle to the rental car place.
1. Take the shuttle to the rental car place.
2. Rent a car.
2. Rent a car.
3. Follow the directions to get to my house.
3. Follow the directions to get to my house.
The bus algorithm:
The bus algorithm:
1. Outside baggage claim, catch bus number 70.
1. Outside baggage claim, catch bus number 70.
2. Transfer to bus 14 on Main Street.
2. Transfer to bus 14 on Main Street.
3. Get off on Elm Street.
3. Get off on Elm Street.
4. Walk two blocks north to my house.
4. Walk two blocks north to my house.
All four of these algorithms accomplish exactly the same goal,
All four of these algorithms accomplish exactly the same goal,
but each algorithm does it in completely different way. Each
but each algorithm does it in completely different way. Each
algorithm also has a different cost and a different travel time.
algorithm also has a different cost and a different travel time.
Taking a taxi, for example, is probably the fastest way, but
Taking a taxi, for example, is probably the fastest way, but
also the most expensive. Taking the bus is definitely less
also the most expensive. Taking the bus is definitely less
expensive, but a whole lot slower. You choose the algorithm
expensive, but a whole lot slower. You choose the algorithm
based on the circumstances.
based on the circumstances.

3-4
3-4
Pseudocode
Introduction
Pseudocode
An outline of a program, written in a form that can easily be
Introduction
An outline of a program, written in a form that can easily be
converted into real programming statements. For example, the
converted into real programming statements. For example, the
pseudocode for a bubble sort routine might be written:
pseudocode for a bubble sort routine might be written:
while not at end of list
while not at end of list
compare adjacent elements
compare adjacent elements
if second is greater than first
if second is greater than first
switch them
switch them
get next two elements
get next two elements
if elements were switched
if elements were switched
repeat for entire list
repeat for entire list
Pseudocode cannot be compiled nor executed, and there are
Pseudocode cannot be compiled nor executed, and there are
no real formatting or syntax rules. It is simply one step - an
no real formatting or syntax rules. It is simply one step - an
important one - in producing the final code.
important one - in producing the final code.
The benefit of pseudocode is that it enables the programmer to
The benefit of pseudocode is that it enables the programmer to
concentrate on the algorithms without worrying about all the
concentrate on the algorithms without worrying about all the
syntactic details of a particular programming language. In
syntactic details of a particular programming language. In
fact, you can write pseudocode without even knowing what
fact, you can write pseudocode without even knowing what
programming
programming
language
you
will
use
for
the
final
implementation.
language
you
will
use
for
the
final
implementation.
A pseudocode is a semiformal, English-like language with

a limited vocabulary that can be used to design and
describe algorithms
A pseudocode is a semiformal, English-like language with

a limited vocabulary that can be used to design and
describe algorithms

3-5
3-5
Pseudocode
Usage of
Pseudocode
A pseudocode can be used in:

1. Designing algorithms
Pseudocode
Usage of
Pseudocode
A pseudocode can be used in:

1. Designing algorithms
2. Communicating algorithms to users
2. Communicating algorithms to users
3. Implementing algorithms as programs
3. Implementing algorithms as programs
4. Debugging logic errors in programs
4. Debugging logic errors in programs
5. Documenting programs for future maintenance and
5. Documenting programs for future maintenance and
expansion purposes.
expansion purposes.
In order to succeed in accomplishing its objectives, a
In order to succeed in accomplishing its objectives, a
pseudocode must
pseudocode must
1. Have a limited vocabulary
1. Have a limited vocabulary
2. Be easy to learn
2. Be easy to learn
3. Produce simple, English-like narrative notation
3. Produce simple, English-like narrative notation
4. Be capable of describing all algorithms, regardless of
4. Be capable of describing all algorithms, regardless of
their complexity
their complexity
In 1966, two researches, C. Bohm and G. Jacopini,
In 1966, two researches, C. Bohm and G. Jacopini,
demonstrated that any algorithm can be described using only
demonstrated that any algorithm can be described using only
three control structures: sequence, selection and repetition.
three control structures: sequence, selection and repetition.
Therefore, a pseudocode must have constructs that correspond
Therefore, a pseudocode must have constructs that correspond
to these control structures in its vocabulary. There are no
to these control structures in its vocabulary. There are no
universally accepted standards for pseudocodes.
universally accepted standards for pseudocodes.
The Sequential
The sequential control structure is a series of steps or
The Sequential
The sequential control structure is a series of steps or
Control Structure
statements that are executed in the order they are written in an
Control Structure
statements that are executed in the order they are written in an
algorithm.
algorithm.

3-6
3-6
Pseudocode
Pseudocode
Following is an example of a sequential control structure:
Following is an example of a sequential control structure:
Read taxable income

Read filing status
Computer income tax
Print income tax
Read taxable income

Read filing status
Computer income tax
Print income tax
The four statements in this pseudocode algorithm are executed
The four statements in this pseudocode algorithm are executed
one after another in the order they are written. Sequential
one after another in the order they are written. Sequential
structures are essentially built into computers. Unless we use
structures are essentially built into computers. Unless we use
other control structures, the computer executes all statements
other control structures, the computer executes all statements
in a program one after another.
in a program one after another.
You can also mark the beginning and end of a block of
You can also mark the beginning and end of a block of
statement in an algorithm. Example:
statement in an algorithm. Example:
Begin
Begin
Read taxable income
Read filing status
Computer income tax
Print income tax
Read taxable income

Read filing status
Computer income tax
Print income tax
End
End
The Selection
The selection control structure defines two courses of action
The Selection
The selection control structure defines two courses of action
Control Structure
depending on the outcome of a condition. A condition is an
Control Structure
depending on the outcome of a condition. A condition is an
expression that is either true or false.
expression that is either true or false.
The selection structure requires the use of keywords if and
The selection structure requires the use of keywords if and
else. Its format is given below:
else. Its format is given below:
If condition
Then part
Else
Else part
End if
If condition
Then part
Else
Else part
End if

3-7
3-7
Pseudocode
Pseudocode
The meaning of selection structure is as follows: if the value
The meaning of selection structure is as follows: if the value
computed for the condition is true, the statements that make
computed for the condition is true, the statements that make
up the then-part are executed. After this, the statement that
up the then-part are executed. After this, the statement that
follows the selection structure in the pseudocode will be
follows the selection structure in the pseudocode will be
considered.
considered.
If the condition evaluates to false, the then-part will be
If the condition evaluates to false, the then-part will be
bypassed, and the statements in the block called the else-part
bypassed, and the statements in the block called the else-part
will be executed. The then-part and the else-part can each be
will be executed. The then-part and the else-part can each be
single statements, or a series of statements.
single statements, or a series of statements.
Example:
Example:
if income is less than or equal to 82,150

begin
compute tax = 5100.00 + 0.28 x (income 34000.00)
print tax rate is 28%
end
else
begin
print Tax rate is 31%
end
end if
if income is less than or equal to 82,150

begin
print tax rate is 28%
end
else
begin
print Tax rate is 31%
end
end if
print tax
print tax
In certain decision-making situations, the else-part may be
In certain decision-making situations, the else-part may be
missing, in this case, the format of the selection structure
missing, in this case, the format of the selection structure
becomes:
becomes:
if condition
then part
end if
if condition
then part
end if
This means that if the condition is true, the statements that
This means that if the condition is true, the statements that
make up the then-part are executed; otherwise, the statement
make up the then-part are executed; otherwise, the statement
that follows the selection statement will be considered.
that follows the selection statement will be considered.

3-8
3-8
Pseudocode
Pseudocode
Here is an example:
Here is an example:
if status is equal to 1
print Single
end if
print Single
end if
The if-else selection structure is useful for two-way decision-
The if-else selection structure is useful for two-way decision-
making. In case we have more than two courses of action in
making. In case we have more than two courses of action in
an algorithm, we can use nested selection structures.
an algorithm, we can use nested selection structures.
Nested Selection
A nested selection structure is a basic selection structure that
Nested Selection
A nested selection structure is a basic selection structure that
Structure
contains other if-else structure in its then-part or else-part.
Structure
contains other if-else structure in its then-part or else-part.
Look at this example:
Look at this example:
print Single
else
print Married filing jointly
else
print Married filing separately
else
print Error in status code
end if
end if
end if
print Single
else
print Married filing jointly
else
print Married filing separately
else
print Error in status code
end if
end if
end if
Nested selection structures are useful for multi-way decision-
Nested selection structures are useful for multi-way decision-
making. However, they can get to be confusing for most
making. However, they can get to be confusing for most
programmers if they are in excess of three levels. You should
programmers if they are in excess of three levels. You should
exercise restraint in using them in your algorithm designs.
exercise restraint in using them in your algorithm designs.
The Repetition
The repetition control structure specifies a block of one or
The Repetition
The repetition control structure specifies a block of one or
Control Structure
more statements that are repeatedly executed until a condition
Control Structure
more statements that are repeatedly executed until a condition
is satisfied.
is satisfied.

3-9
3-9
Pseudocode
Pseudocode
This enables us to define loops, which are repeated execution
This enables us to define loops, which are repeated execution
of blocks of statements. There are several forms of repetition
of blocks of statements. There are several forms of repetition
control structures that can be used in algorithm design.
control structures that can be used in algorithm design.
The format of the while repetition structure is:
The format of the while repetition structure is:
while condition
loop-body
end while
while condition
loop-body
end while
Here, the loop-body is a single statement or a block of
Here, the loop-body is a single statement or a block of
statements that is executed as long as the condition written
statements that is executed as long as the condition written
after the keyword while is true. The keyword end_while
after the keyword while is true. The keyword end_while
indicates the end of the repetition structure. The repeated
indicates the end of the repetition structure. The repeated
execution of the loop-body terminates once the condition
execution of the loop-body terminates once the condition
becomes false. Obviously, there must be something in the
becomes false. Obviously, there must be something in the
loop-body that changes the component of the condition such
loop-body that changes the component of the condition such
that it eventually becomes false and the algorithm drops out of
that it eventually becomes false and the algorithm drops out of
the loop-body. Otherwise, we will have a perpetual loop and
the loop-body. Otherwise, we will have a perpetual loop and
the algorithm will never terminate.
the algorithm will never terminate.
An example of the while repetition structure is shown in the
An example of the while repetition structure is shown in the
following pseudocode:
following pseudocode:
set CorrectStatusInput to n
set CorrectStatusInput to n
while CorrectStatusInput is equal to n

begin
print Enter filing status: should be between 1 and 4:
read status
if status is greater than 0
if status is less than 5
set CorrectStatusInput to y
end if
end if
end
end_while
while CorrectStatusInput is equal to n

begin
print Enter filing status: should be between 1 and 4:
read status
if status is greater than 0
if status is less than 5
set CorrectStatusInput to y
end if
end if
end
end_while

3-10

3-10
Pseudocode
Pseudocode
Conventions for
While discussing the three basic control structures, we have
Conventions for
While discussing the three basic control structures, we have
Pseudocode
started a seed vocabulary for our pseudocode. So far, it
Pseudocode
started a seed vocabulary for our pseudocode. So far, it
consists of the keywords if, else, while, begin, end, end_if and
consists of the keywords if, else, while, begin, end, end_if and
end_while.
end_while.
Now, we are ready to summarize our pseudocoding
Now, we are ready to summarize our pseudocoding
conventions.
conventions.
1. Each pseudocode statement consists of keywords that
1. Each pseudocode statement consists of keywords that
describe operations and some appropriate, English-like
describe operations and some appropriate, English-like
descriptions of operands.
descriptions of operands.
2. Each statement should be written on a separate line. In
2. Each statement should be written on a separate line. In
case a statement requires more than one line, the
case a statement requires more than one line, the
continuation lines should be indented.
continuation lines should be indented.
3. The statements that make up a sequence control
3. The statements that make up a sequence control
structure should begin with unambiguous words, such
structure should begin with unambiguous words, such
as computer, initialize, set etc.
as computer, initialize, set etc.
4. For selection control structure, use an if-else
4. For selection control structure, use an if-else
statement. In an if-else statement, the then-part and, if
statement. In an if-else statement, the then-part and, if
used, the else-part should be indented. Terminate each
used, the else-part should be indented. Terminate each
if statement by the keyword end_if.
if statement by the keyword end_if.
5. For the repetition control structure, use the while
5. For the repetition control structure, use the while
statement and indent the loop-body. Terminate each
statement and indent the loop-body. Terminate each
while statement by the keyword end_while.
while statement by the keyword end_while.
6. All words in a pseudocode statement must be chosen
6. All words in a pseudocode statement must be chosen
to be unambiguous, and as easy as possible for
to be unambiguous, and as easy as possible for
nonprogrammers to understand.
nonprogrammers to understand.

3-11

3-11
Pseudocode
Pseudocode
7. Enclose comments lines between /* and */. A
7. Enclose comments lines between /* and */. A
comment is an explanation that clarifies some aspect
comment is an explanation that clarifies some aspect
of an algorithm.
of an algorithm.
Comments constitute an important element of software
Comments constitute an important element of software
documentation. However, in pseudocode descriptions of
documentation. However, in pseudocode descriptions of
algorithms, you are expected to make all statements clear.
algorithms, you are expected to make all statements clear.
Therefore, you should try to write your pseudocode
Therefore, you should try to write your pseudocode
statements such as no additional comments are necessary.
statements such as no additional comments are necessary.
Lets discuss the problem to create a pseudocode more in this
Lets discuss the problem to create a pseudocode more in this
example:
example:
Problem we are given a quadratic equation of the form
Problem we are given a quadratic equation of the form
where a, b, and c are constant coefficients. We would like to
where a, b, and c are constant coefficients. We would like to
develop a C program that solves as many quadratic equations
develop a C program that solves as many quadratic equations
as the user would like. We know that a quadratic equation has
as the user would like. We know that a quadratic equation has
two roots and that they can be computed using the following
two roots and that they can be computed using the following
formulas:
formulas:
Requirement Specification: Develop a program that does the
Requirement Specification: Develop a program that does the
following:
following:

3-12

3-12
Pseudocode
Pseudocode
1. Prompt the user to enter values for the coefficients a, b,
1. Prompt the user to enter values for the coefficients a, b,
and c, using the terminal keyboard.

2. Computes the discriminant of the quadratic equation using
the formula
and c, using the terminal keyboard.

2. Computes the discriminant of the quadratic equation using
the formula
3. Determines if the roots of the equations are real by
3. Determines if the roots of the equations are real by
comparing the discriminant to zero. If the discriminant is
comparing the discriminant to zero. If the discriminant is
less than zero, we know that the roots are complex. In this
less than zero, we know that the roots are complex. In this
case, we do not want to compute the roots but print a
case, we do not want to compute the roots but print a
message on the screen that informs the user that the roots
message on the screen that informs the user that the roots
are complex.
are complex.
4. However, if the discriminant is greater than or equal to
4. However, if the discriminant is greater than or equal to
zero, we have 2 roots to be computed using the formulas
zero, we have 2 roots to be computed using the formulas
given above. We would like the program to compute the
given above. We would like the program to compute the
roots and print them out on the screen.
roots and print them out on the screen.
5. After the quadratic equation is solved, the user should be
5. After the quadratic equation is solved, the user should be
able to continue with others, if any. The program should
able to continue with others, if any. The program should
ask the user if he or she would like to continue, and
ask the user if he or she would like to continue, and
prompt him or her to respond by typing yes or no. If the
prompt him or her to respond by typing yes or no. If the
user wishes to solve another equation, the above steps
user wishes to solve another equation, the above steps
should be repeated. Otherwise the program should
should be repeated. Otherwise the program should
terminate.
terminate.
Analysis:
Analysis:
Inputs: Values of the coefficients a, b and c for each
Inputs: Values of the coefficients a, b and c for each
equation.
equation.
Outputs: values of the roots root1 and root2, or a message
Outputs: values of the roots root1 and root2, or a message
informing, the roots are complex.
informing, the roots are complex.

3-13

3-13
Pseudocode
Pseudocode
Formula: The formulas given above for the computation of
Formula: The formulas given above for the computation of
root1 and root2.
root1 and root2.
Design: we start with an initial pseudocode:
Design: we start with an initial pseudocode:
while there are more equations to solve

begin
prompt user to enter values for a, b and c
read values entered
solve the quadratic equations
print roots for root1 and root2
ask user if there are more equations to solve
end
end_while
while there are more equations to solve

begin
read values entered
solve the quadratic equations
print roots for root1 and root2
end
end_while
Since this algorithm is not sufficiently detailed, it cannot
Since this algorithm is not sufficiently detailed, it cannot
presently be translated into a C program. There are 2 steps we
presently be translated into a C program. There are 2 steps we
need to refine. From:
need to refine. From:

read values entered
To:
Print Enter value for a:

Read a
Print Enter value for b:
Read b
Print Enter value for c:
Read c

3-14

read values entered
To:
Print Enter value for a:

Read a
Print Enter value for b:
Read b
Print Enter value for c:
Read c

3-14
Pseudocode
And from:
Pseudocode
And from:
Solve the quadratic equation and print roots root1 and root2
To:
Solve the quadratic equation and print roots root1 and root2
To:
if a is equal to zero
print This is not a quadratic equation.

else
compute and print the roots of the quadratic equation
end_if

else
compute and print the roots of the quadratic equation
end_if
So far so good? But how do we compute and print the roots of
So far so good? But how do we compute and print the roots of
the quadratic equation? This is how it should look like:
the quadratic equation? This is how it should look like:

else
begin
compute discriminant = b x b 4 x a x c
compute denum = 2 x a

else
begin
compute discriminant = b x b 4 x a x c
compute denum = 2 x a
if discriminant is less than zero

print The roots are complex
else
begin
compute root1=(- b sqrt(discriminant))/denum
compute root1=(- b + sqrt(discriminant))/denum
print root1, root2
end
end_if
end
end_if
if discriminant is less than zero

print The roots are complex
else
begin
compute root1=(- b sqrt(discriminant))/denum
compute root1=(- b + sqrt(discriminant))/denum
print root1, root2
end
end_if
end
end_if
In this pseudocode,
sqrt is a function that computes and
In this pseudocode,
sqrt is a function that computes and
returns the square root of a given number. We will discuss
returns the square root of a given number. We will discuss
functions in later module.
functions in later module.

3-15

3-15
Pseudocode
Pseudocode
The final step in the algorithm design is the refinement of the
The final step in the algorithm design is the refinement of the
while loop.
while loop.
while there are more equation to solve

begin

end
end_while
while there are more equation to solve

begin

end
end_while
For this, we use loop control variable called more, which is
For this, we use loop control variable called more, which is
initialized to y outside the while loop. In the loop body, after
initialized to y outside the while loop. In the loop body, after
an equation is solved, we prompt the user to type y if he or she
an equation is solved, we prompt the user to type y if he or she
wants to continue. Depending on what the user enters for
wants to continue. Depending on what the user enters for
more, the algorithm will either repeat or terminate. Following
more, the algorithm will either repeat or terminate. Following
are the refined pseudocode for the while loop:
are the refined pseudocode for the while loop:
Set more to y
Set more to y
while more is equal to y

begin
print Do you want to continue? Type y/n:

read more
end
end_while
while more is equal to y

begin
print Do you want to continue? Type y/n:

read more
end
end_while
Your Task:
Your Task:
Based on the example and our discussion previously, combine
Based on the example and our discussion previously, combine
all the pseducode to make it a final pseudocode.
all the pseducode to make it a final pseudocode.

3-16

3-16
Flow Charting
Flow Chart
Flow Charting
A flowchart traces the flow of logic in a program and is very
Flow Chart
A flowchart traces the flow of logic in a program and is very
useful in finding logic errors in larger programs.
useful in finding logic errors in larger programs.
The logic always flows in the direction of the arrows, which
The logic always flows in the direction of the arrows, which
are very important to include in the flow chart. Notice that
are very important to include in the flow chart. Notice that
the arrows do not always proceed in a sequential manner.
the arrows do not always proceed in a sequential manner.
When an arrow points side-ways or upward, a decision and/or
When an arrow points side-ways or upward, a decision and/or
iteration are occurring. You can check the logic of an
iteration are occurring. You can check the logic of an
algorithm simply by following the arrows. If arrows collide,
algorithm simply by following the arrows. If arrows collide,
with each other an error has occurred. By colliding we mean
with each other an error has occurred. By colliding we mean
arrows pointing into each other with no other direction to
arrows pointing into each other with no other direction to
take.
take.
A flowchart is a graph consisting of geometrical

shapes that are connected by flow lines

3-17
A flowchart is a graph consisting of geometrical

shapes that are connected by flow lines

3-17
Flow Charting
Flow Charting
In order to use flowcharts to communicate algorithms, we
In order to use flowcharts to communicate algorithms, we
must develop some conventions for its symbols. They are
must develop some conventions for its symbols. They are
shown in the next table. The basic flowchart symbols are the
shown in the next table. The basic flowchart symbols are the
terminal, process, input-output, and selection symbols.
terminal, process, input-output, and selection symbols.
1. Terminal symbol is oval in shape. They indicate the
1. Terminal symbol is oval in shape. They indicate the
beginning and end points of an algorithm. The
beginning and end points of an algorithm. The
beginning point oval should have Begin type in it; the
beginning point oval should have Begin type in it; the
end point oval should contain End. There should be
end point oval should contain End. There should be
no more than 2 terminal symbols in a flowchart for an
no more than 2 terminal symbols in a flowchart for an
algorithm.
algorithm.
2. Process symbol is rectangular in shape. They represent
2. Process symbol is rectangular in shape. They represent
operations such as computations, assignments and
operations such as computations, assignments and
initializations.
initializations.
3. Input-output symbol is parallelogram. Each symbol
3. Input-output symbol is parallelogram. Each symbol
should contain the keyword read or write, and what to
should contain the keyword read or write, and what to
be read or written.
be read or written.
4. 2-way selection symbol is a diamond-shaped box. It
4. 2-way selection symbol is a diamond-shaped box. It
stands for the keyword if in pseudocode. The if
stands for the keyword if in pseudocode. The if
condition should be written inside the selection
condition should be written inside the selection
symbol.
symbol.

3-18

3-18
Flow Charting
Flow Charting
In addition to these basic symbols, there are other symbols for
In addition to these basic symbols, there are other symbols for
disk storage input-output, printer output, and off-page and on-
disk storage input-output, printer output, and off-page and on-
page connectors as shown in previous table. They are used in
page connectors as shown in previous table. They are used in
algorithms in which input-output device types have to be
algorithms in which input-output device types have to be
specified on in large or detail flowcharts.
specified on in large or detail flowcharts.
The sequence, selection, and repetition control structures
The sequence, selection, and repetition control structures
essential for algorithm design can be represented in
essential for algorithm design can be represented in
flowcharts, which will be shown later.
flowcharts, which will be shown later.

3-19

3-19
Flow Charting
Flow Charting
SEQUENTIAL STRUCTURE
Pseudocode
Statement 1
Statement2
..
Statement n
SEQUENTIAL STRUCTURE
Flowchart
Statement 1
Statement 2
...
Statement n
Pseudocode
Statement 1
Statement2
..
Statement n
SELECTION STRUCTURE
Pseudocode
Flowchart
false
if condition
then-part
end if
condi
tion
true
Flowchart
false
Else part

3-20
condi
tion
Statement 2
Flowchart
false
if condition
then-part
end if
then part
condi
tion
true
then part
SELECTION STRUCTURE
Pseudocode
true
...
SELECTION STRUCTURE
SELECTION STRUCTURE
if condition
then-part
else
else-part
end if
Statement 1
Pseudocode
then part
Pseudocode
Flowchart
if condition
then-part
else
else-part
end if
Flowchart
false
Else part

3-20
condi
tion
true
then part
Statement n
Flow Charting
Flow Charting
REPETITION STRUCTURE
Pseudocode
REPETITION STRUCTURE
Flowchart
While condition
Loop body
End_while
true
conditio
n
Pseudocode
Flowchart
While condition
Loop body
End_while
Loop body
true
conditio
n
false
Loop body
false
Although, like pseudocoding, flowcharting is useful for
Although, like pseudocoding, flowcharting is useful for
algorithm
algorithm
design
disadvantage
and
compared
representation,
to
it
pseudocoding.
has
For
certain
large
design
disadvantage
and
compared
representation,
to
it
pseudocoding.
has
For
certain
large
algorithms, flowcharts tend to become excessively large. As a
algorithms, flowcharts tend to become excessively large. As a
result, it becomes quite difficult to read and understand the
result, it becomes quite difficult to read and understand the
algorithm. Also drawing detailed flowcharts for large
algorithm. Also drawing detailed flowcharts for large
algorithms is tedious and time-consuming.
algorithms is tedious and time-consuming.

3-21

3-21
Flow Charting
Flow Charting
Example Quadratic Solutions
Example Quadratic Solutions
START
START
Prompt
user to
enter value
a,b and c
Prompt
user to
enter value
a,b and c
Read values
entered
Read values
entered
Print This
is not a
quadratic
equation
Yes
If a is equal to
zero
No
Computer the
roots of the
quadratic equation
Print This
is not a
quadratic
equation
Yes
If a is equal to
zero
Print the
final result
No
Computer the
roots of the
quadratic equation
Print the
final result
END
END

3-22

3-22
Flow Charting
Flow Charting
Tax Computation
Tax Computation
START
START
Set IncomeInput
to n
Set IncomeInput
to n
If IncomeInput equal
to n
true
Print enter
taxable income;
should be less
than 50000
If IncomeInput equal
to n
true
Read
income
false
Income
>=50000
Read
income
false
true

3-23
Income
>=50000
true
Set incomeinput to
y
false
END
Print enter
taxable income;
should be less
than 50000
Set incomeinput to
y
false
END

3-23
Summary
At a glance
Summary
In this chapter, we introduced the concept of problem
At a glance
In this chapter, we introduced the concept of problem
solving the process of transforming the description of a
solving the process of transforming the description of a
problem to its solution. To solve complex problems, we
problem to its solution. To solve complex problems, we
use computers as a tool and develop computer programs
use computers as a tool and develop computer programs
that give use solutions.
that give use solutions.
An algorithm is sequence of a finite number of steps
An algorithm is sequence of a finite number of steps
arranged in a specific logical order that, when executed,
arranged in a specific logical order that, when executed,
produces the solution for a problem. An algorithm design
produces the solution for a problem. An algorithm design
should be put on paper. For this purpose, and also to
should be put on paper. For this purpose, and also to
facilitate its development, we resort to pseudocoding. A
facilitate its development, we resort to pseudocoding. A
pseudocode is a semiformal, English-like language with a
pseudocode is a semiformal, English-like language with a
limited vocabulary that can be used to design and
limited vocabulary that can be used to design and
representation is equivalent to pseudocoding and can be
representation is equivalent to pseudocoding and can be
used as an alternative to it.
used as an alternative to it.
Any algorithm can be described in terms of three basic
Any algorithm can be described in terms of three basic
control structures. They are the sequence, selection, and
control structures. They are the sequence, selection, and
repetition structures.
repetition structures.
In this chapter, we have enhanced our skills in problem
In this chapter, we have enhanced our skills in problem
solving, based on problem statement. Next, we will focus
solving, based on problem statement. Next, we will focus
more on C statement types that can be used in
more on C statement types that can be used in
implementing the sequence, selection and repetition
implementing the sequence, selection and repetition
control structures in algorithms.
control structures in algorithms.

3-24

3-24
Outcome 4
Outcome 4
Fundamental of Input and
Fundamental of Input and
Output
Output
Chapter
In this chapter, you will learn about:
Chapter
Objectives
Objectives
o Processor Directives
o Processor Directives
o Include Directive
o Include Directive
o Data types and declaration
o Data types and declaration
o Name Constant
o Name Constant
Statements
Statements
First Look At Function
First Look At Function
Operators
Operators
o Assignment operators
o Assignment operators
o Arithmetic operators
o Arithmetic operators
o Relational and Logical operators
o Relational and Logical operators
Outcome 4: Variables, operators and Fundamental of input and output

4-1

4-1
Definition of
Programming is a process of reducing a problem into small
Definition of
Programming is a process of reducing a problem into small
Programming
steps that the computer can understand.
Programming
steps that the computer can understand.
In summary,
In summary,
A program is a list of detailed instructions
The Programming
Determine the objective(s) of the program.
Process
Determine the methods you want to use in writing the
A program is a list of detailed instructions
The Programming
Process
Determine the methods you want to use in writing the
program.
program.
Create the program to solve the problem.
Create the program to solve the problem.
Run the program to see the results
Run the program to see the results
Determine the methods
Determine the methods

4-2

4-2
Create the program
Create the program
Translates the design of the flow of program into step-by-
Translates the design of the flow of program into step-by-
step detailed instructions that computer understands, which
step detailed instructions that computer understands, which
is sometimes called coding.
is sometimes called coding.
Run the program
Run the program
The programmer then tests the program thoroughly to obtain
The programmer then tests the program thoroughly to obtain
the desired
the desired
Program
Program
Development
Development
Cycle
Cycle
Step 1: Create the source code
Step 1: Create the source code
The first step in Program Development Cycle is to enter
The first step in Program Development Cycle is to enter
source code into an editor.
source code into an editor.
Source code is a series of statements or commands that are
Source code is a series of statements or commands that are
used to instruct the computer to perform desired tasks.
used to instruct the computer to perform desired tasks.
A program is also known as source code
A program is also known as source code
Example of C source code:
Example of C source code:

4-3

4-3
Step 2: Compile the source code
Step 2: Compile the source code
The second step in Program Development Cycle is to

compile source code to machine code.
The compiler takes source code file as input and
compile source code to machine code.
The compiler takes source code file as input and
produces a disk file containing the machine language
produces a disk file containing the machine language
instructions that correspond to source code statements.
instructions that correspond to source code statements.
Compiler is a program that translates source code to
machine language.
The second step in Program Development Cycle is to
The machine language instructions created by compiler
Compiler is a program that translates source code to

machine language.
The machine language instructions created by compiler
are called object code, and the disk file containing them
are called object code, and the disk file containing them
is called an object file.
is called an object file.
In C, the compiler creates object files with an extension

of .OBJ.
In C, the compiler creates object files with an extension

of .OBJ.
Step 3:Linking to Create an Executable File
Step 3:Linking to Create an Executable File
What is a Library File?
What is a Library File?
A library file contains C codes that has already been
A library file contains C codes that has already been
written and is supplied in a ready-to-use form with the
written and is supplied in a ready-to-use form with the
compiler package.
compiler package.
In linking process, the object file produced during source
In linking process, the object file produced during source
code compilation is combined with object code from the
code compilation is combined with object code from the
function library to create the final executable program.
function library to create the final executable program.
Library File contains object code that has already been
Library File contains object code that has already been
written and is supplied in a ready-to-use form with your
written and is supplied in a ready-to-use form with your
compiler package.
compiler package.

4-4

4-4
A Brief History of
C language was created by Dennis Ritchie at Bell
A Brief History of
C language was created by Dennis Ritchie at Bell
C language
Telephone Laboratories in 1972.
C language
Telephone Laboratories in 1972.
Advantages of C
The development of C language is to design UNIX
The development of C language is to design UNIX
operating system (which is used on mainframe computers).
operating system (which is used on mainframe computers).
Readability
Advantages of C
Readability
Programs are easy to read.
Programs are easy to read.
Close to human languages, especially English.
Close to human languages, especially English.
C is a language of few words, containing only a handful
C is a language of few words, containing only a handful
of terms, called keywords, which serve as the base on
of terms, called keywords, which serve as the base on
which the language's functionality is built.
which the language's functionality is built.
Maintainability
Maintainability
Programs are easy to maintain.
Programs are easy to maintain.
Programs written in C can be reused. You can save your
Programs written in C can be reused. You can save your
C programs into a library file and invoke them in your
C programs into a library file and invoke them in your
next programming project simply by including the
next programming project simply by including the
library file.
library file.
Portability
Portability
Programs are easy to port across different computer

platforms.
It means that a C program written for one computer
Programs are easy to port across different computer

platforms.
It means that a C program written for one computer
system (an IBM PC, for example) can be compiled and
system (an IBM PC, for example) can be compiled and
run on another system (a DEC VAX system, perhaps)
run on another system (a DEC VAX system, perhaps)
with little or no modification.
with little or no modification.

4-5

4-5
Lowest high-level programming language
Lowest high-level programming language
C is the lowest high-level programming language
C is the lowest high-level programming language
because it is able to control computer hardware and
because it is able to control computer hardware and
peripherals easily.
peripherals easily.
C language softwareWe are going to use MS Visual
C language softwareWe are going to use MS Visual
C/C++ v6.0 for this module.
C/C++ v6.0 for this module.
Structure of C
Structure of C

4-6

4-6
Now, we have studied the basic language elements, the
Now, we have studied the basic language elements, the
character set, we will examine higher-level language
character set, we will examine higher-level language
constructs from a structural point of view. In general, a C
constructs from a structural point of view. In general, a C
program consists of following components:
program consists of following components:
1.
Program comments
1.
Program comments
2.
Preprocessor directives
2.
Preprocessor directives
3.
Type declarations
3.
Type declarations
4.
Named constant
4.
Named constant
5.
Statements
5.
Statements
6.
Function declarations (prototypes)
6.
Function declarations (prototypes)
7.
Function definitions
7.
Function definitions
8.
Function calls
8.
Function calls
Program
Comments are explanations or annotations that are included
Program
Comments are explanations or annotations that are included
Comments
in a program for documentation and clarification purposes.
Comments
in a program for documentation and clarification purposes.
Program comments are used to describe the purpose of a
Program comments are used to describe the purpose of a
program, function or statement.
program, function or statement.
Rules for Program Comments
Rules for Program Comments
1. The characters /* start a comment. A comment that
1. The characters /* start a comment. A comment that
starts with /* should be terminated by the characters */
starts with /* should be terminated by the characters */
2. /* comments cannot be nested
2. /* comments cannot be nested
3. The characters // also start a comments. Such
3. The characters // also start a comments. Such
comment terminates at the end of the line.

4-7
comment terminates at the end of the line.

4-7
The Structure of a C Program
Some examples of comments are given below:
Some examples of comments are given below:
// Preprocessor directives:
// Preprocessor directives:
/* Purpose: Calculates city tax of gross income */
/* Purpose: Calculates city tax of gross income */
Following are some style considerations concerning the use
Following are some style considerations concerning the use
program comments
program comments
1. Comments are valuable for enhancing the readability of
1. Comments are valuable for enhancing the readability of
a program. They should be meaningful, clear, relevant
a program. They should be meaningful, clear, relevant
and up-to-date.
and up-to-date.
2. Comments should not be redundant. If something is
2. Comments should not be redundant. If something is
clearly stated in the program, it should not be repeated
clearly stated in the program, it should not be repeated
in a comment. The following comment is redundant:
in a comment. The following comment is redundant:
/* Compute city tax as City Tax times the gross income */

city_tax = CITY_TAX_RATE * gross_income;
/* Compute city tax as City Tax times the gross income */

city_tax = CITY_TAX_RATE * gross_income;
3. Comments should be distinct and visually separated
3. Comments should be distinct and visually separated
from the program code. It is good to practice to
from the program code. It is good to practice to
highlight comment lines by using blank lines before and
highlight comment lines by using blank lines before and
after them.
after them.
Preprocessor
A preprocessor directive (also called a compiler directive)
Preprocessor
A preprocessor directive (also called a compiler directive)
Directives
is an instruction to the preprocessor. The preprocessor is
Directives
is an instruction to the preprocessor. The preprocessor is
part of the C compiler. It can perform three functions:
part of the C compiler. It can perform three functions:
1.
Inclusion of named files in a source program
1.
Inclusion of named files in a source program
2.
Conditional compilation
2.
Conditional compilation
3.
Macro substitution
3.
Macro substitution
Only name file inclusion will be discuss in this subject, as
Only name file inclusion will be discuss in this subject, as
its important.
its important.

4-8

4-8

Include Directive
The #include directive instructs the C compiler to add the

Include Directive
The #include directive instructs the C compiler to add the
contents of an include file into the program during
contents of an include file into the program during
compilation. Include files should all have an .H extension
compilation. Include files should all have an .H extension
(for example, STDIO.H).
(for example, STDIO.H).
We have the standard header file stdio.h, which contains the
We have the standard header file stdio.h, which contains the
declaration of the basic C input-output routines. When the
declaration of the basic C input-output routines. When the
compiler encounters this directive, it combines the content
compiler encounters this directive, it combines the content
of the header file stdio.h and the source program code and
of the header file stdio.h and the source program code and
proceeds with compilation.
proceeds with compilation.
Example useful code included in stdio.h such as
Example useful code included in stdio.h such as
printf()
Writes output to standard output stream
printf()
Writes output to standard output stream
scanf()
Reads input from the standard input stream
scanf()
Reads input from the standard input stream
Essentially, the #include directive is a text manipulation
Essentially, the #include directive is a text manipulation
facility. It causes a header file to be copied into the code and
facility. It causes a header file to be copied into the code and
compiled together with the rest of the program. There are
compiled together with the rest of the program. There are
many useful standard C header files.
many useful standard C header files.
Mathematical Functions (math.h)
Mathematical Functions (math.h)
sqrt()
Return the square root of x where x is radian
sqrt()
Return the square root of x where x is radian
exp()
Return the exponential of x with the base e
exp()
Return the exponential of x with the base e
where e is 2.718282
where e is 2.718282
General Utilities (stdlib.h)

rand()
abort()
Return a random number in range
General Utilities (stdlib.h)

0 to
rand()
Return a random number in range
0 to
RAND_MAX, where RAND_MAX is a
RAND_MAX, where RAND_MAX is a
symbolic constant that must be at least 32767
symbolic constant that must be at least 32767
Result in abnormal program termination and

returns control on the environment

4-9
abort()
Result in abnormal program termination and

returns control on the environment

4-9

exit()
Data Types and
exit()
Return normal program termination
void main()
Declarations
Data Types and
void main()
Declarations
Return normal program termination
double gross_income
double city_tax
double gross_income
double city_tax
These are type declaration of variables, telling the compiler
These are type declaration of variables, telling the compiler
that the program variables are floating-point variables. The
that the program variables are floating-point variables. The
type that a variable has determines some very significant
type that a variable has determines some very significant
characteristics about it. These characteristics include:
characteristics about it. These characteristics include:
1.
How it is stored internally
1.
How it is stored internally
2.
What operations can be applied to it
2.
What operations can be applied to it
3.
How such operations are interpreted
3.
How such operations are interpreted
We define data types as follows:
We define data types as follows:
A data type is a set of data values and a set of operations on
A data type is a set of data values and a set of operations on
those values.
those values.
In C languages, built in data types are classified as follows:
In C languages, built in data types are classified as follows:
1.
Fundamental data types
1.
Fundamental data types
2.
Derived data types
2.
Derived data types
A fundamental data type corresponds to the most common,
A fundamental data type corresponds to the most common,
fundamental storage units of a computer and the most
fundamental storage units of a computer and the most
common, fundamental ways of using such data.
common, fundamental ways of using such data.
There are 3 classes of fundamental data types in C:
There are 3 classes of fundamental data types in C:
1. int
1. int
Used to declare numeric program variables of integer
Used to declare numeric program variables of integer
type. It can only store positive and negative integers in
type. It can only store positive and negative integers in
the range of -32,768 through 32,767
the range of -32,768 through 32,767

4-10

4-10
We can use signed, unsigned or plain integer values as
We can use signed, unsigned or plain integer values as
follows:
follows:
signed int index = 41982;
signed int index = 41982;
signed int temperature = -32;
signed int temperature = -32;
unsigned int count = 0;
unsigned int count = 0;
int height = 100;
int height = 100;
int balance = -67;
int balance = -67;
Signed integers can hold positive or negative values, and
Signed integers can hold positive or negative values, and
unsigned integers can hold only positive values.
unsigned integers can hold only positive values.
However, plain integer can always hold positive or
However, plain integer can always hold positive or
negative values, they're always signed.
negative values, they're always signed.
Integer values come in three sizes, plain int, short int
Integer values come in three sizes, plain int, short int
and long int.
and long int.
int normal = 1000;
int normal = 1000;
short int smallValue = 100;
short int smallValue = 100;
long int bigValue = 10000;
long int bigValue = 10000;
2. char
2. char
Used to declare character variables. A character variable
Used to declare character variables. A character variable
stores any printable or non-printable character in the
stores any printable or non-printable character in the
computers. Such characters are represented in one byte
computers. Such characters are represented in one byte
(8 bits) of the computers memory.
(8 bits) of the computers memory.
3. float
3. float
Floating point types can contain decimal numbers, for
Floating point types can contain decimal numbers, for
example 1.23, -.087. There are three sizes, float (single-
example 1.23, -.087. There are three sizes, float (single-
precision), double (double-precision) and long double
precision), double (double-precision) and long double
(extended-precision). Some examples:
(extended-precision). Some examples:
float celsius = 37.623;
float celsius = 37.623;
double fahrenheit = 98.415;
double fahrenheit = 98.415;
long double accountBalance = 1897.23;
long double accountBalance = 1897.23;

4-11

4-11

Name Constant
Another component that we may encounter in a C program

Name Constant
Another component that we may encounter in a C program
is a name constant. A name constant is an identifier whose
is a name constant. A name constant is an identifier whose
values is fixed and does not change during the execution of
values is fixed and does not change during the execution of
a program which it appears.
a program which it appears.
In C, the declaration of a named constant begins with the
In C, the declaration of a named constant begins with the
keywords const, continues with a type specifier for the
keywords const, continues with a type specifier for the
constant. Once an identifier is defined as a named constant,
constant. Once an identifier is defined as a named constant,
its value cannot be changed. For example, an attempt to
its value cannot be changed. For example, an attempt to
reinitialize CITY_TAX_RATE using a statement such as:
reinitialize CITY_TAX_RATE using a statement such as:
const CITY_TAX_RATE = 0.0175
const CITY_TAX_RATE = 0.0175
For the above example, an attempt to reinitialize
For the above example, an attempt to reinitialize
CITY_TAX_RATE using a statement such as:
CITY_TAX_RATE using a statement such as:
CITY_TAX_RATE = 0.0185
CITY_TAX_RATE = 0.0185
will result an error.
will result an error.
After define a named constant in a program, we can use the
After define a named constant in a program, we can use the
corresponding identifier in any statement in the rest of the
corresponding identifier in any statement in the rest of the
code. We can write equivalently
code. We can write equivalently
city_tax = CITY_TAX_RATE * gross_income
city_tax = CITY_TAX_RATE * gross_income

4-12

4-12
Statements
Statements
A statement is a specification of an action to be taken by the
A statement is a specification of an action to be taken by the
computer as program executes.
computer as program executes.
Every statement in C, if correct, does what it is expected to
Every statement in C, if correct, does what it is expected to
do and then passes the program control to the next statement
do and then passes the program control to the next statement
in the program.
in the program.
Compound
A compound statement (also called a block) is a list of
Compound
A compound statement (also called a block) is a list of
Statements
statements enclosed in braces { }.
Statements
statements enclosed in braces { }.
{
Statement;
Statement;
{
Statement;
Statement;
}
Statement;
Statement;
{
Statement;
Statement;
}
}
You should note that, although all C statements must end
You should note that, although all C statements must end
with semicolons, a compound statement does not need the
with semicolons, a compound statement does not need the
semicolon after the right brace, }.
semicolon after the right brace, }.

4-13

4-13

Function Heading
The main( ) function consists of the name main

Function Heading
followed by a pair of empty parentheses, ( ) and a pair
followed by a pair of empty parentheses, ( ) and a pair
of braces, {}.
of braces, {}.
Within the braces are statements that make up the main
body of the program.
The main( ) function consists of the name main
Program execution starts at the first statement in main( )

and terminates at the last statement in main( ).
Within the braces are statements that make up the main

body of the program.
Program execution starts at the first statement in main( )

and terminates at the last statement in main( ).
The simplest function is the function main. The definition of
The simplest function is the function main. The definition of
the function main consists of
the function main consists of
1. A type specifier
1. A type specifier
2. The keyword main
2. The keyword main
3. A null argument list ()
3. A null argument list ()
4. A compound statement
4. A compound statement
And look like this:
And look like this:
Type specifier main()

{
Statement;
Statement;
{
Statement;
Statement;
}
}
Type specifier main()

{
Statement;
Statement;
{
Statement;
Statement;
}
}
The function main is of type void: it does many things, but
The function main is of type void: it does many things, but
it does not return a value. Each C program must have one
it does not return a value. Each C program must have one
main function. The function main in a program marks the
main function. The function main in a program marks the
entry point of the program.
entry point of the program.

4-14

4-14

End
Place a command, getch ( ) before the last braces of

End
the program.
The purpose of getch ( ) is to ensure that the program
Place a command, getch ( ) before the last braces of

the program.
The purpose of getch ( ) is to ensure that the program
will pause at the output mode (DOS base) until we press
will pause at the output mode (DOS base) until we press
any key to return to the source code.
any key to return to the source code.

4-15

4-15

MS Visual
Source Code Editor
C/C++ 6.0
Main Menu
Windows

MS Visual
Source Code Editor
C/C++ 6.0
Main Menu
Windows
o File
o File
o Edit
o Edit
o Search
o Search
o Run
o Run
o Compile
o Compile
o Debug
o Debug
o Project
o Project
o Option
o Option
o Window
o Window
o Help
o Help
Message window
Message window
Source Code
Source code editor is similar as the text window in Microsoft
Source Code
Source code editor is similar as the text window in Microsoft
Editor
Word. The programmer types all the programming languages
Editor
Word. The programmer types all the programming languages
in this editor.
Message Window
Message window is used to display all the errors during the
in this editor.
Message Window
compilation of the source code.

Variables
A variable is a named data storage location in your
Message window is used to display all the errors during the

compilation of the source code.
Variables
computer's memory.
A variable is a named data storage location in your

computer's memory.
Variable
A variable declaration has the following form:
Variable
A variable declaration has the following form:
Declarations
variable type varname ;
Declarations
variable type varname ;
int count, number, start;
int count, number, start;
float percent, total;
float percent, total;

4-16

4-16

Variable Names
The name can contain letters, digits, and the underscore

Variable Names
character (_).
The name can contain letters, digits, and the underscore

character (_).
The first character of the name must be a letter. The
The first character of the name must be a letter. The
underscore is also a legal first character, but its use is not
underscore is also a legal first character, but its use is not
recommended.
recommended.
Case matters (that is, upper- and lowercase letters). Thus,
Case matters (that is, upper- and lowercase letters). Thus,
the names count and Count refer to two different
the names count and Count refer to two different
variables.
variables.
C keywords(refer to Appendix A) can't be used as
C keywords(refer to Appendix A) can't be used as
variable names. A keyword is a word that is part of the C
variable names. A keyword is a word that is part of the C
language.
language.
Example
Variable Name
Example
Legality
Variable Name
Legality
Percent
Legal
Percent
Legal
y2x5__fg7h
Legal
y2x5__fg7h
Legal
annual_profit
Legal
annual_profit
Legal
_1990_tax
Legal but not advised
_1990_tax
Legal but not advised
savings#account
Illegal: The illegal character #
savings#account
Illegal: The illegal character #
double
Illegal: Is a C keyword
double
Illegal: Is a C keyword
9winter
Illegal: First character is a digit
9winter
Illegal: First character is a digit
Numeric
Numeric
Variable Types
Variable Types

4-17

4-17
Fundamentals of
Display information on-screen with printf( ) library function.
Fundamentals of
Display information on-screen with printf( ) library function.
Input and
Read data from the keyboard with scanf( ) library function
Input and
Read data from the keyboard with scanf( ) library function
Output
scanf( )
Output
The most flexible way for a program to read numeric
scanf( )
The most flexible way for a program to read numeric
data from the keyboard is by using the scanf( ) library
data from the keyboard is by using the scanf( ) library
function.
function.
The scanf( ) function reads data from the keyboard
The scanf( ) function reads data from the keyboard
according to a specified format and assigns the input
according to a specified format and assigns the input
data to one or more program variables.
data to one or more program variables.
The format of scanf command is
The format of scanf command is
The whole command means the integer number received from
The whole command means the integer number received from
the keyboard is located in a variable called number1.
the keyboard is located in a variable called number1.
Refer to Appendix 4-1

4-18

4-18
Conversion
Conversion
Specifier
Specifier
REMEMBER...
REMEMBER...
Ensure that the conversion specifier used matches the variable
Ensure that the conversion specifier used matches the variable
declaration.
declaration.
int num1;
int num1;
printf(Please enter number:);

scanf(%c, &num1);

scanf(%c, &num1);
SOMETIMES, the compiler WILL NOT prompt an
error message even though there is a mismatch.
SOMETIMES, the compiler WILL NOT prompt an

error message even though there is a mismatch.
Do not place an escape sequence within the double quote for
Do not place an escape sequence within the double quote for
scanf command.
scanf command.
int num1;
int num1;

scanf(%d\n, &num1);

scanf(%d\n, &num1);
The compiler WILL NOT prompt an error message if

you do so.

4-19

you do so.

4-19

printf( )
The printf( ) function reads data from the variable according to

printf( )
The printf( ) function reads data from the variable according to
a specified format and display on the screen.
a specified format and display on the screen.
Types of printf() Format Strings
Types of printf() Format Strings
1. Literal text
1. Literal text
Literal text is displayed exactly as entered in the format string
Literal text is displayed exactly as entered in the format string
2. Escape sequence
2. Escape sequence
An escape sequence provides special formatting
control.
An escape sequence consists of a backslash (\) followed

by a single character.
3. Conversion specifier
Applied when the display involves the variables.

4-20
An escape sequence provides special formatting

control.
An escape sequence consists of a backslash (\) followed

by a single character.
3. Conversion specifier
Applied when the display involves the variables.

4-20
REMEMBER ...
REMEMBER ...
Ensure that the conversion specifier used matches the

variable declaration.
variable declaration.
int num1=10;
int num1=10;
printf(Value for num1 is %c, num1);
printf(Value for num1 is %c, num1);
o SOMETIMES, the compiler WILL NOT prompt
o SOMETIMES, the compiler WILL NOT prompt
an error message even though there is a
an error message even though there is a
mismatch.
mismatch.
Place the comma after the double quote.
Place the comma after the double quote.
printf(Value for num1 is %d num1);
printf(Value for num1 is %d num1);
o The compiler will prompt an error message if
o The compiler will prompt an error message if
you misplaced the comma.
Ensure that the conversion specifier used matches the
Do not place the ampersand sign for printf command
you misplaced the comma.
Do not place the ampersand sign for printf command
printf(Value for num1 is %d, &num1);
printf(Value for num1 is %d, &num1);
o The compiler WILL NOT prompt an error
o The compiler WILL NOT prompt an error
message if you place an ampersand sign.

4-21
message if you place an ampersand sign.

4-21
Operators
Operators
Operators are tokens that result in some kind of
Operators are tokens that result in some kind of
computation or action when applied to variables or other
computation or action when applied to variables or other
elements in an expression.
elements in an expression.
Now, lets look at operational method. We have 4 type of
Now, lets look at operational method. We have 4 type of
operators which is:
operators which is:
1. The assignment operator
1. The assignment operator
2. Arithmetic operators
2. Arithmetic operators
3. Relational operators
3. Relational operators
4. Logical operators
4. Logical operators
Let's look for more details.
Let's look for more details.
Assignment
The assignment operator is the equal sign, =.
Assignment
The assignment operator is the equal sign, =.
operator
In C, the equal sign indicates copying of data within
operator
In C, the equal sign indicates copying of data within
variables.

4-22
variables.

4-22
Operators
Operators
Arithmetic
We can form more complicated arithmetic expressions by
Arithmetic
We can form more complicated arithmetic expressions by
Operators
using arithmetic operators. There are 2 types of arithmetic
Operators
using arithmetic operators. There are 2 types of arithmetic
operators in C: unary arithmetic operators and binary
operators in C: unary arithmetic operators and binary
arithmetic operators.
arithmetic operators.
Unary mathematical operators are operators that require
Unary mathematical operators are operators that require
one operand.
one operand.
Auto-increment, ++
Auto-increment, ++
For example: ++x , x++
Auto-decrement, - -
For example: - -x , x- -
For example: ++x , x++
Auto-decrement, - -
For example: - -x , x- -
Binary mathematical operator are operators that require
Binary mathematical operator are operators that require
two operands:
two operands:

4-23

4-23
Operators
Operators
Relational
An expression that computes two expressions using a
Relational
An expression that computes two expressions using a
Operators
relational operators. There are 6 relational expressions in
Operators
relational operators. There are 6 relational expressions in
C:
Logical Operators
In general, the logical expression is one that computes to
C:
Logical Operators
In general, the logical expression is one that computes to
either true or false.
either true or false.
Refer to Appendix 4-4 to 4-9 for more examples..
Refer to Appendix 4-4 to 4-9 for more examples..

4-24

4-24
Summary
Summary
This chapter at a
There must have one function called main().
glance
Place an empty parentheses (( )) after the main function
This chapter at a
There must have one function called main().
glance
Place an empty parentheses (( )) after the main function
name
name
Place a pair of braces ({}) after main ( ) to indicate the
start and end of the program.
Place a pair of braces ({}) after main ( ) to indicate the

start and end of the program.
Every program statement must end with semicolon
except main ( ) & include directive.
Every program statement must end with semicolon

except main ( ) & include directive.
C is a case sensitive programming.
C is a case sensitive programming.
Number of open braces { must be equal to number of
Number of open braces { must be equal to number of
close braces } within the whole program.
clrscr ( ) is used to clear the screen.
Place
the
command
clrscr()
after
close braces } within the whole program.
the
variable
clrscr ( ) is used to clear the screen.
Place
declaration.
the
command
clrscr()
after
the
variable
declaration.
Place the comment by using command /*..*/
Place the comment by using command /*..*/
The C compiler isn't sensitive to spaces, tabs, and blank
The C compiler isn't sensitive to spaces, tabs, and blank
lines in the source code.

4-25
lines in the source code.

4-25
Outcome 5
Outcome 5
Basic Program Control
Basic Program Control
Structures
Structures
Controlling Program Execution

Introduction
The C language includes a variety of program control
Introduction
The C language includes a variety of program control
statements that let you control the order of program
statements that let you control the order of program
execution. Frequently in a program, we may want to execute
execution. Frequently in a program, we may want to execute
a block of code repeatedly, a finite number of times, until a
a block of code repeatedly, a finite number of times, until a
certain task is accomplished. For this purpose we use
certain task is accomplished. For this purpose we use
repetition statements.
repetition statements.
For statement
For statement
Nested for statement
Nested for statement
While statement
While statement
Nested while statement
Nested while statement
Do..while statement
Do..while statement
Nested Do..while statement
Nested Do..while statement
Purpose of
The purpose of using the looping command is to shorten the
Purpose of
The purpose of using the looping command is to shorten the
Looping
program,
Looping
program,
FOR Statement
which
involves
repeated
task.
Every
which
involves
repeated
task.
Every
programming language has constructs that can be used to
programming language has constructs that can be used to
define controlled repetition (or loops) on a program block.
define controlled repetition (or loops) on a program block.
A program block that is executed repeatedly by a repetition
A program block that is executed repeatedly by a repetition
statement is called its loop body.
statement is called its loop body.
A FOR statement has the following structure:
Outcome 5: Basic Program Control
FOR Statement
A FOR statement has the following structure:

5-1
5-1
For example,
For example,
for (time = 2 am ; time <=10 pm ; time=time + 2 hours)
for (time = 2 am ; time <=10 pm ; time=time + 2 hours)
{
task 1;
task 1;
task 2;
task 2;
task 3;
task 3;
task 4;
task 4;
In flowchart, this code represent by:
In flowchart, this code represent by:
Example with C expression:
Example with C expression:
for (count1=1 ; count1<=20 ; ++count1)

5-2
5-2
task 1;
task 1;
task 2;
task 2;
}
task 3;
task 3;
Refer Appendix 5-1 to look at the example of FOR
Refer Appendix 5-1 to look at the example of FOR
statement.
statement.
The flow of FOR statement for Appendix 5-1 is
The flow of FOR statement for Appendix 5-1 is
Initial, condition, and increment are all C expressions, and
Initial, condition, and increment are all C expressions, and
statement is a single or compound C statement. When a for
statement is a single or compound C statement. When a for
statement is encountered during program execution, the
statement is encountered during program execution, the
following events occur:
The expression initial is evaluated. initial is usually
The expression initial is evaluated. initial is usually
an assignment statement that sets a variable to a
an assignment statement that sets a variable to a
particular value.
particular value.

5-3
5-3
The expression condition is evaluated. Condition is

typically a relational expression.
The expression condition is evaluated. Condition is

typically a relational expression.
If condition evaluates to false (that is, as zero), the
If condition evaluates to false (that is, as zero), the
FOR statement terminates, and execution passes to
FOR statement terminates, and execution passes to
the first statement following statement.
the first statement following statement.
If condition evaluates to true (that is, as nonzero),
If condition evaluates to true (that is, as nonzero),
the C statement(s) in statement are executed. The
the C statement(s) in statement are executed. The
expression increment is evaluated, and execution
expression increment is evaluated, and execution
returns to step 2.
returns to step 2.
In FOR statement, the variable for initial statement,
In FOR statement, the variable for initial statement,
condition and increment can be a different variable.
condition and increment can be a different variable.
For example,
For example,
for (count1=1 ; count3<=20 ; count2 = count2+2 )
for (count1=1 ; count3<=20 ; count2 = count2+2 )
{
task 1;
task 1;
task 2;
task 2;
}
task 3;
task 3;
Refer Appendix 5-2 to look at the example...
Nested FOR
A FOR statement can be executed within another for
Nested FOR
A FOR statement can be executed within another for
Statement
statement. This is called nesting. By nesting FOR
Statement
statement. This is called nesting. By nesting FOR
statements, you can do some complex programming. The
statements, you can do some complex programming. The
nested FOR statement will be applied in the array section.
nested FOR statement will be applied in the array section.

5-4
5-4


task 1;
task 1;
for (count2=1;count2<=10 ; ++count2)
for (count2=1;count2<=10 ; ++count2)
{
task 2;
task 3;
task 2;
FOR loop
within the
outer loop
task 3;
}
task 4;
FOR loop
within the
outer loop
task 4;
Refer to Appendix 5-3 for the example of Nested FOR
Refer to Appendix 5-3 for the example of Nested FOR
Statement...
Statement...

5-5
5-5
Multiple FOR loop:
Multiple FOR loop:
for (count1 =1; count1<=20 ; ++count1)
{
task 1;
task 1;
for (count2=1; count2<=10; ++count2)
for (count2=1; count2<=10; ++count2)
{
task 2;
task 2;
for (count3=5; count3>0; - - count3)
{
task 3;
task 3;
}
REMEMBER...
1. Do not place a semicolon after FOR statement

for (count1 =1; count1<=20 ; ++count1);
REMEMBER...
1. Do not place a semicolon after FOR statement

for (count1 =1; count1<=20 ; ++count1);
The compiler WILL NOT prompt an error
message if the semicolon is placed after FOR
message if the semicolon is placed after FOR
statement.
statement.
The misplaced of semicolon will
cause the compiler to skip FOR statement.
cause the compiler to skip FOR statement.
2. Place curly braces after FOR statement if there is more
2. Place curly braces after FOR statement if there is more
than ONE expression/statements under this FOR loop.
than ONE expression/statements under this FOR loop.
task 3;
task 3;
task 4;
task 4;

message. If this case occurs, only the statement


5-6
5-6
after FOR statement is consider belongs to this
after FOR statement is consider belongs to this
FOR loop. The rest are considered outside FOR
FOR loop. The rest are considered outside FOR
loop.
loop.
3. Ensure that the condition in FOR statement is valid.
3. Ensure that the condition in FOR statement is valid.
for (count3=10; count3>0; count3++)
for (count3=10; count3>0; count3++)
{
task 3;
task 3;
task 4;
task 4;
message if the condition is invalid. The output
of the program may continue looping
(like
(like
screen saver). Press Ctrl + Break to stop the
looping and return to the source code editor to
find the error(s).
find the error(s).
4. Ensure that the number of close curly braces and open

curly braces is same.
{

{
task 1;
task 1;
task 2;
task 2;
{
task 3;
task 3;

5-7
5-7
The compiler prompts a message Compound
statement missing } in function main and the
last curly brace is highlighted. Do not place the
missing } in highlighted position. Troubleshoot
your program step by step to look for the missing
}.
}.
WHILE
The WHILE statement, also called the while loop, executes
WHILE
The WHILE statement, also called the while loop, executes
Statement
a block of statements as long as a specified condition is true.
Statement
a block of statements as long as a specified condition is true.
The while statement has the following form:
The while statement has the following form:
while (condition)
{
task 1;
task 2;
}
while (condition)
{
Condition is the
requirement / prerequisite to
execute the tasks within the
open braces and close
braces
task 1;
task 2;
}
Condition is the
requirement / prerequisite to
execute the tasks within the
open braces and close
braces
The WHILE statement DOES NOT contain an initialisation
The WHILE statement DOES NOT contain an initialisation
section. Thus, we must take care of initializing any variables
section. Thus, we must take care of initializing any variables
before starting WHILE statement. The increment section of
before starting WHILE statement. The increment section of
WHILE statement is done within the statement of the
WHILE statement is done within the statement of the
looping (within the curly braces).
looping (within the curly braces).
For example,
For example,
time = 2 am ;
while (time <=10 pm )
{
task 1;
task 2;
time = time + 2 hours;
}
The initialisation is not part of the

format for while statement.
This statement is considered
as a C statement. Thus, this
statement is not a FORMAT
of while statement
time = 2 am ;
while (time <=10 pm )
{
task 1;
task 2;
}

5-8
5-8

format for while statement.
of while statement
WHILE Statement Flowchart:
WHILE Statement Flowchart:
When program execution reaches a WHILE statement, the
When program execution reaches a WHILE statement, the
The expression condition is evaluated.
The expression condition is evaluated.
If condition evaluates to false , the while statement
If condition evaluates to false , the while statement
terminates, and execution passes to the first
terminates, and execution passes to the first
statement following statement.
statement following statement.
If condition evaluates to true, the C statement(s) in
statement are executed.
Execution returns to step 1.
If condition evaluates to true, the C statement(s) in

statement are executed.
Execution returns to step 1.

5-9
5-9
The example of C expression,
count1 = 1;
while (count1<=10)
{
task 1;
task 2;
++count1;
}
count1 = 1;
while (count1<=10)
{
task 1;
task 2;
++count1;
}
Refer Appendix 5-4 for the example of WHILE loop...
Refer Appendix 5-4 for the example of WHILE loop...
Difference
In general, anything that can be done with a FOR statement
Difference
In general, anything that can be done with a FOR statement
between FOR and
can also be done with a WHILE statement. Since, the
between FOR and
can also be done with a WHILE statement. Since, the
WHILE statement
increment section is a separate statement, we may forget to
WHILE statement
increment section is a separate statement, we may forget to
include the statement in WHILE statement.
include the statement in WHILE statement.
If this case happens, the program wouldnt know when to
If this case happens, the program wouldnt know when to
stop. Thus, FOR loop is preferred compare with WHILE
stop. Thus, FOR loop is preferred compare with WHILE
loop.
loop.
Nested While
The nested WHILE statement is very similar with the nested
Nested While
The nested WHILE statement is very similar with the nested
Statement
FOR statement. The differences are the initialisation and
Statement
FOR statement. The differences are the initialisation and
increment section for WHILE statement is separated
increment section for WHILE statement is separated
whereby the initialisation and increment section are
whereby the initialisation and increment section are
combined in a single statement for FOR loop.
combined in a single statement for FOR loop.
count1=1;
while (count1<=20)
{
task 1;
count2=1;
while (count2<=5)
{
task 2;
++count2;
}
task 4;
++count1;
}
count1=1;
while (count1<=20)
{
task 1;
count2=1;
while (count2<=5)
{
task 2;
++count2;
}
task 4;
++count1;
}

5-10
5-10
REMEMBER...
Refer to Appendix 5-5 for the example of Nested
Refer to Appendix 5-5 for the example of Nested
WHILE statement...
WHILE statement...
1. Do not place a semicolon after WHILE statement
REMEMBER...
1. Do not place a semicolon after WHILE statement
while (count1<=20);
while (count1<=20);
message if the semicolon is placed after WHILE
message if the semicolon is placed after WHILE
statement.
statement.
cause the compiler to skip WHILE statement.
cause the compiler to skip WHILE statement.
2. Place curly braces after WHILE statement if there is
2. Place curly braces after WHILE statement if there is
more than ONE expressions / statements under this
more than ONE expressions / statements under this
WHILE loop.
WHILE loop.
while (count1<=20)
task 1;
count2=1;
while (count1<=20)
task 1;
count2=1;

5-11
5-11
after WHILE statement is consider belongs to
after WHILE statement is consider belongs to
this WHILE loop. The rest of the expressions
this WHILE loop. The rest of the expressions
are considered outside WHILE loop.
are considered outside WHILE loop.
3. Ensure that the condition in WHILE statement is valid.
3. Ensure that the condition in WHILE statement is valid.
while (count1>0)
task 1;
count2=1;
while (count1>0)
task 1;
count2=1;
(like
(like
find the error(s).
find the error(s).
count1=1;
while (count1<=20)
{
task 1;
count2=1;
while (count2<=5)
{
task 2;
++count2;
}
task 4;
++count1;
count1=1;
while (count1<=20)
{
task 1;
count2=1;
while (count2<=5)
{
task 2;
++count2;
}
task 4;
++count1;

5-12
5-12
} .
} .
DOWHILE
The DO...WHILE loop tests the condition at the end of the
DOWHILE
The DO...WHILE loop tests the condition at the end of the
Statement
loop rather than at the beginning, as is done by FOR loop
Statement
loop rather than at the beginning, as is done by FOR loop
and WHILE loop.
and WHILE loop.
The structure of DO...WHILE loop is as follows:
The structure of DO...WHILE loop is as follows:
do
Condition is the requirement / prerequisite
{
to execute the tasks within the open
braces and close braces
task 1;
task 2;
} while (condition);
do
Condition is the requirement / prerequisite
{
to execute the tasks within the open
braces and close braces
task 1;
task 2;
} while (condition);
The statements associated with a DO...WHILE loop are
The statements associated with a DO...WHILE loop are
always executed at least once. This is because the test
always executed at least once. This is because the test
condition is evaluated at the end of the loop.
condition is evaluated at the end of the loop.
In contrast, FOR loops and WHILE loops evaluate the test
In contrast, FOR loops and WHILE loops evaluate the test
condition at the start of the loop, so the associated
condition at the start of the loop, so the associated
statements are not executed at all if the test condition is
statements are not executed at all if the test condition is
initially false. The DO...WHILE loop is used less frequently
initially false. The DO...WHILE loop is used less frequently
than WHILE and FOR loops.
than WHILE and FOR loops.
For example,
For example,

time = 2 am ;
format for do...while statement.
do
{
task 1;
task 2;
} while (time <=10 pm );
of do...while statement

time = 2 am ;
format for do...while statement.
do
{
task 1;
task 2;
} while (time <=10 pm );
of do...while statement
5-13
5-13
When program execution reaches a DO...WHILE statement,
When program execution reaches a DO...WHILE statement,
the following events occur:
the following events occur:
The statements in statement are executed.
The statements in statement are executed.
Condition is evaluated. If it's true, execution returns
Condition is evaluated. If it's true, execution returns
to step 1. If it's false, the loop terminates.
REMEMBER...
to step 1. If it's false, the loop terminates.
count1 = 1;
do
{
task 1;
task 2;
++count1;
} while (count1<=10);
count1 = 1;
do
{
task 1;
task 2;
++count1;
} while (count1<=10);
Refer Appendix 5-6 for example of DOWHILE loop...
Refer Appendix 5-6 for example of DOWHILE loop...
1. Do not place a semicolon after DO statement
REMEMBER...
1. Do not place a semicolon after DO statement
count1 = 1;
do;
count1 = 1;
do;

5-14
5-14
message if the semicolon is placed after
message if the semicolon is placed after
DOWHILE statement.
DOWHILE statement.
The misplaced of
semicolon will cause the compiler to skip
semicolon will cause the compiler to skip
DOWHILE statement.
DOWHILE statement.
2. Ensure the condition in DOWHILE statement is valid.
2. Ensure the condition in DOWHILE statement is valid.
count1 = 30;
do
{
task 1;
task 2;
++count1;
} while (count1>10);
3. Place
The misplaced of
count1 = 30;
do
{
task 1;
task 2;
++count1;
(like
(like
find the error(s).
find the error(s).
semicolon
after
WHILE
statement
for
DOWHILE loop.
3. Place
semicolon
statement
for
The compiler prompt an error message
The compiler prompt an error message
Do-while statement misssing ; in function
Do-while statement misssing ; in function
main. and the last curly brace is
main. and the last curly brace is
highlighted. Do not place the missing ;
highlighted. Do not place the missing ;
in highlighted position. Troubleshoot
in highlighted position. Troubleshoot
your program step by step to look for the
your program step by step to look for the
missing ; .
missing ; .

5-15
WHILE
DOWHILE loop.
after
5-15
Outcome 6
Outcome 6
Selection Control
Selection Control
Structures
Structures
Module
In this chapter you will learn about:
Module
Objectives
Objectives
Simple selection control structures
Simple selection control structures
o Selection using If statement
o Selection using If statement
o Using the Multiple If statement
o Using the Multiple If statement
o Nested if statement
o Nested if statement
o If.else statement
o If.else statement
o Nested If.Else statement
o Nested If.Else statement
o Switch and Break Statement
o Switch and Break Statement
In previous chapter, we learned that the selection control
In previous chapter, we learned that the selection control
structures are one of the fundamental elements in algorithm
structures are one of the fundamental elements in algorithm
design. Its purpose is to execute one of the several possible
design. Its purpose is to execute one of the several possible
alternatives using an appropriate selection criterion. Every
alternatives using an appropriate selection criterion. Every
programming language, including C, has some language
programming language, including C, has some language
constructs that correspond to the selection control structure.
constructs that correspond to the selection control structure.
Outcome 6: Selection Structure

6-1
6-1
IF Statement
The selection control structures are control statements that
The selection control structures are control statements that
select alternative statements for execution based on the
select alternative statements for execution based on the
result of the test.
result of the test.
The C language includes a variety of selection control
The C language includes a variety of selection control
structures that let us control the program execution.
structures that let us control the program execution.
If statement
If statement
Ifelse statement
Ifelse statement
Ifelse if statement
Ifelse if statement
Switch and Break statement
Switch and Break statement
An IF statement has the following structure:

if (condition)
{
task 1 ;
task 2 ;
task 3 ;
task 4 ;
}
task 5;
Condition is the
requirement /
prerequisite to
execute the tasks
The selection control structure represent by flowchart:
IF Statement
An IF statement has the following structure:

if (condition)
{
task 1 ;
task 2 ;
task 3 ;
task 4 ;
}
task 5;
The selection control structure represent by flowchart:

6-2
Condition is the
requirement /
prerequisite to
execute the tasks
6-2
REMEMBER...
if ((number >3)&& ( number < 20))

{
task 1 ;
task 2 ;
task 3 ;
task 4 ;
}
task 5;
if ((number >3)&& ( number < 20))

{
task 1 ;
task 2 ;
task 3 ;
task 4 ;
}
task 5;
Refer Appendix 6-1 to look at example of IF statement
Refer Appendix 6-1 to look at example of IF statement
Do not place a semicolon after IF statement
REMEMBER...
if ((number >3)&& (number < 20));
Do not place a semicolon after IF statement

if ((number >3)&& (number < 20));
o The compiler WILL NOT prompt an error message
o The compiler WILL NOT prompt an error message
if the semicolon is placed after IF statement. The
if the semicolon is placed after IF statement. The
misplaced of semicolon will cause the compiler to
misplaced of semicolon will cause the compiler to
skip IF statement. It means all the statement under IF
skip IF statement. It means all the statement under IF
statements are executed without checking the
statements are executed without checking the
condition.
condition.
Place curly braces after IF statement if there is more
than ONE expressions / statements under IF statement.
Place curly braces after IF statement if there is more

than ONE expressions / statements under IF statement.
if ((number >3)&& (number < 20))

task 1 ;
task 2 ;
if ((number >3)&& (number < 20))

task 1 ;
task 2 ;
o The compiler WILL NOT prompts an error
o The compiler WILL NOT prompts an error
message. If this case occurs, only a single
message. If this case occurs, only a single
statement after IF statement is consider belongs
statement after IF statement is consider belongs
to this IF statement. The rest of the expressions
to this IF statement. The rest of the expressions
are considered outside IF statement.
are considered outside IF statement.

6-3
6-3
Multiple IF
For example,
Multiple IF
For example,
Statement
if (condition1)
{
task 1 ;
task 2;
}
if ( condition2)
{
task 3 ;
task 4 ;
}
Statement
if (condition1)
{
task 1 ;
task 2;
}
if ( condition2)
{
task 3 ;
task 4 ;
}
Nested IF
Refer Appendix 6-2 to look at the example of Multiple IF
Refer Appendix 6-2 to look at the example of Multiple IF
statement
statement
For example,
Nested IF
Statement
For example,
Statement
if (condition1)
{
task 1 ;
if ( condition2)
{
task 2 ;
task 3 ;
}
if (condition1)
{
task 1 ;
if ( condition2)
{
task 2 ;
task 3 ;
}
task 4;
}
task 4;
}
Refer Appendix 6-3 to look at the example of Nested IF
Refer Appendix 6-3 to look at the example of Nested IF
statement
statement
IF-ELSE
Essentially, the IF statement is used to implement two-way
IF-ELSE
Essentially, the IF statement is used to implement two-way
Statement
selection. The IF-ELSE statement lets us choose between
Statement
selection. The IF-ELSE statement lets us choose between
two alternative statements.
two alternative statements.
If the condition is true, one set of statement(s) to be
If the condition is true, one set of statement(s) to be
executed. If the condition is false, another set of
executed. If the condition is false, another set of
statement(s) to be executed.
statement(s) to be executed.

6-4
6-4

The general form of IF-ELSE statement is

The general form of IF-ELSE statement is
if (condition1)
{
task 1 ;
task 2;
}
else
{
task 3;
task 4;
}
task 5;
if (condition1)
{
task 1 ;
task 2;
}
else
{
task 3;
task 4;
}
task 5;
The flowchart shows the logic of IF statement graphically.
The flowchart shows the logic of IF statement graphically.
In executing an if statement, the computer goes through the
In executing an if statement, the computer goes through the
following sequence of operations:
following sequence of operations:
1. Evaluate the parenthesized expression.
1. Evaluate the parenthesized expression.
2. If the computed value of the expression is true,
2. If the computed value of the expression is true,
execute Task1 & 2, and bypass Task3 & 4, dropping
execute Task1 & 2, and bypass Task3 & 4, dropping
down to the Task5 and other statement that follows
down to the Task5 and other statement that follows
the entire if statement.
the entire if statement.
3. If the expression evaluate to false, it will bypass
3. If the expression evaluate to false, it will bypass
Task 1& 2, and execute Task 3 & 4.
Task 1& 2, and execute Task 3 & 4.
Refer Appendix 6-4 to look at the example of IF-ELSE
Refer Appendix 6-4 to look at the example of IF-ELSE
statement.
statement.

6-5
6-5
Relational
Conditional expressions are formed using relational and
Relational
Conditional expressions are formed using relational and
Operators and
logical operators. In this chapter we will study only
Operators and
logical operators. In this chapter we will study only
Simple Predicates
relational operators. An expression that compares two
Simple Predicates
relational operators. An expression that compares two
expressions using a relational operator is called a simple
expressions using a relational operator is called a simple
predicate. A simple predicate compute to either 1 (for true)
predicate. A simple predicate compute to either 1 (for true)
or 0 (for false). There are six relational operators in C:
or 0 (for false). There are six relational operators in C:
1. Equal-to, ==
1. Equal-to, ==
2. Not-equal-to, !=
2. Not-equal-to, !=
3. Less-than, <
3. Less-than, <
4. Less-than-or-equal-to, <=
4. Less-than-or-equal-to, <=
5. Greater-than, >
5. Greater-than, >
6. Greater-than-or-equal-to, >=
6. Greater-than-or-equal-to, >=
Logical
In order to cope with complex selection problems, C allows
Logical
In order to cope with complex selection problems, C allows
expressions and
us to use complex logical expressions (or predicates) in
expressions and
us to use complex logical expressions (or predicates) in
operators
selection structures. In general, a logical expression is one
operators
selection structures. In general, a logical expression is one
that computes to either true or false. A simple predicate is a
that computes to either true or false. A simple predicate is a
logical expression because it produces either a true or false
logical expression because it produces either a true or false
result; so is a complex predicate.
result; so is a complex predicate.
A complex predicate is an expression that is formed using
A complex predicate is an expression that is formed using
simple predicates and logical operators.
simple predicates and logical operators.
There are 3 logical operators that can be used in forming
There are 3 logical operators that can be used in forming
complex predicates:
complex predicates:
1. Logical and (conjunction)
1. Logical and (conjunction)
2. Logical or (disjunction)
2. Logical or (disjunction)
3. Logical not (negation)
3. Logical not (negation)
Logical and is a binary operator that requires two operands
Logical and is a binary operator that requires two operands
that are logical expression. It yields true if and only if both
that are logical expression. It yields true if and only if both
of its operands evaluate to true.
of its operands evaluate to true.

6-6
6-6
Otherwise, it computes to false. Following is the truth table
Otherwise, it computes to false. Following is the truth table
for logical and:
for logical and:
Operand_1 Operand_2
Operand_1 and Operand _2
Operand_1 Operand_2
Operand_1 and Operand _2
true
true
true
true
true
true
true
false
false
true
false
false
false
true
false
false
true
false
false
false
false
false
false
false
Logical or is also a binary operator, requiring two operands
Logical or is also a binary operator, requiring two operands
that are logical expressions. It returns false if and only if
that are logical expressions. It returns false if and only if
both of its operands are false; otherwise, it returns true. Here
both of its operands are false; otherwise, it returns true. Here
is the truth table for logical or:
is the truth table for logical or:
Operand_1 Operand_2
Operand_1 or Operand _2
Operand_1 Operand_2
Operand_1 or Operand _2
true
true
true
true
true
true
true
false
true
true
false
true
false
true
true
false
true
true
false
false
false
false
false
false
In C, the symbols used for the three logical operators and
In C, the symbols used for the three logical operators and
their semantics are somewhat different from usual notation
their semantics are somewhat different from usual notation
or interpretation.
or interpretation.
1. Logical and is represented by &&.
1. Logical and is represented by &&.
2. Logical or is represented by ||
2. Logical or is represented by ||
Nested IF-ELSE
The IF statement can be another IF-ELSE statement. A
Nested IF-ELSE
The IF statement can be another IF-ELSE statement. A
Statement
nested IF-ELSE statement may create some confusion
Statement
nested IF-ELSE statement may create some confusion
during the interpreting of ELSE portion.
during the interpreting of ELSE portion.

6-7
6-7
REMEMBER...
For example,
For example,
If (condition1)
{
task 1;
if (condition2)
{
task 2;
task 3;
}
else
{
task 4;
task 5;
}
If (condition1)
{
task 1;
if (condition2)
{
task 2;
task 3;
}
else
{
task 4;
task 5;
}
The ambiguity comes from the fact that it is not obvious as
The ambiguity comes from the fact that it is not obvious as
to which IF then ELSE refers to.
to which IF then ELSE refers to.
In C, ELSE statement is always associated with the closet IF
In C, ELSE statement is always associated with the closet IF
statement that does not have an ELSE statement. Thus, in
statement that does not have an ELSE statement. Thus, in
this example, ELSE is linked to the second IF statement
this example, ELSE is linked to the second IF statement
instead of the first IF.
instead of the first IF.
Do not place a semicolon after ELSE statement
REMEMBER...
Do not place a semicolon after ELSE statement
the semicolon is placed after ELSE statement for
the semicolon is placed after ELSE statement for
IF_ELSE commands. The misplaced of semicolon will
IF_ELSE commands. The misplaced of semicolon will
cause the compiler to execute all the tasks grouped
cause the compiler to execute all the tasks grouped
under the else statement even though the condition is
under the else statement even though the condition is
false.
false.
Place curly braces after IF or ELSE statement if there is
Place curly braces after IF or ELSE statement if there is
more than ONE expressions / statements under IF or
more than ONE expressions / statements under IF or
ELSE statement.
ELSE statement.

6-8
6-8
The compiler WILL NOT prompt an error message. If
The compiler WILL NOT prompt an error message. If
this case occurs, only a single statement after IF or
this case occurs, only a single statement after IF or
ELSE statement is consider belongs to this IF or ELSE
ELSE statement is consider belongs to this IF or ELSE
statement. The rest of the expressions are considered
statement. The rest of the expressions are considered
outside IF statement.
outside IF statement.
ELSE-IF
The statement following the ELSE in an IF-ELSE statement
ELSE-IF
The statement following the ELSE in an IF-ELSE statement
Statement
can be another IF statement. In fact, a series of IFstatements
Statement
can be another IF statement. In fact, a series of IFstatements
can be chained together.
can be chained together.
If (condition1)
{
task 1;
}
If (condition1)
{
task 1;
}
else if (condition2)
{
task 2;
task 3;
}
else if (condition2)
{
task 2;
task 3;
}
else if (condition 3)
{
task 4;
task 5;
}
else if (condition 3)
{
task 4;
task 5;
}
else
{
task 6;
}
else
{
task 6;
}

6-9
6-9
The code represent by the following flowchart.
The code represent by the following flowchart.
Refer Appendix 6-5 and 6-6 to look at the example of
Refer Appendix 6-5 and 6-6 to look at the example of
ELSE-IF statement.
ELSE-IF statement.
SWITCH and
The SWITCH statement is a multiple branch decision
SWITCH and
The SWITCH statement is a multiple branch decision
BREAK
statement in which one of several statements (or groups of
BREAK
statement in which one of several statements (or groups of
Statement
statements) is executed depending on the value of a variable
Statement
statements) is executed depending on the value of a variable
or an expression.
or an expression.
The general form of SWITCH statement is:
The general form of SWITCH statement is:
switch ( variable)
{
case constant 1:
task1;
break;
case constant 2:
task3;
break;
default:
task5 ;
break;
}
switch ( variable)
{
case constant 1:
task1;
break;
case constant 2:
task3;
break;
default:
task5 ;
break;
}

6-10
6-10
For example,
For example,
switch ( choice )
{
case 1:
printf (You have selected choice 1);
break;
case 2:
break;
default:
printf (You have selected other choices);
break;
}
switch ( choice )
{
case 1:
break;
case 2:
break;
default:
printf (You have selected other choices);
break;
}
Refer to Appendix 6-7 and 6-8 to look at the example of
Refer to Appendix 6-7 and 6-8 to look at the example of
SWITCHBREAK statement.
SWITCHBREAK statement.
As stated, SWITCH statement consists of the following:
As stated, SWITCH statement consists of the following:
1. The keyword switch
1. The keyword switch
2. An expression, called the controlling expression,
2. An expression, called the controlling expression,
enclosed in parentheses.
enclosed in parentheses.
3. Enclosed in braces:
3. Enclosed in braces:
a. Any number of case clauses consisting of the
a. Any number of case clauses consisting of the
keyword case followed by a constant, a
keyword case followed by a constant, a
colon, and any number of statements.
colon, and any number of statements.
b. An optional default clause consisting of the
b. An optional default clause consisting of the
keyword default followed by a colon and
keyword default followed by a colon and
any number of statements.
any number of statements.
The semantics of SWITCH statement is somewhat different
The semantics of SWITCH statement is somewhat different
from that of CASE control structure. First, the controlling
from that of CASE control structure. First, the controlling
expression is evaluated. The controlling expression must be
expression is evaluated. The controlling expression must be
of type int or char ; it cannot be double.
of type int or char ; it cannot be double.

6-11
6-11
If SWITCH statement contains a case clause with a constant
If SWITCH statement contains a case clause with a constant
value that matches the value of the controlling expressions,
value that matches the value of the controlling expressions,
the statements in that case clause are executed until the end
the statements in that case clause are executed until the end
of SWITCH statement it reached.
of SWITCH statement it reached.
The end of SWITCH statement is the right brace, } , that is
The end of SWITCH statement is the right brace, } , that is
associated with it. If the value of the controlling expression
associated with it. If the value of the controlling expression
does not match any of the constant values in the case
does not match any of the constant values in the case
clauses, the content of the default clause is executed. If
clauses, the content of the default clause is executed. If
there is no default clause, the program control exits
there is no default clause, the program control exits
SWITCH statement.
SWITCH statement.
Limitation of
There are some limitations for switch statement over IF-
Limitation of
There are some limitations for switch statement over IF-
SWITCH and
ELSE statement. The expression in SWITCH statement
SWITCH and
ELSE statement. The expression in SWITCH statement
BREAK
must be of type int or char. Thus, we cannot use SWITCH
BREAK
must be of type int or char. Thus, we cannot use SWITCH
statement
statement if our choice is based on a floating point variable.
statement
statement if our choice is based on a floating point variable.
REMEMBER...
The SWITCH statement can test only for equality, and the
The SWITCH statement can test only for equality, and the
value following case can be only an integer constant and not
value following case can be only an integer constant and not
a range of values.
a range of values.
Match the variable with the case constant.
REMEMBER...
Match the variable with the case constant.
the case constant does not match with the variable
the case constant does not match with the variable
declaration.
declaration.
Place a curly brace after SWITCH statement.
Place a curly brace after SWITCH statement.
The compiler will prompt the error messages misplaced
break in function main and case outside of switch in
function main if the curly brace is ignored.
function main if the curly brace is ignored.

6-12
6-12

Do not place a semicolon after SWITCH statement.
Do not place a semicolon after SWITCH statement.
function main if the semicolon is ignored.
function main if the semicolon is ignored.
Place a double colon after each CASE statement.
Place a double colon after each CASE statement.
The compiler will prompt the error messages case
The compiler will prompt the error messages case
statement missing : in the function main if the double
statement missing : in the function main if the double
colon is ignored.
colon is ignored.
Place a statement BREAK at the end of each case.
Place a statement BREAK at the end of each case.

BREAK statement is ignored.
Example 1
The compiler will

BREAK statement is ignored.
continue executing the task until BREAK statement is
continue executing the task until BREAK statement is
reached even though BREAK statement belongs to other
reached even though BREAK statement belongs to other
CASE.
CASE.
Write a program that can determine the root(s) of a
Example 1
Write a program that can determine the root(s) of a
quadratic equation.
quadratic equation.
The user allows to key in the value of a, b and c for the

quadratic equation of ax2 + bx +c.
The compiler will
From the data keyed in by the user, the program
quadratic equation of ax2 + bx +c.
determines the root(s) of the equation.
The user allows to key in the value of a, b and c for the
From the data keyed in by the user, the program

determines the root(s) of the equation.

6-13
6-13
Summary
Summary
Style
In software design, our objective is to create clear and
Style
In software design, our objective is to create clear and
consideration
readable code. Complex multiway selection structure
consideration
readable code. Complex multiway selection structure
when using
requires special care. Otherwise, the reader of the program
when using
requires special care. Otherwise, the reader of the program
multiway selection
may find it difficult to understand its logic.
multiway selection
may find it difficult to understand its logic.
structure
So in designing using a selection structure, you must
structure
So in designing using a selection structure, you must
remember the following:
remember the following:
1. Avoid deeply nested IF statement. Instead, prefer
1. Avoid deeply nested IF statement. Instead, prefer
either a series of consecutive IF or a few IF statements
either a series of consecutive IF or a few IF statements
with complex predicates.
with complex predicates.
2. Keep the use of logical negation to minimum in forming
2. Keep the use of logical negation to minimum in forming
complex predicates.
complex predicates.
3. Keep logical expression simple by using nested
3. Keep logical expression simple by using nested
selection control structures, if necessary.
selection control structures, if necessary.
4. Remember that nested IF statement is more general
4. Remember that nested IF statement is more general
than a SWITCH statement. However, you should
than a SWITCH statement. However, you should
prefer SWITCH statement whenever the alternatives in a
prefer SWITCH statement whenever the alternatives in a
selection control structures are based on a reasonably
selection control structures are based on a reasonably
small number of values of a variable or expression. A
small number of values of a variable or expression. A
good rule of thumb is to use SWITCH statement for
good rule of thumb is to use SWITCH statement for
three to ten alternative selection control structures.
three to ten alternative selection control structures.
5. Use
proper
indentation
in
forming
SWITCH
5. Use
proper
indentation
in
forming
SWITCH
statements. Indent the keyword CASE for each CASE
statements. Indent the keyword CASE for each CASE
clause with respect to the left brace of SWITCH
clause with respect to the left brace of SWITCH
statement by an equal amount.
statement by an equal amount.
6. In SWITCH statements, separate CASE clause using
6. In SWITCH statements, separate CASE clause using
a blank line. This helps readers understand the actions
a blank line. This helps readers understand the actions
for different CASES.
for different CASES.

6-14
6-14
Summary
Summary
7. Whenever possible, use a default clause in your
7. Whenever possible, use a default clause in your
SWITCH statements. This will force you to consider
SWITCH statements. This will force you to consider
all alternatives, including those that are not defined by
all alternatives, including those that are not defined by
your CASE clause.
your CASE clause.
8. Arrange CASE clauses in SWITCH statements such

as
duplication
of
similar
actions
to
8. Arrange CASE clauses in SWITCH statements such
several
as
duplication
of
similar
actions
to
several
alternatives is avoided. For example, SWITCH
alternatives is avoided. For example, SWITCH
statement below has duplicate action:
statement below has duplicate action:
switch(major code)
{
case 1:
printf(Science student);
break;
switch(major code)
{
case 1:
break;
case 2:
case 2:
printf(Art student);
break;
break;
case 3:
case 3:
break;
break;
case 4:
case 4:
break;
break;
case 5:
case 5:
break;
break;
}
/* end switch */
}
/* end switch */
On the other hand, in the following SWITCH statement,
On the other hand, in the following SWITCH statement,
duplications are eliminated by arranging CASES with
duplications are eliminated by arranging CASES with
similar actions in groups:
similar actions in groups:

6-15
6-15
Summary
Summary
switch (major code)

{
case 1:
case 3:
case 5:
break;
switch (major code)

{
case 1:
case 3:
case 5:
break;
case 2:
case 4:
case 2:
case 4:
break;
break;
}
/* end switch */
}
/* end switch */

6-16
6-16
Outcome 7
Outcome 7
Array, Pointer and
Array, Pointer and
Character String
Character String

Overview
Definition of an array

Overview
Definition of an array
1-Dimensional array
1-Dimensional array
2-Dimensional array
2-Dimensional array
Pointers
Pointers
Declaration of Pointers
Declaration of Pointers
Input and Output Format of Pointers
Input and Output Format of Pointers
Pointers Arithmetic
Pointers Arithmetic
Character String
Character String
Character constant & character string
Character constant & character string
Library Functions for String Manipulation
Library Functions for String Manipulation
Outcome 7: Array, Pointers and Character String

7-1

7-1
Definition
Definition
What is an
An array is a collection of data storage locations, each
What is an
An array is a collection of data storage locations, each
Array?
having the same data type and the same
Array?
having the same data type and the same
Advantages of
Variables are like individual folders, whereas an array is
Variables are like individual folders, whereas an array is
like a single folder with many compartments.
like a single folder with many compartments.
Array
To provide us with a systematic, compact and flexible
Advantages of
way to handle groups of related data.
Array
way to handle groups of related data.
To allow us to store information in an organized manner

so that it can be easily accessed.
To provide us with a systematic, compact and flexible
To allow us to store information in an organized manner

so that it can be easily accessed.
General
We can create a six elements array with its individual
General
We can create a six elements array with its individual
Introduction of
elements of x[0], x[1], x[2], x[3], x[4] and x[5].
Introduction of
elements of x[0], x[1], x[2], x[3], x[4] and x[5].
Array
Array
x[0]
x[1]
x[2]
x[3]
x[4]
x[5]
x[0]
x[1]
x[2]
x[3]
x[4]
x[5]
80
90
45
30
14
19
80
90
45
30
14
19

7-2

7-2
1-Dimensional Array
1-Dimensional Array
The array index, which is the number enclosed in square
The array index, which is the number enclosed in square
brackets after the array name, defines the position of the
brackets after the array name, defines the position of the
individual element in the array.
individual element in the array.
1-Dimensional
The array declaration specifies the type for the array and the
1-Dimensional
The array declaration specifies the type for the array and the
array
number of elements in the array. All arrays in C must be
array
number of elements in the array. All arrays in C must be
explicitly declared so that the compiler can allocate the
explicitly declared so that the compiler can allocate the
necessary memory for the array. The general form of the
necessary memory for the array. The general form of the
declaration for a one-dimensional array:
declaration for a one-dimensional array:
type_specifier array_name[size];
type_specifier array_name[size];
Example of 1-dimensional array declarations:
REMEMBER...
REMEMBER...
Use an integer constant to declare the size of an array.
The compiler will prompt an error message of
Use an integer constant to declare the size of an array.
constant expression required in the function main
and the cursor is placed near the declaration of the
array if is not.
array if is not.

7-3

7-3
1-Dimensional Array
1-Dimensional Array
1-Dimensional
The array initialization method is used to assign data into
1-Dimensional
Array
the elements of an array.
Array
Initialization
initialization for a one-dimensional array is.
Initialization
initialization for a one-dimensional array is.
REMEMBER...
The general form of array
type_specifier array_name[size] = { list of values};
type_specifier array_name[size] = { list of values};
int buffer [5]= { 50 , 30 , 24 , 8 , 16 };
int buffer [5]= { 50 , 30 , 24 , 8 , 16 };
Refer Appendix 7-1 and Appendix 7-2 to look at the
example of array initialization.
example of array initialization.
Do not forget to place the semicolon at the end of array

initialization.

initialization.
Declaration syntax error in function main and the
cursor is placed near the area of array initialization.
Place the array initialization in the declaration part.
REMEMBER...
syntax error if the array initialization is made
within the body of the program.
The following is one of the example of manipulate array:
The following is one of the example of manipulate array:
a = buffer [ i ] - buffer [ j ];
a = buffer [ i ] - buffer [ j ];
It is allowed to place a variable as a array index provided
It is allowed to place a variable as a array index provided
the content of the variable is an integer number. In this
the content of the variable is an integer number. In this
case, it means the content of the variable j is being
case, it means the content of the variable j is being
substitute inside the square bracket. Thus, the actual array
substitute inside the square bracket. Thus, the actual array
index is an integer even though we see a variable j inside
index is an integer even though we see a variable j inside
the square bracket.
the square bracket.

7-4

7-4
1-Dimensional Array
1-Dimensional Array
The most efficient way of manipulating array elements is to
use looping command. The loop control variable is used as
the array index.
the array index.
The following program is used to receive 10 data from the
user and place them into an array.
user and place them into an array.
for (count1 = 1; count <= 4; ++count1)

{
scanf (%d, &data [count1] ) ;
}
for (count1 = 1; count <= 4; ++count1)

{
scanf (%d, &data [count1] ) ;
}
It indicates that the integer number that received is being
stored in an array called Data. The FOR loop is used to
stored in an array called Data. The FOR loop is used to
change the array index inside the square bracket. Thus, each
change the array index inside the square bracket. Thus, each
new data is being stored in a different level but same
new data is being stored in a different level but same
building.
building.

7-5

7-5
1-Dimensional Array
1-Dimensional Array
Refer Appendix 7-4 to look at the manipulation of array
using looping command.

7-6

7-6
2-Dimensional Array
Overview
2-Dimensional Array
An array whose elements have two array index is called
Overview
An array whose elements have two array index is called
two-dimensional array. A two-dimensional array can be
two-dimensional array. A two-dimensional array can be
seen to represent a table made up of rows and columns. A
seen to represent a table made up of rows and columns. A
two-dimensional array may be thought of as being
two-dimensional array may be thought of as being
composed of horizontal rows and vertical columns.
composed of horizontal rows and vertical columns.
In two-dimensional array, the first array index refers to the
In two-dimensional array, the first array index refers to the
row number, and the second array index refers to the
row number, and the second array index refers to the
column number.
column number.
The array declaration specifies the type of the array and the
The array declaration specifies the type of the array and the
number of elements (for rows and columns) in the array.
number of elements (for rows and columns) in the array.
All arrays in C must be explicitly declared so that the
All arrays in C must be explicitly declared so that the
compiler can allocate the necessary memory for the array.
compiler can allocate the necessary memory for the array.
The general form of declarating for a two-dimensional array
The general form of declarating for a two-dimensional array
type_specifier array_name[row size][column size];
type_specifier array_name[row size][column size];

7-7

7-7
2-Dimensional Array
2-Dimensional Array
initialization for a two-dimensional array is:
initialization for a two-dimensional array is:
type_specifier array_name[size ] = { list of values};
type_specifier array_name[size ] = { list of values};
50
30
24
16
50
30
24
16
example of array initialization
example of array initialization

7-8

7-8
2-Dimensional Array
REMEMBER...
Use an integer constant to declare size of two-dimensional
2-Dimensional Array
REMEMBER...
array.
Use an integer constant to declare size of two-dimensional

array.
array.
array.
initialization.
initialization.

2-dimensional
The following is one of the example of manipulate 2-
2-dimensional
The following is one of the example of manipulate 2-
array Processing
Dimensional array:
array Processing
Dimensional array:
a = buffer[ k ][m] - buffer[i ][ j ];
a = buffer[ k ][m] - buffer[i ][ j ];
This case is similar with 1-dimensional array. It is allowed
This case is similar with 1-dimensional array. It is allowed
to place a variable as an array index provided the content of
to place a variable as an array index provided the content of
the variables are integer numbers. In this case, it means the
the variables are integer numbers. In this case, it means the
content of the variables i and j is being substitute inside
content of the variables i and j is being substitute inside
the square bracket. Thus, the actual array index is an integer
the square bracket. Thus, the actual array index is an integer
even though we see a variable i and j inside the square
even though we see a variable i and j inside the square
bracket.
bracket.
Refer Appendix 7-7 to look at the example.
Refer Appendix 7-7 to look at the example.

7-9

7-9
2-Dimensional Array
2-Dimensional Array
the array index. Two-Dimensional array needs 2 FOR
the array index. Two-Dimensional array needs 2 FOR
looping control variables to manipulate the operation of
looping control variables to manipulate the operation of
rows and columns.
rows and columns.
user and place them into 4 x 5 array.
user and place them into 4 x 5 array.
for (count1=1; count<= 4; ++count1)

{
for (count2=1;count2<=5;++count2)
{
scanf (%d, &data [count2][count1] ) ;
}
}
for (count1=1; count<= 4; ++count1)

{
for (count2=1;count2<=5;++count2)
{
scanf (%d, &data [count2][count1] ) ;
}
}
stored in a 2-dimensional array called data. The FOR loop is
stored in a 2-dimensional array called data. The FOR loop is
used to change the array index inside the square bracket.
used to change the array index inside the square bracket.
The first FOR loop refers to the row of the array and second
The first FOR loop refers to the row of the array and second
FOR loop refers to the column of the array.
FOR loop refers to the column of the array.

7-10

7-10
Examples
Example 1
Examples
Write a program that determines the sum of multiple arrays.
Example 1
Write a program that determines the sum of multiple arrays.
The program allows the user to enter the data for

multiple arrays.
multiple arrays.
The number of elements for each array is
determining by the user. It can be different for each
array.
array.
After the data entry, the program will prompt the
Write a program that sort the data of a single array in
Example 2
Write a program that sort the data of a single array in

descending order.

multiple arrays.
array.
array.
After the data entry, the program will sort the data
array
After the data entry, the program will sort the data
keyed in by the user in descending order.
Example 3
Write a program that determine maximum number of single

array
multiple arrays.
Write a program that determine maximum number of single

multiple arrays.
keyed in by the user in descending order.

Example 3
After the data entry, the program will prompt the

sum of each array.
descending order.
sum of each array.

Example 2

multiple arrays.
determining by user. It can be different for each
determining by user. It can be different for each
array.
array.
After data entry, the program will prompt maximum

number of a single array.

7-11
After data entry, the program will prompt maximum

number of a single array.

7-11
Pointers
Introduction
Pointers
A pointer is a variable whose value is the address or
Introduction
memory location of another data object.

Purpose of using
Pointer
A pointer is a variable whose value is the address or

memory location of another data object.
Able to pass addresses of variables to functions so that
Purpose of using
functions can change the value of these variables.
Pointer
functions can change the value of these variables.
Capable to work with memory that has been allocated

dynamically.
Able to pass addresses of variables to functions so that
Capable to work with memory that has been allocated

dynamically.
Process and manipulate strings using C library string

functions.
Process and manipulate strings using C library string

functions.
Pass the address of a function to another function.
Pass the address of a function to another function.
Improve efficiency of certain functions.
Improve efficiency of certain functions.
Direct access to the computers hardware.
Direct access to the computers hardware.
Function of pointer
Function of pointer

7-12

7-12
Pointers
Pointers
Pointer
To declare a pointer variable, we must associate it with a
Pointer
To declare a pointer variable, we must associate it with a
declaration
data type such as int, char or double and use the indirection
declaration
data type such as int, char or double and use the indirection
operator *, as it prefix.
operator *, as it prefix.
Here is an example:
Here is an example:
int *pointer_to_margaret;
int *pointer_to_margaret;
This declares the variable pointer_to_margaret as a pointer
This declares the variable pointer_to_margaret as a pointer
variable to a memory location that can store a value of type
variable to a memory location that can store a value of type
int.
int.
Initializing
After a pointer variable has been declared, by using an
Initializing
After a pointer variable has been declared, by using an
Pointer variables
assignment statement it is possible to initialize it to:
Pointer variables
assignment statement it is possible to initialize it to:
1. the symbolic constant NULL
1. the symbolic constant NULL
2. an address; OR
2. an address; OR
3. value of another pointer variable
3. value of another pointer variable
For example:
For example:
pointer_to_margaret = NULL;
pointer_to_margaret = NULL;
pointer_to_margaret = 0;
pointer_to_margaret = 0;
pointer_to_margaret = &margaret;
pointer_to_margaret = &margaret;

7-13

7-13
Pointers
Input & Output
Input
format
Pointers
Input & Output
scanf (%d, & pu);
Input
format
Output
scanf (%d, & pu);

Output
printf (%d, pu);
Unary operator
Summary
printf (%d, pu);
Unary operator
*ac in declaration part identifies variable, ac as a
Summary
pointer. (eg. int *ac)
*ac in execution part directs the pointer, ac moves to a

specified address (the specified address is the data

7-14
*ac in declaration part identifies variable, ac as a

pointer. (eg. int *ac)
*ac in execution part directs the pointer, ac moves to a

specified address (the specified address is the data

7-14
Pointers
Pointers
inside the ac s memory) to read the data.
inside the ac s memory) to read the data.
&v is a command to access the address location of

variable, v
variable, v
Refer to Appendix 7-9 to 7-11 ..
Explanation of program (App7-2)
Pointer and Array
Whenever we create an array, C creates a pointer
&v is a command to access the address location of
Refer to Appendix 7-9 to 7-11 ..
Explanation of program (App7-2)
Pointer and Array
Whenever we create an array, C creates a pointer
constant which has the same name as the name of the
constant which has the same name as the name of the
array.
array.
This pointer constant always point to the first element of

the array.

7-15
This pointer constant always point to the first element of

the array.

7-15
Pointers
Pointers

Pointer Arithmetic

Pointer Arithmetic

Pointer as
Pointer can return more than one value from a function.

Pointer as
Pointer can return more than one value from a function.
Function
Function

7-16

7-16
Pointers
Pointers
Function without pointer
Function without pointer
Pass pointer to function
Pass pointer to function

7-17

7-17
Pointers
Function with pointer
Pointers
Function with pointer

7-18

7-18
Character Strings
Character Strings
Character
Here some basic ways to analyze and manipulate string data
Character
Here some basic ways to analyze and manipulate string data
constant &
and then presents some C library functions that are useful
constant &
and then presents some C library functions that are useful
character string
for string manipulation.
character string
for string manipulation.
Character data is stored as intrinsic data type char.
Character data is stored as intrinsic data type char.
String data is stored with a null character terminated
String data is stored with a null character terminated
character array.
character array.
Strings
Strings
Stings in C are a series of characters stored as an unit with
Stings in C are a series of characters stored as an unit with
null character, '\0', terminated character arrays. This means
null character, '\0', terminated character arrays. This means
that the length of a string is the number of characters it
that the length of a string is the number of characters it
contains plus one to store the null character. Common string
contains plus one to store the null character. Common string
operations include finding lengths, copying, searching,
operations include finding lengths, copying, searching,
replacing and counting the occurrences of specific
replacing and counting the occurrences of specific
characters and words. Here is a simple way to determine the
characters and words. Here is a simple way to determine the
length of a string.
length of a string.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char sentence[] = "Hello World";
int count = 0;
int i;
int main()
{
char sentence[] = "Hello World";
int count = 0;
int i;
for (i = 0; sentence[i] != '\0'; i++)

{
count++;
}
for (i = 0; sentence[i] != '\0'; i++)

{
count++;
}
printf("The string %s has %d characters ", sentence,count);

printf("and is stored in %d bytes\n", count+1);
printf("The string %s has %d characters ", sentence,count);

printf("and is stored in %d bytes\n", count+1);

7-19

7-19
Character Strings
Character Strings
Each character within the array sentence is compared with
Each character within the array sentence is compared with
the null character terminator until the end of the string is
the null character terminator until the end of the string is
encountered. This technique can be generalized to search for
encountered. This technique can be generalized to search for
any character.
any character.
Library Functions
To use these functions in coding, header file "string.h" must
Library Functions
To use these functions in coding, header file "string.h" must
for String
be included. It is programmer's responsibility to check that
for String
be included. It is programmer's responsibility to check that
Manipulation
the destination array is large enough to hold either what is
Manipulation
the destination array is large enough to hold either what is
copied or appended to it. C performs no error checking in
copied or appended to it. C performs no error checking in
this respect. The data type size_t is equivalent to unsigned
this respect. The data type size_t is equivalent to unsigned
integer.
integer.
strcpy
strcpy
strcpy copies a string, including null character terminator
strcpy copies a string, including null character terminator
from source string to destination string. This function
from source string to destination string. This function
returns a pointer to destination string, or a NULL pointer on
returns a pointer to destination string, or a NULL pointer on
error. Its prototype is:
error. Its prototype is:
main()
{
main()
{
char sent1[100], sent2 [100];
strcpy (sent1, sent2 )
:
char sent1[100], sent2 [100];

strcpy (sent1, sent2 )
:
Refer to Appendix 7-9, 7-10 and 7-11 for examples
Refer to Appendix 7-9, 7-10 and 7-11 for examples
strncpy
strncpy

7-20

7-20
Character Strings
strcmp

7-21
Character Strings
strcmp

7-21
Character Strings
Character Strings
strncmp
strncmp
strstr
strstr
Refer to Appendix 7-15 to 7-24 for more examples
Refer to Appendix 7-15 to 7-24 for more examples

7-22

7-22
Summary
This chapter at a
Summary
glance
In this chapter, we studied one-dimensional arrays and
This chapter at a
two-dimensional arrays.
glance
Arrays are a built-in C-data type. Hence, we dont have
two-dimensional arrays.
Arrays are a built-in C-data type. Hence, we dont have
to declare them as data types; all we have to do is
to declare them as data types; all we have to do is
declare variables as arrays. We studied the C rules to
declare variables as arrays. We studied the C rules to
declare arrays, to initialize them and to access array
declare arrays, to initialize them and to access array
elements.
elements.
In C, there is a close relationship between arrays and
In C, there is a close relationship between arrays and
pointers. We learned about pointer, which can be used as
pointers. We learned about pointer, which can be used as
an alternative technique to process arrays.
an alternative technique to process arrays.
Two common operations on lists stored in arrays are
sorting and searching.
In this chapter, we studied one-dimensional arrays and
Next, we focused on strings, which is another structured
Two common operations on lists stored in arrays are

sorting and searching.
Next, we focused on strings, which is another structured
data type. C does not support strings as a data type.
data type. C does not support strings as a data type.
However, we can use character arrays to represent
However, we can use character arrays to represent
strings. We discussed string declaration, compile-time
strings. We discussed string declaration, compile-time
initialization, and input and output.
initialization, and input and output.
C relies on the standard string manipulation functions of
C relies on the standard string manipulation functions of
its string handling library to process strings. We
its string handling library to process strings. We
familiarize ourselves with many string manipulation
familiarize ourselves with many string manipulation
functions.
functions.

7-23

7-23
Outcome 8
Outcome 8

Objective
Objective
Structure data type and structure
Structure data type and structure
C Functions
C Functions
o Function Definitions
o Function Definitions
o Function Declarations
o Function Declarations
o Function calls
o Function calls
C Functions with parameters
C Functions with parameters
o Formal and actual parameters

o Defining
and
declaring
o Formal and actual parameters

functions
with
o Defining
parameters
and
declaring
functions
with
parameters
o Calling function s with parameters
o Calling function s with parameters
o Sending input to functions; parameter passing by
o Sending input to functions; parameter passing by
value
Outcome 8: Structure and Function
value

8-1
8-1
A STRUCTURE is a collection of one or more variables
A STRUCTURE is a collection of one or more variables
grouped under a single name for easy manipulation. The
grouped under a single name for easy manipulation. The
variables in a structure, unlike those in an array, can be of
variables in a structure, unlike those in an array, can be of
different variable types
different variable types
Revision
int student[100] ;
Revision
int student[100] ;
(1-Dimensional
The above declaration indicates that 100 memory locations
(1-Dimensional
The above declaration indicates that 100 memory locations
Array)
called Manager are reserved for the program to store the
Array)
called Manager are reserved for the program to store the
integer number. (Assume that the integer number indicates
integer number. (Assume that the integer number indicates
the batch no of respective student).
the batch no of respective student).
Study the code in Appendix 8-1 for revision in array

Differences
between Array &

STRUCTURE
Study the code in Appendix 8-1 for revision in array
Array does not allow having different data types in a
Differences
single array.
between Array &
STRUCTURE allows having different data types in a

single structure.
Thus, it can be considered as
combination of multiple arrays with different data types.
STRUCTURE
Array does not allow having different data types in a

single array.
STRUCTURE allows having different data types in a

single structure.
combination of multiple arrays with different data types.

8-2
Thus, it can be considered as
8-2
Revision (Array)
In order to store the name of 100 students into an array,
Revision (Array)
In order to store the name of 100 students into an array,
we need to create a 2-dimensional array to allocate the
we need to create a 2-dimensional array to allocate the
name of 100 students.
name of 100 students.
Name of manager is considered as a string. Thus, the

declaration is
Name of manager is considered as a string. Thus, the

declaration is
In order to store CGPA of 100 students into an array, we
In order to store CGPA of 100 students into an array, we
need to create a 1-dimensional array to allocate the CGPA
need to create a 1-dimensional array to allocate the CGPA
of 100 students.
of 100 students.
The CGPA is a float number. Thus, the declaration is
The CGPA is a float number. Thus, the declaration is
float student_CGPA [101];
float student_CGPA [101];
In order to store the batch no. of 100 students into an array,
In order to store the batch no. of 100 students into an array,
we need to create a 1-dimensional array to allocate the batch
we need to create a 1-dimensional array to allocate the batch
no. of 100 students.
no. of 100 students.
The batch no. is an integer number. Thus, the declaration is
The batch no. is an integer number. Thus, the declaration is
int student_batchno [101];
int student_batchno [101];
The programmer is required to declare 3 different
The programmer is required to declare 3 different
arrays to store the name of the students, their
arrays to store the name of the students, their
respective batch no. and CGPA.
respective batch no. and CGPA.
These 3 information are isolated from each other
These 3 information are isolated from each other
because they are stored in 3 different arrays in the
because they are stored in 3 different arrays in the
memory location of PC.
memory location of PC.

8-3
8-3
STRUCTURE
The use of STRUCTURE will group these 3 information (3

arrays) to become a structure.
Declaration of STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE
The use of STRUCTURE will group these 3 information (3

arrays) to become a structure.
Declaration of STRUCTURE
After declaring a STRUCTURE type, we may declare
After declaring a STRUCTURE type, we may declare
variables that are of that type. A STRUCTURE variable
variables that are of that type. A STRUCTURE variable
declaration requires:
declaration requires:
1. the keyword struct
1. the keyword struct
2. the structure type name; and
2. the structure type name; and
3. a list of variable names separate by semicolon
3. a list of variable names separate by semicolon

8-4
8-4
Input
scanf(%s, student[1].name);
Input
scanf(%s, student[1].name);
manipulation of
scanf(%s,student[2].name);
manipulation of
scanf(%s,student[2].name);
STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE
scanf(%d, &student[1].batchno);
scanf(%f,&student[1].CGPA);
Output
printf(%s, student[1].name);
Output
printf(%s, student[1].name);
manipulation of
printf(%s,student[2].name);
manipulation of
printf(%s,student[2].name);
STRUCTURE
printf(%d, student[1].batchno);
STRUCTURE
printf(%f,student[1].CGPA);
Refer to Appendix 8-2 and 8-3
Refer to Appendix 8-2 and 8-3
Declaring Nested
Members of a STRUCTURE declaration can be of any type,
Declaring Nested
Members of a STRUCTURE declaration can be of any type,
STRUCTURE
including
STRUCTURE
including
another
STRUCTURE
variable.
Such
another
STRUCTURE
variable.
Such
STRUCTURE type is called nested. An example is given
STRUCTURE type is called nested. An example is given
below.
below.
Suppose we have the STRUCTURE declaration:
Suppose we have the STRUCTURE declaration:
struct faculty_name
{
char last_name_initial;
};
/* end struct faculty_name */
struct faculty_name
{
};
/* end struct faculty_name */
We can then use this structure type and rewrite the structure
We can then use this structure type and rewrite the structure
declaration.
declaration.

8-5
8-5
struct faculty
{
int faculty_idno;
struct faculty_name name_initials;
int age;
char sex;
float salary;
};
/* end struct faculty */
struct faculty
{
int faculty_idno;
struct faculty_name name_initials;
int age;
char sex;
float salary;
};
In this declaration, member name_initials is STRUCTURE
In this declaration, member name_initials is STRUCTURE
variable of type struct faculty_name. Therefore, the
variable of type struct faculty_name. Therefore, the
STRUCTURE type faculty has now become a nested
STRUCTURE type faculty has now become a nested
STRUCTURE type.
STRUCTURE type.
In declaring a nested STRUCTURE type, we should be
In declaring a nested STRUCTURE type, we should be
careful to place the declaration of the inner STRUCTURE
careful to place the declaration of the inner STRUCTURE
type before the nested STRUCTURE type. If the inner type
type before the nested STRUCTURE type. If the inner type
will be used only in a nested STRUCTURE type, the two
will be used only in a nested STRUCTURE type, the two
declarations can be combined. Here is an example:
declarations can be combined. Here is an example:
The STRUCTURE type faculty can be written as:
The STRUCTURE type faculty can be written as:
struct faculty
{
int faculty_idno;
struct
{
char first_name_initial;
} name_initials;
/*end struct */
struct faculty
{
int faculty_idno;
struct
{
char first_name_initial;
} name_initials;
/*end struct */
int age;
char sex;
float salary;
};
int age;
char sex;
float salary;
};

8-6
8-6
Advantage of
One major advantage of a STRUCTURE is to copy
Advantage of
One major advantage of a STRUCTURE is to copy
STRUCTURE
information between structures of the same type with a
STRUCTURE
information between structures of the same type with a
REMEMBER...
simple equation statement
simple equation statement
Place semicolon after the variables name in the declaration
REMEMBER...
of STRUCTURE
Place semicolon after the variables name in the declaration

of STRUCTURE
The compiler prompts a message Declaration

syntax error.
The compiler prompts a message Declaration

syntax error.
STRUCTURE
The format of STRUCTURE within STRUCTURE is:
STRUCTURE
The format of STRUCTURE within STRUCTURE is:
within
struct particular {
char name[100];
int studentID;
float CGPA;
};
within
struct particular {
char name[100];
int studentID;
float CGPA;
};
STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE
struct HND {
int batchno;
int no_of_student_EE;
int no_of_student_MM;
struct particular EE_student[5];
struct particular MM_student[5];
}batch[10];
struct HND {
int batchno;
int no_of_student_EE;
int no_of_student_MM;
}batch[10];
Manipulation of
The input and output manipulation of STRUCTURE within
Manipulation of
The input and output manipulation of STRUCTURE within
STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE needs two dot operators.
STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE needs two dot operators.
within
scanf("%d",&batch[1].EE_student[1].studentID);
STRUCTURE
within
scanf("%d",&batch[1].EE_student[1].studentID);
STRUCTURE
scanf("%s",batch[1].EE_student[1].name);
scanf("%s",batch[1].EE_student[1].name);
scanf("%f",&batch[1].EE_student[1].CGPA);
scanf("%f",&batch[1].EE_student[1].CGPA);
Refer Appendix 8-5 to 8-8
Refer Appendix 8-5 to 8-8

8-7
8-7
REMEMBER
Place the sub-STRUCTURE in front of the main structure.
The compiler prompts a message Undefined
REMEMBER
Place the sub-STRUCTURE in front of the main structure.
structure .
The compiler prompts a message Undefined

structure .

8-8
8-8
Function
Modular Design
Function
A variable strategy to break down the complex program into
Modular Design
A variable strategy to break down the complex program into
several smaller modules.
several smaller modules.
These modules are then combined to form a complete
These modules are then combined to form a complete
program.
program.
Advantages of
Easier to develop.
Advantages of
Easier to develop.
modular design
Easier to debug the program.
modular design
Easier to debug the program.
Programs can be developed by several programmers.
Programs can be developed by several programmers.
Modules can be used in several places in the same
Modules can be used in several places in the same
program and in other programs.
Requirements for
A module should be relatively small.
modules
A module should have one entry point and one exit
program and in other programs.
Requirements for
A module should be relatively small.
modules
A module should have one entry point and one exit
point.
point.
A module should perform a single, well-defined task.
A module should perform a single, well-defined task.
Function
A function is a subprogram that is an implementation of a
Function
A function is a subprogram that is an implementation of a
definitions
logical module in a modular program. Its definition consists
definitions
logical module in a modular program. Its definition consists
of
of
1. a function type
1. a function type
2. a function name
2. a function name
3. an optional list of formal parameters enclosed in
3. an optional list of formal parameters enclosed in
parentheses
4. a compound statements; function body
parentheses
4. a compound statements; function body

8-9
8-9
Function
Function
Syntax of header
Syntax of header
Example of header
Example of header
Function Body
Function Body
Return to the
calling function
without taking
any data
Return to the
calling function
without taking
any data
Invoking a
Invoking a
function
function

8-10
8-10
Function
Control flow
between calling
and called
function
void max( int sum )

{
int large;
return; }
Function
Control flow
between calling
and called
function
void max( int sum )

{
int large;
return; }
main( )
{
int x, y z, total, largest;
max (total)
..
}
main( )
{
int x, y z, total, largest;
max (total)
..
}
Indicate that the content hold by variable total is copied to
Indicate that the content hold by variable total is copied to
the memory location called sum
the memory location called sum
Relationship of parameters and arguments
Relationship of parameters and arguments

8-11
8-11
Function
Function
int max(int a [ ], int b[ ][100], int c)

{
int max;
return (largest);
}
int max(int a [ ], int b[ ][100], int c)

{
int max;
return (largest);
}
main( )
{
int x [100], y[100][100],z ;
result=max ( x , y , z);
..
}
main( )
{
int x [100], y[100][100],z ;
result=max ( x , y , z);
..
}
Refer to 8-8 to 8-11 for examples. Remember, function
Refer to 8-8 to 8-11 for examples. Remember, function
can only return a single value, not an array
can only return a single value, not an array
Refer to Appendix 8-12 to 8-14 for more examples.
Refer to Appendix 8-12 to 8-14 for more examples.

8-12
8-12
Function
Function
Functions that
If the function we are designing is expected to produce and
Functions that
If the function we are designing is expected to produce and
return values
return only one value, we can use the function name for this
return values
return only one value, we can use the function name for this
purpose. In this case, the function name must have a return
purpose. In this case, the function name must have a return
type other than void.
type other than void.
The return type is any data type, such as int, double, or char,
The return type is any data type, such as int, double, or char,
that C supports.
that C supports.
The return statement
The return statement
A function designed to return a value under its name must
A function designed to return a value under its name must
contain at least one return statement in its body. The syntax
contain at least one return statement in its body. The syntax
of the return statement is simple; it has the keyword return,
of the return statement is simple; it has the keyword return,
followed by a return expression. The return expression must
followed by a return expression. The return expression must
produce a value consistent with the type of the function in
produce a value consistent with the type of the function in
which the return statement appears.
which the return statement appears.
It is this value that is returned under the function name to
It is this value that is returned under the function name to
the calling program. Also, the return statement terminates
the calling program. Also, the return statement terminates
the execution of the function and takes the program control
the execution of the function and takes the program control
back to the calling program.
back to the calling program.
If the return type of a function definition is missing, the
If the return type of a function definition is missing, the
default is int. However, if a function is not intended to
default is int. However, if a function is not intended to
return a value under its name, its return type must be void.
return a value under its name, its return type must be void.
Function with
When a function calls another function to perform a task, it
Function with
When a function calls another function to perform a task, it
parameters
may also pass data to it as a latters input. After completing
parameters
may also pass data to it as a latters input. After completing
its task, the called function may pass data back to the calling
its task, the called function may pass data back to the calling
function as its output. There are 3 ways through which
function as its output. There are 3 ways through which
functions can communicate data:
functions can communicate data:
1. through global variables
1. through global variables
2. by returning a value under a function name
2. by returning a value under a function name
3. by using parameters
3. by using parameters

8-13
8-13
Function
Function
Use a global
By declaring a variable before the function main, will make
Use a global
By declaring a variable before the function main, will make
variables between
the variable global and can be use by all functions.
variables between
the variable global and can be use by all functions.
functions
/* Global variables: */
int i; double j; int k;
functions
/* Global variables: */
int i; double j; int k;
void main()
{
void main()
{
Use of parameters
A non-void function can return a value under its name to a
Use of parameters
A non-void function can return a value under its name to a
between functions
function that calls it, and such a value would be a function
between functions
function that calls it, and such a value would be a function
output. If a function requires input data to be passed to it by
output. If a function requires input data to be passed to it by
the calling function, and if we are not to use global variables
the calling function, and if we are not to use global variables
for this purpose, then we must resort to function parameters.
for this purpose, then we must resort to function parameters.
Rules for parameter passing by value:
Rules for parameter passing by value:
1. In parameter passing by value, the actual and formal
1. In parameter passing by value, the actual and formal
parameters must be of similar types.
parameters must be of similar types.
2. The formal parameters must be declared in the function

definition as regular variables, not as pointer variables.
3. The actual parameters in functions calls can be
constants, variables or expressions.
2. The formal parameters must be declared in the function

definition as regular variables, not as pointer variables.
3. The actual parameters in functions calls can be
constants, variables or expressions.
4. At the time the program control passes to the called
4. At the time the program control passes to the called
function, a copy of each actual parameter is made in the
function, a copy of each actual parameter is made in the
memory
memory
location
for
the
corresponding
formal
location
for
the
corresponding
formal
parameter. Any changes made by the called function on
parameter. Any changes made by the called function on
this copy will not be reflected in the corresponding
this copy will not be reflected in the corresponding
actual parameter. Therefore, parameter passing by value
actual parameter. Therefore, parameter passing by value
can be used only for supplying input to a called
can be used only for supplying input to a called
function.
function.

8-14
8-14
Calling Functions
Function
Function
5. Since the called function cannot access the memory
5. Since the called function cannot access the memory
location of the actual parameters in the data area of the
location of the actual parameters in the data area of the
calling function, the actual parameters are protected
calling function, the actual parameters are protected
against
against
inadvertent
alterations.
Hence,
whenever
inadvertent
alterations.
Hence,
whenever
possible, parameters passing by value should be
possible, parameters passing by value should be
preferred to parameter passing by pointers.
preferred to parameter passing by pointers.
Functions in C language that have arguments can be called
Calling Functions
Functions in C language that have arguments can be called
by using either one of these method:
by using either one of these method:
By Value
By Value
By Reference
By Reference
By Value
By Value
Values of variables in Called Function do not get affected
Values of variables in Called Function do not get affected
when arguments are passed by Value
when arguments are passed by Value
Eg
Eg
void addition(int Num1, int Num2)

{
Num1=10;
Num2=20;
printf(In Void Addition, Num 1
and Num2 are %d and %d,
Num1,Num2);
}
void addition(int Num1, int Num2)

{
Num1=10;
Num2=20;
Num1,Num2);
}
void main()
{
int a,b;
a=1;
b=2;
addition(a,b);
printf(In void main(), a and b are %d and %d,a,b);
}
void main()
{
int a,b;
a=1;
b=2;
addition(a,b);
}

8-15
8-15
Function
Function
Output: In void Addition, Num1 and Num2 are 10 and 20
In void main() a and b are 1 and 2
When arguments are passed by Value, the called function
When arguments are passed by Value, the called function
creates a new variable of the same data type (parameters). It
creates a new variable of the same data type (parameters). It
then copies the argument values into it. By Value is useful
then copies the argument values into it. By Value is useful
when you do not need to modify the values of the original
when you do not need to modify the values of the original
variables in the calling function
variables in the calling function
By Reference
By Reference
A reference is just like an alternate name for the argument
A reference is just like an alternate name for the argument
that is passed. You need to use an ampersand (&) following
that is passed. You need to use an ampersand (&) following
the data type of the argument.
the data type of the argument.
Eg:
Eg:
void addition(int &Num1, int &Num2)

{
Num1=10;
Num2=20;
Num1,Num2);
}
void addition(int &Num1, int &Num2)

{
Num1=10;
Num2=20;
Num1,Num2);
}
void main()
{
int a,b;
a=1;
b=2;
addition(a,b);
}
void main()
{
int a,b;
a=1;
b=2;
addition(a,b);
}


By Reference is useful if the user wants to keep track the
By Reference is useful if the user wants to keep track the
changes that are made to the values in the variables.
changes that are made to the values in the variables.

8-16
8-16
Summary
This chapter at a
Summary
glance
In this chapter, we undertook a discussion of structure.
This chapter at a
A STRUCTURE is a user-defined data type that can be
glance
A STRUCTURE is a user-defined data type that can be
used to represent a collection of related data items of
used to represent a collection of related data items of
different types.
different types.
We
studied
STRUCTURE
type
and
variable
studied
STRUCTURE
type
and
variable
declarations, how STRUCTURE members can be
accessed, how they can be initialized, and what
accessed, how they can be initialized, and what
operations can be used on STRUCTURE.
operations can be used on STRUCTURE.
A modular program has a structure that consists of its
Each function must be defined, appropriately declared,
Although we can use global variables to pass data to
A modular program has a structure that consists of its

modules and the called by relationship among them.
and called by other functions.
We
declarations, how STRUCTURE members can be
modules and the called by relationship among them.
In this chapter, we undertook a discussion of structure.
Each function must be defined, appropriately declared,

and called by other functions.
Although we can use global variables to pass data to
functions, this method has its drawback and is not
functions, this method has its drawback and is not
recommended.
recommended.
The usual way functions to communicate data are
The usual way functions to communicate data are
through function parameters. In a function definition,
through function parameters. In a function definition,
we may have formal parameters that must be variables.
we may have formal parameters that must be variables.
In calling a function with parameters, we must use
In calling a function with parameters, we must use
actual parameters, which may be constants, variables or
actual parameters, which may be constants, variables or
expressions.
expressions.

8-17
8-17
Appendix
Appendix
C Keywords/ Reserved words
C Keywords/ Reserved words
auto
extern
static
auto
extern
static
break
float
struct
break
float
struct
case
for
switch
case
for
switch
char
goto
union
char
goto
union
const
if
unsigned
const
if
unsigned
continue
int
void
continue
int
void
default
long
volatile
default
long
volatile
do
registertypedef
while
do
registertypedef
while
double
return
signed
double
return
signed
else
short
sizeof
else
short
sizeof
enum
enum
Remarks
Remarks
All programs included in this appendix are tested using Microsoft Visual C/C++ 6.0
The project type used is Win32 Console Application
o File > New > Projects > Win32 Console Application
o Type in the project name and indicate the location
o Select A simple application
If these programs were to run on other C compilers; they may not be able to run as
expected because of different libraries are required/included to support the compilation
o If want the programs to be portable between different compilers, some
modification may desire
All programs included in this appendix are tested using Microsoft Visual C/C++ 6.0
The project type used is Win32 Console Application
o File > New > Projects > Win32 Console Application
o Type in the project name and indicate the location
o Select A simple application
If these programs were to run on other C compilers; they may not be able to run as
expected because of different libraries are required/included to support the compilation
o If want the programs to be portable between different compilers, some
modification may desire
Appendix Outcome 4-1
Objective : To understand the structure of C program.
Objective : To understand the structure of C program.
/* Include directive */
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
/* Main function */
/* Main function */
main()
{
main()
{
/* Variable declaration */
int a, b, c;
int a, b, c;
/* Promt user to enter value of a */

printf("Enter a number between 1 and 100: ");
/* Read in the value of a */
scanf("%d", &a);
/* Promt user to enter value of a */

printf("Enter a number between 1 and 100: ");
/* Read in the value of a */
scanf("%d", &a);
/* Promt user to enter value of b */

printf("Enter another number between 1 and 100: ");
/* Read in the value of b */
scanf("%d", &b);
/* Promt user to enter value of b */

printf("Enter another number between 1 and 100: ");
/* Read in the value of b */
scanf("%d", &b);
/* Multiply the value of a and b then assign to c */

c = a * b;
/* Multiply the value of a and b then assign to c */

c = a * b;
/* Print the value of a, b and c on screen */

printf("%d times %d = %d\n", a, b, c);
/* Print the value of a, b and c on screen */

printf("%d times %d = %d\n", a, b, c);
Objective : To understand the usage of printf command as literal text .
Objective : To understand the usage of printf command as literal text .
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
/* Main function */
/* Main function */
main()
{
main()
{
/* Print out the string on screen */
printf("This program is to observe the function of printf command\n");
printf("The printf function is under the usage of literal text\n");
/* Print out the string on screen */

printf("This program is to observe the function of printf command\n");
printf("The printf function is under the usage of literal text\n");
}
Objective : To understand the usage of printf, scanf and conversion specifier

command.
Objective : To understand the usage of printf, scanf and conversion specifier

command.
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
/* Main function */
/* Main function */
main()
{
main()
{
char c;
int a;
float b;
char c;
int a;
float b;
/* Prompt the user to enter character */

printf("Enter any character
: ");
/* Read in the character using character conversion specifier */
scanf ("%c", &c);
/* Prompt the user to enter character */

printf("Enter any character
: ");
/* Read in the character using character conversion specifier */
scanf ("%c", &c);
/* Prompt the user to enter float number */

printf("Enter any float number : ");
/* Read in the float number using conversion specifier */
scanf ("%f", &b);
/* Prompt the user to enter float number */

printf("Enter any float number : ");
/* Read in the float number using conversion specifier */
scanf ("%f", &b);
/* Promt the user to enter integer number */

printf("Enter any integer number : ");
/* Read in the integer number using conversion specifier */
scanf ("%d", &a);
/* Promt the user to enter integer number */

printf("Enter any integer number : ");
/* Read in the integer number using conversion specifier */
scanf ("%d", &a);
/* Print out the title */

printf("\n\n\nBelow is the list of data types entered\n");
printf("=========================================\n");

printf("\n\n\nBelow is the list of data types entered\n");
printf("=========================================\n");
/* Print out the character entered */

printf("The CHARACTER you entered is %c\n", c);
/* Print out the character entered */

printf("The CHARACTER you entered is %c\n", c);
/* Print out the float number entered */
/* Print out the float number entered */
printf("The FLOAT NUMBER you entered is %.2f\n", b);
printf("The FLOAT NUMBER you entered is %.2f\n", b);
/* Print out the integer number entered */

printf("The INTEGER NUMBER you entered is %d\n", a);
/* Print out the integer number entered */

printf("The INTEGER NUMBER you entered is %d\n", a);
Explanation of the program:
The function of this program is to receive a character, float number and integer number from the
keyboard (key in by the user) and place them into their respective memorys location called c, b
and a. The last three printf statements are to display the content inside the variable a, b and c.
This is to ensure that the data received is being stored into the respective location. If the data
received are successfully stored into their respective location, the data display out using the
printf command should be similar as the data key in by the user.
The function of this program is to receive a character, float number and integer number from the
keyboard (key in by the user) and place them into their respective memorys location called c, b
and a. The last three printf statements are to display the content inside the variable a, b and c.
This is to ensure that the data received is being stored into the respective location. If the data
received are successfully stored into their respective location, the data display out using the
printf command should be similar as the data key in by the user.
Objective : To understand different numeric data types
Objective : To understand different numeric data types
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
/* Main function */
/* Main function */
main()
{
main()
{
int
number1;
long
number2;
unsigned int number3;
unsigned short number4;
unsigned long number5;
int
number1;
long
number2;
unsigned int number3;
unsigned short number4;
unsigned long number5;
/* Prompt, read and print the integer value of number1 */

printf("Please enter any number : ");
scanf ("%d", &number1);
printf("The number you entered is %d\n", number1);
/* Prompt, read and print the integer value of number1 */

printf("Please enter any number : ");
printf("The number you entered is %d\n", number1);
printf("\n");
printf("\n");
/* Prompt, read and print the signed value of number2 */

printf("Please enter any signed long decimal integer : ");
scanf ("%ld", &number2);
printf("The long number you entered is %ld\n", number2);
/* Prompt, read and print the signed value of number2 */

printf("Please enter any signed long decimal integer : ");
scanf ("%ld", &number2);
printf("The long number you entered is %ld\n", number2);
printf("\n");
printf("\n");
/* Prompt, read and print the unsigned integer value of number3 */

printf("Please enter any unsigned decimal integer : ");
scanf ("%u", &number3);
printf("The unsigned decimal integer you entered is %u\n", number3);
/* Prompt, read and print the unsigned integer value of number3 */

printf("Please enter any unsigned decimal integer : ");
printf("The unsigned decimal integer you entered is %u\n", number3);
printf("\n");
printf("\n");
/* Prompt, read and print the unsigned short integer value of number4 */
printf("Please enter any unsigned short decimal integer : ");
printf("The unsigned short decimal integer you entered is %u\n", number4);
/* Prompt, read and print the unsigned short integer value of number4 */
printf("Please enter any unsigned short decimal integer : ");
printf("The unsigned short decimal integer you entered is %u\n", number4);
printf("\n");
printf("\n");
/* Prompt, read and print the unsigned long integer value of number5 */
printf("Please enter any unsigned long decimal integer : ");
scanf ("%lu", &number5);
printf("The unsigned long decimal integer you entered is %lu\n", number5);
/* Prompt, read and print the unsigned long integer value of number5 */
printf("Please enter any unsigned long decimal integer : ");
scanf ("%lu", &number5);
printf("The unsigned long decimal integer you entered is %lu\n", number5);
printf("\n");
printf("\n");
Objective : To understand the usage of %s and %c conversion specifiers
Objective : To understand the usage of %s and %c conversion specifiers
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
/* Main function */
/* Main function */
main()
{
main()
{
char a;
char b[20];
char a;
char b[20];
/* Print out the string */

printf("Character means ONLY one letter\n");
printf("String is a combination of MORE than one characters\n");
/* Print out the string */

printf("Character means ONLY one letter\n");
printf("String is a combination of MORE than one characters\n");
printf("\n");
printf("\n");
/* Prompt, read and print out the character of a */

printf("Please enter any character : ");
scanf ("%c", &a);
printf("The character you entered is %c\n", a);
/* Prompt, read and print out the character of a */

printf("Please enter any character : ");
scanf ("%c", &a);
printf("The character you entered is %c\n", a);
printf("\n");
printf("\n");
/* Prompt, read and print out the string of b */

printf("Please enter any string : ");
scanf ("%s", &b);
printf("The string you entered is %s\n", b);
/* Prompt, read and print out the string of b */

printf("Please enter any string : ");
scanf ("%s", &b);
printf("The string you entered is %s\n", b);
printf("\n");
printf("\n");
Objective : To understand the differences of signed character and unsigned

character.
Objective : To understand the differences of signed character and unsigned

character.
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
/* Main function */
/* Main function */
main()
{
main()
{
signed char b;
unsigned char a;
signed char b;
unsigned char a;
/* Prompt, read and print the character of variable 'a' */

printf("Please enter any unsigned character : ");
/* Prompt, read and print the character of variable 'a' */

printf("Please enter any unsigned character : ");
/* Enter Alt + 254 */

scanf ("%c", &a);
printf("The character you entered has an ASCII value of %d\n", a);
/* Enter Alt + 254 */

scanf ("%c", &a);
printf("The character you entered has an ASCII value of %d\n", a);
/* Clean the previous input value from following variable */

fflush(stdin);
/* Clean the previous input value from following variable */

fflush(stdin);
/* Prompt, read and print the character of variable 'b' */

printf("\n\nPlease enter any signed character : ");
/* Prompt, read and print the character of variable 'b' */

printf("\n\nPlease enter any signed character : ");
/* Enter Alt + 254 */

scanf ("%c", &b);
printf("The character you entered has an ASCII value of %d\n", b);
/* Enter Alt + 254 */

scanf ("%c", &b);
printf("The character you entered has an ASCII value of %d\n", b);
Modification to observe the differences :
Modification to observe the differences :
Step 1 : Enter (press ALT+254), the output will display 254 if a is declared as unsigned char.
Step 1 : Enter (press ALT+254), the output will display 254 if a is declared as unsigned char.
Step 3 : Enter (press ALT+254), the output will display -2 if once a is declared as signed
char.
Step 3 : Enter (press ALT+254), the output will display -2 if once a is declared as signed
char.
Objective : To observe the usage of assignment operator
Objective : To observe the usage of assignment operator
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
/* Main function */
/* Main function */
main()
{
main()
{
int number1, number2;
int number1, number2;
/* Prompt and read the value of number1 */

printf("Please enter an integer for number1 : ");

printf("Please enter an integer for number1 : ");
/* Assign the value of number2 to number1 */

number1 = number2;

number1 = number2;
/* Print out the value of number1 (undesired cause never assigned!) */

printf("The content of number2 is %d\n", number2);
/* Print out the value of number1 (undesired cause never assigned!) */

printf("The content of number2 is %d\n", number2);

printf("\n\nPlease enter again an integer for number1 : ");

printf("\n\nPlease enter again an integer for number1 : ");

number2 = number1;

number2 = number1;
/* Print out the value of number2 */

printf("The content of number2 is %d\n\n\n", number2);
/* Print out the value of number2 */

printf("The content of number2 is %d\n\n\n", number2);
10
10
Objective : To understand compound assignment operators, +=, - =,*= and /=
Objective : To understand compound assignment operators, +=, - =,*= and /=
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
/* Main function */
/* Main function */
main()
{
main()
{
int number = 10;
int number = 10;
/* Plus 5 to number */
number += 5;
/* Print out the value of number */
printf("Value of number added by 5 is %d\n\n", number);
/* Plus 5 to number */
number += 5;
printf("Value of number added by 5 is %d\n\n", number);
/* Subtract 3 to number */
number -= 3;
printf("Value of number subtracted by 3 is %d\n\n", number);
/* Subtract 3 to number */
number -= 3;
printf("Value of number subtracted by 3 is %d\n\n", number);
/* Multiply by 3 to number */
number *= 3;
printf("Value of number multiplied by 3 is %d\n\n", number);
/* Multiply by 3 to number */
number *= 3;
printf("Value of number multiplied by 3 is %d\n\n", number);
/* Divide by 3 to number */
number /= 3;
printf("Value of number divided by 3 is %d\n\n", number);
/* Divide by 3 to number */
number /= 3;
printf("Value of number divided by 3 is %d\n\n", number);
11
11
Objective : To understand the differences of ++i and i++
Objective : To understand the differences of ++i and i++
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
/* Main function */
/* Main function */
main()
{
main()
{
int y, i = 3;
int y, i = 3;

printf("When increasing the value with i++\n");
printf("==================================\n");
printf("\n");
printf("i = 3\n");
printf("y = i++\n");
printf("\n");

printf("When increasing the value with i++\n");
printf("==================================\n");
printf("\n");
printf("i = 3\n");
printf("y = i++\n");
printf("\n");
/* Assign the value of i to y and then auto increase the value of i */
/* Assign the value of i to y and then auto increase the value of i */
y = i++;
y = i++;
/* Print out the values of i and y */

printf("The answer for i is %d\n", i);
printf("The answer for y is %d\n", y);

i = 3;
printf("\n\n");
i = 3;
printf("\n\n");

printf("When increasing the value with ++i\n");
printf("==================================\n");
printf("\n");
printf("i = 3\n");
printf("y = ++i\n");
printf("\n");

printf("When increasing the value with ++i\n");
printf("==================================\n");
printf("\n");
printf("i = 3\n");
printf("y = ++i\n");
printf("\n");
12
12
/* Auto increase the value of i and then assign the value to y */
/* Auto increase the value of i and then assign the value to y */
y = ++i;
y = ++i;


From the above example, the command of i++ and ++i does not make any differences if the
assignment operator is not involved. If the assignment operator involves, such as y = i++ and y =
++i; there is a difference between the use of ++i or i++. The differences are listed above.
From the above example, the command of i++ and ++i does not make any differences if the
assignment operator is not involved. If the assignment operator involves, such as y = i++ and y =
++i; there is a difference between the use of ++i or i++. The differences are listed above.
13
13
Objective : To understand the usage of FOR control structure
Objective : To understand the usage of FOR control structure
/* Include directives */
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
/* Main Function */
/* Main Function */
main()
{
main()
{
int count1, b;
int count1, b;
/* Print out the title of the looping contents */

printf("The values for 9 loops are as below\n");
printf("===================================\n");

printf("===================================\n");
/* Go to a new line */
printf("\n");
printf("\n");
/* Declaration of "FOR" control structure with */

/* initialization, logical control and counter respectively */
for (count1 = 1; count1 < 10; ++count1)
{
/* Declaration of "FOR" control structure with */

/* initialization, logical control and counter respectively */
for (count1 = 1; count1 < 10; ++count1)
{
/* Add up the values for count1 with 2 then assign to b */

b = count1 + 2;
/* Add up the values for count1 with 2 then assign to b */

b = count1 + 2;
/* Print out the value of b in each loop */

printf("Loop %d : The value of count1 is %d\n", count1, b);

/* Space for 3 lines */

printf("\n\n\n");

printf("\n\n\n");
}
14
14
Objective : To understand FOR control structure with different variables
Objective : To understand FOR control structure with different variables
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
/* Main Function */
/* Main Function */
main()
{
main()
{
int count1, count3 = 2, count4 = 1;
int count1, count3 = 2, count4 = 1;
/* Control structure for the "FOR" loop */

/* with different initial statement, condition and increment */
for (count1 = 1; count3 <= 22; count3 = count3 + 2)
{

/* with different initial statement, condition and increment */
for (count1 = 1; count3 <= 22; count3 = count3 + 2)
{
/* Print out the value of count3 in each loop */

printf("Loop %d: The value for count3 is %d\n",count4,count3);
/* Print out the value of count3 in each loop */

printf("Loop %d: The value for count3 is %d\n",count4,count3);
/* Increace the value of count4 */

++count4;
/* Increace the value of count4 */

++count4;
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
15
15
Objective : To understand Nested FOR control structure
Objective : To understand Nested FOR control structure
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
/* Main Function */
/* Main Function */
main()
{
main()
{
int count1, count2, b;
/* Print out the title for the looping contents */

printf("This is a test for Nested FOR Control Loop\n");
printf("==========================================\n");

printf("This is a test for Nested FOR Control Loop\n");
printf("==========================================\n");
printf("\n");
printf("\n");

for (count1 = 1; count1 <= 10; ++count1)
{

{
/* Print out the number of each loop */

printf("\nLoop %d : ", count1);

/* Control structure for the Nested "FOR" loop */

{
/* Control structure for the Nested "FOR" loop */

{
/* Multiply the values of count2 with 2 then assign to b */

b = 2 * count2;
/* Multiply the values of count2 with 2 then assign to b */

b = 2 * count2;

printf("%d ", b);

printf("%d ", b);
}
16
16
}
printf("\n\n\n");

printf("\n\n\n");
17
17
Objective : To understand WHILE control structure
Objective : To understand WHILE control structure
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
/* Main Function */
/* Main Function */
main()
{
main()
{
int count1, b ;
int count1, b ;
/* Initialize count1 to value 1 */

count1 = 1;

count1 = 1;

printf("===================================\n");

printf("===================================\n");
printf("\n");
printf("\n");
/* Control structure for the "WHILE" loop */

while (count1 < 10)
{

while (count1 < 10)
{
/* Add up the value of count1 with 2 then assign to b */

b = count1 + 2;
/* Increase the value of count1 */
++count1;

b = count1 + 2;
++count1;

printf("\n\n\n");

printf("\n\n\n");
}
18
18
Objective : To understand Nested WHILE control structure
Objective : To understand Nested WHILE control structure
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
/* Main Function */
/* Main Function */
main()
{
main()
{

printf("This is a test for Nested WHILE control loop\n");
printf("============================================\n");

printf("This is a test for Nested WHILE control loop\n");
printf("============================================\n");
printf("\n");
printf("\n");

count1 = 1;

count1 = 1;

while (count1 <= 10)
{

while (count1 <= 10)
{



count2 = 1;

count2 = 1;
/* Control structure for the Nested "WHILE" loop */

while (count2 <= 5)
{
/* Control structure for the Nested "WHILE" loop */

while (count2 <= 5)
{
/* Multiply value of count2 with 2 then assign to b */

19
/* Multiply value of count2 with 2 then assign to b */

19
b = 2 * count2;
b = 2 * count2;

printf(" %d", b);
++count2;

printf(" %d", b);
++count2;

++count1;

++count1;

printf("\n\n\n");

printf("\n\n\n");
20
20
Objective : To understand DOWHILE control structure
Objective : To understand DOWHILE control structure
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
/* Main Function */
/* Main Function */
main()
{
main()
{
int count1, b;
int count1, b;

printf("===================================\n");

printf("===================================\n");
printf("\n");
printf("\n");

count1 = 1;

count1 = 1;
/* Control structure for the "DO... WHILE" loop */
/* Control structure for the "DO... WHILE" loop */
do
{
do
{
b = count1 + 2;
/* Print out the values of b in each loop */
++count1;

b = count1 + 2;
/* Print out the values of b in each loop */
++count1;
} while (count1 < 10);
} while (count1 < 10);

printf("\n\n\n");

printf("\n\n\n");
}
21
21
Objective : To understand the if command.
Objective : To understand the if command.
// Include directives
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
// Main function
// Main function
main()
{
main()
{
// Variable declaration
float ass_1, ass_2, ass_3, average;
// Read in the marks for assessments

printf("Please enter marks for 3 assessments\n\n");
printf("Mark for Assessment 1 : ");
scanf ("%f", &ass_1);
// Read in the marks for assessments

// Calculate the average

average = (ass_1 + ass_2 + ass_3) / 3;

// Check if average is in the range of 61 to 100

if ((average > 60) && (average <= 100))
printf("\n\nYou have obtained the validation of competancy!\n\n\n");
// Check if average is in the range of 61 to 100

if ((average > 60) && (average <= 100))
printf("\n\nYou have obtained the validation of competancy!\n\n\n");
22
22
Objective : To understand the multiple if statement.
Objective : To understand the multiple if statement.
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
// Main function
// Main function
main()
{
main()
{
// Read in marks for 3 assessments



// Print out the value of average
printf("\n\nThe aveage is %.2f\n\n", average);

printf("\n\nThe aveage is %.2f\n\n", average);
// Check whether average is in range 85 to 100

if (average >= 85 && average <= 100)
printf("You obtained a Distinction!\n\n\n");

printf("You obtained a Distinction!\n\n\n");

if (average >= 70 && average < 85)
printf("You obtained a Merit!\n\n\n");

printf("You obtained a Merit!\n\n\n");


23
23
printf("You obtained a Pass!\n\n\n");
printf("You obtained a Pass!\n\n\n");
// Check whether average is in range less than 50

if (average < 50)
printf("You obtained a Not Yet Pass!\n\n\n");
}

if (average < 50)
printf("You obtained a Not Yet Pass!\n\n\n");
}
24
24
Objective : To understand the Nested if statement.
Objective : To understand the Nested if statement.
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
// Main function
// Main function
main()
{
main()
{
// Variable declarations
char competent;
char competent;



printf("\n\nThe average is %.2f\n\n", average);

printf("\n\nThe average is %.2f\n\n", average);
// Read in the status of competancy

printf("Did you obtain the validation of competency in Practical work? : ");
fflush(stdin);
scanf ("%c", &competent);
// Read in the status of competancy

printf("Did you obtain the validation of competency in Practical work? : ");
fflush(stdin);
scanf ("%c", &competent);
// Check whether competent is equal to "y" or "Y"

if ((competent == 'y') || (competent == 'Y'))
{
// Check whether competent is equal to "y" or "Y"

if ((competent == 'y') || (competent == 'Y'))
{
25
25

printf("\nYou obtained a Distinction!\n\n\n");

printf("\nYou obtained a Distinction!\n\n\n");

printf("\nYou obtained a Merit!\n\n\n");

printf("\nYou obtained a Merit!\n\n\n");

printf("\nYou obtained a Pass!\n\n\n");

printf("\nYou obtained a Pass!\n\n\n");

if (average < 50)
printf("\nYou obtained a Not Yet Pass!\n\n\n");

if (average < 50)
printf("\nYou obtained a Not Yet Pass!\n\n\n");
// Check whether competent is equal to "n" or "N"

if ((competent == 'n') || (competent == 'N'))
printf("\nSorry! You get a NYP because you don't competent in Practical
work.\n\n\n");
// Check whether competent is equal to "n" or "N"

if ((competent == 'n') || (competent == 'N'))
printf("\nSorry! You get a NYP because you don't competent in Practical
work.\n\n\n");
26
26
Objective : To understand IFELSE control structure
Objective : To understand IFELSE control structure
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
// Main Function
// Main Function
main()
{
main()
{
float ass1, ass2, ass3, average;
char competent;
float ass1, ass2, ass3, average;
char competent;
// Read in marks for each assessment

printf("Please enter the mark for 3 assessment\n");
printf("Key in mark for Assessment 1 : ");
scanf ("%f", &ass1);
// Read in marks for each assessment

printf("Please enter the mark for 3 assessment\n");
// Calculate the average mark

average = (ass1 + ass2 + ass3) / 3;
// Calculate the average mark

average = (ass1 + ass2 + ass3) / 3;
// Print out the average mark

printf("\nThe average is %.2f\n\n\n", average);
// Print out the average mark

printf("\nThe average is %.2f\n\n\n", average);
// Execute when the average is in the range of 51 to 100

if (average > 50 && average <= 100)
{
printf("Well done!!!\n");
printf("You are competent in this module");
}
else
{

if (average > 50 && average <= 100)
{
printf("Well done!!!\n");
printf("You are competent in this module");
}
else
{
27
27
printf("Do not feel bad.... \n");
printf("Do not feel bad.... \n");
printf("Work harder and you may do it better in the future");
printf("Work harder and you may do it better in the future");
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
28
28
Objective : To understand ELSEIF control structure
Objective : To understand ELSEIF control structure
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
// Main Function
// Main Function
main()
{
main()
{
float mark;
float mark;
// Read in a mark
printf("Please enter your mark : ");
scanf ("%f", &mark);
// Read in a mark
// Execute when the mark is in range 85 and above

if (mark >= 85)
printf("\nYou get a distinction!\n\n\n");
else
// Execute when the mark is in range 60 to 84
if (mark >= 60)
printf("\nYou get a Merit!\n\n\n");
else
if (mark >= 50)
printf("\nYou get a Pass!\n\n\n");
else
// Execute when the mark is in range 49 and below
printf("\nYou get a Fail!\n\n\n");

if (mark >= 85)
printf("\nYou get a distinction!\n\n\n");
else
if (mark >= 60)
else
if (mark >= 50)
else
29
29
Objective : Amend the program in Appendix Outcome 6-5 by using multiple IF

control structure to observe their difference(s).
Objective : Amend the program in Appendix Outcome 6-5 by using multiple IF

control structure to observe their difference(s).
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
// Main Function
// Main Function
main()
{
main()
{
float mark;
float mark;
// Read in a mark
// Read in a mark

if (mark >= 85)
printf("\nYou get a Distinction!\n\n\n");

if (mark >= 85)
printf("\nYou get a Distinction!\n\n\n");

if (mark >= 60 && mark < 85)

if (mark >= 60 && mark < 85)

if (mark >= 50 && mark < 60)

if (mark >= 50 && mark < 60)

if (mark < 50)

if (mark < 50)
30
30
Objective : To understand SWITCH control structure with numeric data type
Objective : To understand SWITCH control structure with numeric data type
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
// Main Function
// Main Function
main()
{
main()
{
int choice;
int choice;
// Print out the choice options

printf("Please select a choice : ");
printf("1 2 3 or 4\n");
// Read in a choice
printf("\nEnter your choice : ");
scanf ("%d", &choice);

printf("Please select a choice : ");
printf("1 2 3 or 4\n");
// Read in a choice
scanf ("%d", &choice);
switch(choice)
{
switch(choice)
{
// Execute when choice equal 1

case 1:
printf("\nYou have entered choice 1\n\n\n");
break;

case 1:
break;

case 2:
break;

case 2:
break;

case 3:
break;

case 3:
break;
31
31

case 4:
break;

case 4:
break;
// Execute when choice is none of the above

default:
printf("\nInvalid entry\n\n\n");
break;

default:
printf("\nInvalid entry\n\n\n");
break;
32
32
Objective : To understand SWITCH control structure with character data type
Objective : To understand SWITCH control structure with character data type
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
// Main Function
// Main Function
main()
{
main()
{
int choice;
int choice;

printf("You are allowed to select choice A, B, C and D\n");
// Read in the option
choice = getchar();

printf("You are allowed to select choice A, B, C and D\n");
// Read in the option
choice = getchar();
switch(choice)
{
switch(choice)
{
// Execute when choice equal to A

case 'A':
printf("\nYou have entered choice A\n\n\n");
break;
// Execute when choice equal to A

case 'A':
printf("\nYou have entered choice A\n\n\n");
break;
// Execute when choice equal to B

case 'B':
printf("\nYou have entered choice B\n\n\n");
break;
// Execute when choice equal to B

case 'B':
printf("\nYou have entered choice B\n\n\n");
break;
// Execute when choice equal to C

case 'C':
printf("\nYou have entered choice C\n\n\n");
break;
// Execute when choice equal to C

case 'C':
printf("\nYou have entered choice C\n\n\n");
break;
33
33
// Execute when choice equal to D

case 'D':
printf("\nYou have entered choice D\n\n\n");
break;
// Execute when choice equal to D

case 'D':
printf("\nYou have entered choice D\n\n\n");
break;

default:
printf("\nInvalid entry!\n\n\n");
break;

default:
printf("\nInvalid entry!\n\n\n");
break;
34
34
Objective : To understand 1-dimensional array declaration and initialization.
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
// Main Function
// Main Function
main()
{
main()
{
// Array Variable declaration
int buffer[5] = {50, 20, 30, 98, 71};

int buffer[5] = {50, 20, 30, 98, 71};
// Print out the value in each array element

printf("Data store in the array are as below\n");
printf("====================================\n\n");
printf("The data inside buffer[0] is %d\n", buffer[0]);

printf("Data store in the array are as below\n");
printf("====================================\n\n");
printf("\n\n");
printf("\n\n");
35
35
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
// Main Function
// Main Function
main()
{
main()
{
int buffer[5];

int buffer[5];
// Assign each array element with a value

buffer[0] = 50;
buffer[1] = 34;
buffer[2] = 78;
buffer[3] = 45;
buffer[4] = 88;
// Assign each array element with a value

buffer[0] = 50;
buffer[1] = 34;
buffer[2] = 78;
buffer[3] = 45;
buffer[4] = 88;

printf("Data stored in the array are as below\n");
printf("=====================================\n\n");

printf("=====================================\n\n");
printf("\n\n");
printf("\n\n");
36
36
Objective : To understand 1-dimensional array processing with variable as array

index

index
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
// Main Function
// Main Function
main()
{
main()
{
int buffer[5], i = 2, j = 4, answer;
int buffer[5], i = 2, j = 4, answer;
// Assign a value to each array element

buffer[0] = 50;
buffer[1] = 34;
buffer[2] = 78;
buffer[3] = 45;
buffer[4] = 88;

buffer[0] = 50;
buffer[1] = 34;
buffer[2] = 78;
buffer[3] = 45;
buffer[4] = 88;
// Manipulate the array values and assign the value to answer

answer = (buffer[i] + buffer[j]) * 6;
// Manipulate the array values and assign the value to answer

answer = (buffer[i] + buffer[j]) * 6;

printf("=====================================\n\n");

printf("=====================================\n\n");
// Print out the value of answer

printf("\nThe data associates with variable Answer is %d\n\n\n", answer);

printf("\nThe data associates with variable Answer is %d\n\n\n", answer);
}
37
37
Objective : To understand 1- dimensional array processing using looping

command
Objective : To understand 1- dimensional array processing using looping

command
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
// Main Function
// Main Function
main()
{
main()
{
int table[100], number, i;
int table[100], number, i;
// Read in the amount of values

printf("How many numbers you wish to enter?\n");
printf("Please enter an amount here : ");
scanf ("%d", &number);
// Read in the amount of values

printf("How many numbers you wish to enter?\n");
printf("Please enter an amount here : ");
// Read in the numbers desire

printf("\n\nYou can start key in the numbers\n");
for(i = 1; i <= number; ++i)
scanf ("%d", &table[i]);
// Read in the numbers desire

printf("\n\nYou can start key in the numbers\n");
scanf ("%d", &table[i]);
// Print out the numbers in the array

printf("\n\nThe numbers you key in are\n");
printf("%d\t", table[i]);
// Print out the numbers in the array

printf("\n\nThe numbers you key in are\n");
printf("%d\t", table[i]);
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
38
38
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
// Main Function
// Main Function
main()
{
main()
{
// Declaration of 2 - dimensional array with values initialized
int buffer[2][3] = {{50, 20, 30}, {1, 3, 5}};
// Declaration of 2 - dimensional array with values initialized

int buffer[2][3] = {{50, 20, 30}, {1, 3, 5}};
// Print out the values stored in the 1st row

printf("Data stored in 1st Row\n");
printf("======================\n\n");
printf("The data inside buffer[0][0] is %d\n", buffer[0][0]);
printf("The data inside buffer{0][2] is %d\n", buffer[0][2]);
// Print out the values stored in the 1st row

printf("======================\n\n");
printf("The data inside buffer{0][2] is %d\n", buffer[0][2]);
// Print out the values stored in the 2nd row

printf("\n\nData stored in 2nd Row\n");
printf("==========================\n\n");
// Print out the values stored in the 2nd row

printf("==========================\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
39
39
Objective : To understand 2- dimensional array declaration and initialization.
Objective : To understand 2- dimensional array declaration and initialization.
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
// Main Function
// Main Function
main()
{
main()
{
int buffer[2][3];

int buffer[2][3];
// Assign a value to each of the array element

buffer[0][0] = 50;
buffer[0][1] = 20;
buffer[0][2] = 30;
buffer[1][0] = 1;
buffer[1][1] = 3;
buffer[1][2] = 5;
// Assign a value to each of the array element

buffer[0][0] = 50;
buffer[0][1] = 20;
buffer[0][2] = 30;
buffer[1][0] = 1;
buffer[1][1] = 3;
buffer[1][2] = 5;
// Print out the values stored in 1st row

printf("======================\n\n");
// Print out the values stored in 1st row

printf("======================\n\n");
// Print out the values stored in 2nd row

printf("==========================\n\n");
// Print out the values stored in 2nd row

printf("==========================\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
}
40
40

index.

index.
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
// Main Function
// Main Function
main()
{
main()
{
int buffer[2][3], k = 0, m = 1, n = 2, answer;
int buffer[2][3], k = 0, m = 1, n = 2, answer;

buffer[0][0] = 50;
buffer[0][1] = 34;
buffer[0][2] = 78;
buffer[1][0] = 45;
buffer[1][1] = 88;
buffer[1][2] = 108;

buffer[0][0] = 50;
buffer[0][1] = 34;
buffer[0][2] = 78;
buffer[1][0] = 45;
buffer[1][1] = 88;
buffer[1][2] = 108;
// Print out values stored in 1st row

printf("======================\n\n");
// Print out values stored in 1st row

printf("======================\n\n");
// Print out values stored in 2nd row

printf("======================\n\n");
// Print out values stored in 2nd row

printf("======================\n\n");
// Manipulate the values in array and assign the result to answer

answer = (buffer[k][m] + buffer[m][n]) * 6;
// Manipulate the values in array and assign the result to answer

answer = (buffer[k][m] + buffer[m][n]) * 6;
41
41

printf("\n\nThe data associates with variable Answer is %d\n\n\n", answer);
}

printf("\n\nThe data associates with variable Answer is %d\n\n\n", answer);
}
42
42
Objective : To understand 2-dimensional array processing using looping

command
Objective : To understand 2-dimensional array processing using looping

command
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
// Main function
// Main function
main()
{
main()
{
int table[100][100], i, j;
int table[100][100], i, j;
// Read in numbers key in by user

printf("Please enter 15 numbers\n");
printf("You can start key in the number\n");
for(i = 1; i <= 5; ++i) // Indicate the rows
{
for(j = 1; j <= 3; ++j) // Indicate the columns
scanf ("%d", &table[i][j]);
}
// Read in numbers key in by user

printf("Please enter 15 numbers\n");
printf("You can start key in the number\n");
{
scanf ("%d", &table[i][j]);
}
// Print out the numbers entered

printf("\n\nThe numbers you key in are as below : \n\n");
{
{
printf("%d\t", table[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
// Print out the numbers entered

printf("\n\nThe numbers you key in are as below : \n\n");
{
{
printf("%d\t", table[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
}
43
43
Objective : To observe the usage of the address-of operator sign (&).
Objective : To observe the usage of the address-of operator sign (&).
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
/* Function header */
main()
{
main()
{
int number1, number2, number3;
int number1, number2, number3;
/* Print out the title of the data entry */

printf("Please enter 3 integer numbers\n");
printf("==============================\n");
printf("\n");
/* Read in the value of number1 */
printf("Number 1 : ");
/* Print out the title of the data entry */

printf("Please enter 3 integer numbers\n");
printf("==============================\n");
printf("\n");
/* Print out the title for values displaying */

printf("\n\nTo display the values\n");
printf("=====================\n");
/* Print out the values for each variable */
printf("\nThe content of number1 is %d", number1);
/* Print out the title for values displaying */

printf("\n\nTo display the values\n");
printf("=====================\n");
/* Print out the values for each variable */
/* Print out the title for location displaying */

printf("\n\n\nTo display the location\n");
printf("=======================\n");
/* Print out the addresses for each variable */
/* Print out the title for location displaying */

printf("\n\n\nTo display the location\n");
printf("=======================\n");
/* Print out the addresses for each variable */
44
44
printf("\nThe address of number1 is %x", &number1);


printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
45
45
Objective : To observe the command of declaration of pointer, unary operator and

address of operator.
Objective : To observe the command of declaration of pointer, unary operator and

address of operator.
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
main()
{
int u = 45, v, *au, *pv;
int u = 45, v, *au, *pv;
/* Assign the address of variable u to variable *au */

au = &u;
/* Assign the pointer value of variable au to variable v */
v = *au;
/* Assign the address of variable v to variable *pv */
pv
= &v;
/* Assign the address of variable u to variable *au */

au = &u;
/* Assign the pointer value of variable au to variable v */
v = *au;
/* Assign the address of variable v to variable *pv */
pv
= &v;
/* Print out the title of particular */

printf("Particular for variable u\n");
printf("=========================\n");
/* Print out the value and address of u */
printf("The data holds by variable u is %d", u);
printf("\nThe address of variable u is %x\n\n\n", &u);

printf("Particular for variable u\n");
printf("=========================\n");
/* Print out the value and address of u */
printf("The data holds by variable u is %d", u);
printf("\nThe address of variable u is %x\n\n\n", &u);

printf("Particular for variable au\n");
printf("==========================\n");
/* Print out the value and address of au */
printf("The data holds by variable au is %x", au);
printf("\nThe address of variable au is %x", &au);
printf("\nThe data read by a pointer au is %d\n\n\n", *au);

printf("Particular for variable au\n");
printf("==========================\n");
/* Print out the value and address of au */
printf("The data holds by variable au is %x", au);
printf("\nThe address of variable au is %x", &au);
printf("\nThe data read by a pointer au is %d\n\n\n", *au);
46
46

printf("Particular for variable v\n");
printf("=========================\n");
/* Print out the value and address of v */
printf("The data holds by variable v is %d", v);
printf("\nThe address of variable v is %x\n\n\n", &v);

printf("Particular for variable v\n");
printf("=========================\n");
/* Print out the value and address of v */
printf("The data holds by variable v is %d", v);
printf("\nThe address of variable v is %x\n\n\n", &v);

printf("Particular for variable pv\n");
printf("==========================\n");
/* Print out the value and address of pv */
printf("The data holds by variable pv is %x", pv);
printf("\nThe data address of variable pv is %x", &pv);
printf("\nThe data read by a pointer pv is %d\n\n\n", *pv);

printf("Particular for variable pv\n");
printf("==========================\n");
/* Print out the value and address of pv */
printf("The data holds by variable pv is %x", pv);
printf("\nThe data address of variable pv is %x", &pv);
printf("\nThe data read by a pointer pv is %d\n\n\n", *pv);
47
47
Objective : To store the data into the required address / memory location.
Objective : To store the data into the required address / memory location.
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
main()
{
int *pv, temp;
int *pv, temp;
/* Read in the address */

printf("Enter any address : ");
scanf ("%x", &pv);
/* Read in the address */

printf("Enter any address : ");
scanf ("%x", &pv);
/* Print out the value of the pointer */

printf("The data of %x is %d\n\n\n", pv, *pv);
/* Print out the value of the pointer */

printf("The data of %x is %d\n\n\n", pv, *pv);
/* Read in the value */

printf("Enter any data : ");
scanf ("%d", &temp);
/* Read in the value */

printf("Enter any data : ");
scanf ("%d", &temp);
/* Assign the value of temp to *pv */

*pv = temp;
/* Assign the value of temp to *pv */

*pv = temp;
/* Print out the value of pointer */

printf("The content of %x is %d\n\n\n", pv, *pv);
/* Print out the value of pointer */

printf("The content of %x is %d\n\n\n", pv, *pv);
48
48
Objective : To understand the operation of the pointer and array.
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
main()
{
int array1[10];
int count1;
int array1[10];
int count1;

printf("Enter 5 integer numbers\n");
printf("=======================\n");
/* Read 5 values into the array1 */
{

printf("=======================\n");
/* Read 5 values into the array1 */
{
printf("
X%d = ", count1);
scanf ("%d", &array1[count1]);
printf("
X%d = ", count1);
scanf ("%d", &array1[count1]);
/* Space for one line */

printf("\n");
/* Space for one line */

printf("\n");
/* Print out the 5 values' addresses entered just now */

printf("\nThe addresses of array1[%d] is %x", count1, &array1[count1]);
/* Print out the 5 values' addresses entered just now */

printf("\nThe addresses of array1[%d] is %x", count1, &array1[count1]);
/* Print out the content of the pointer array1 */

printf("\n\n\nThe content of the pointer called array1 is %x\n\n\n", array1);
/* Print out the content of the pointer array1 */

printf("\n\n\nThe content of the pointer called array1 is %x\n\n\n", array1);
}
49
49
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
main()
{
long array1[10];
int count1;
long array1[10];
int count1;

printf("=======================\n");
/* Read 5 values into array1 */
{

printf("=======================\n");
/* Read 5 values into array1 */
{
printf("
X%d = ", count1);
scanf ("%ld", &array1[count1]);
printf("
X%d = ", count1);
scanf ("%ld", &array1[count1]);

printf("\n\n");

printf("\n\n");
/* Print out the address of that 5 values */

printf("\nThe address of array1[%d] is %x", count1, &array1[count1]);
/* Print out the address of that 5 values */

printf("\nThe address of array1[%d] is %x", count1, &array1[count1]);
/* Print out the content of pointer array1 */

printf("\n\n\nThe content of the pointer called array is %x\n\n\n", array1);
/* Print out the content of pointer array1 */

printf("\n\n\nThe content of the pointer called array is %x\n\n\n", array1);
}
50
50
Objective : Return multiple data by using the command of pointer within a

function.
Objective : Return multiple data by using the command of pointer within a

function.
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
/* Sub-function header */
modify(int *p, int *r)
{
/* Sub-function header */
modify(int *p, int *r)
{
/* Substitute variable a to pointer *p and multiple it with 2 */

*p = *p * 2;
/* Substitute variable b to pointer *r and multiple it with 3 */
*r = *r * 3;
/* Substitute variable a to pointer *p and multiple it with 2 */

*p = *p * 2;
/* Substitute variable b to pointer *r and multiple it with 3 */
*r = *r * 3;

printf("During Function\n");
printf("===============\n");
/* Print out the values of *p and *r inside the sub-function */
printf(" a = %d\n", *p);
printf(" b = %d\n\n\n", *r);

printf("During Function\n");
printf("===============\n");
/* Print out the values of *p and *r inside the sub-function */
printf(" a = %d\n", *p);
printf(" b = %d\n\n\n", *r);
/* return the values to Main function */
/* return the values to Main function */
return;
return;
main()
{
main()
{
int a, b;
int a, b;

printf("Before Function\n");
printf("===============\n");

printf("Before Function\n");
printf("===============\n");
51
51
/* Read in the values of a and b */

printf(" a = ");
scanf ("%d", &a);
printf(" b = ");
scanf ("%d", &b);
/* Read in the values of a and b */

printf(" a = ");
scanf ("%d", &a);
printf(" b = ");
scanf ("%d", &b);

printf("\n\n");

printf("\n\n");
/* Pass the values of a and b to a function called Modify */

modify(&a, &b);
/* Pass the values of a and b to a function called Modify */

modify(&a, &b);

printf("After Function\n");
printf("==============\n");
/* Print out the values of a and b after passed through the function */
printf(" a = %d\n", a);
printf(" b = %d\n\n\n", b);

printf("After Function\n");
printf("==============\n");
/* Print out the values of a and b after passed through the function */
printf(" a = %d\n", a);
printf(" b = %d\n\n\n", b);
52
52
Objective : To practice the command of 'strlen'
Objective : To practice the command of 'strlen'
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
main()
{
main()
{
char sent[100];
char sent[100];

printf("Enter any string\n");
printf("================\n");
/* Read in the characters entered */
scanf ("%[^\n]", sent);

printf("Enter any string\n");
printf("================\n");
/* Read in the characters entered */
scanf ("%[^\n]", sent);
/* Print out the length of the character string */

printf("\n\n\nThe length of the string is %d\n\n\n", strlen(sent));
/* Print out the length of the character string */

printf("\n\n\nThe length of the string is %d\n\n\n", strlen(sent));
53
53
Objective : To practice the command of 'strcpy' with array notation.
Objective : To practice the command of 'strcpy' with array notation.
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
main()
{
main()
{
char sent1[100], sent2[100];
char sent1[100], sent2[100];

printf("Enter the string\n");
printf("================\n");
/* Read in the characters entered and store in variable sent1 */
scanf ("%[^\n]", sent1);

printf("Enter the string\n");
printf("================\n");
/* Read in the characters entered and store in variable sent1 */
scanf ("%[^\n]", sent1);
/* Copy the string in variable sent1 to variable sent2 */

strcpy(sent2, sent1);
/* Copy the string in variable sent1 to variable sent2 */

strcpy(sent2, sent1);
/* Print out the content of variable sent2 */

printf("\n\n\nThe content of sent2 is %s\n\n\n", sent2);
/* Print out the content of variable sent2 */

printf("\n\n\nThe content of sent2 is %s\n\n\n", sent2);
54
54
Objective : To practice the command of 'strcpy' with pointer notation.
// Include directive headers

#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
// Main function header
main()
{
main()
{
char *destination_string, source_string[100];
char *destination_string, source_string[100];
// Assign destination_string to source_string

destination_string = source_string;

destination_string = source_string;
// Read in a string for source_string

printf("Enter any string : ");
scanf ("%[^\n]", source_string);
// Read in a string for source_string

printf("Enter any string : ");
// Copy the string value of source_string to

strcpy(destination_string, source_string);
// Copy the string value of source_string to

// Print out the string value copied to destination_string

printf("\n\n\nThe content of destination_string is %s\n\n\n", destination_string);
// Print out the string value copied to destination_string

printf("\n\n\nThe content of destination_string is %s\n\n\n", destination_string);
55
55

#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <conio.h>

#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <conio.h>
main()
{
main()
{
int count1, length;
char *source_string, destination_string[100];
int count1, length;
char *source_string, destination_string[100];

source_string = destination_string;

source_string = destination_string;
// Read in string value for source_string

printf("Enter a string : ");
// Read in string value for source_string

// Check the length of source_string and assign it to length

length = strlen(source_string);
// Check the length of source_string and assign it to length

length = strlen(source_string);
// Copy the string value of source_string to destination_string

// Copy the string value of source_string to destination_string

// Print out the content of destination_string

printf("\n\nThe content of destination_string is %s\n\n\n", destination_string);
// Print out the content of destination_string

printf("\n\nThe content of destination_string is %s\n\n\n", destination_string);
// Print out the addresses pointed and contents pointed by source_string

for (count1 = 0; count1 < length; count1++)
{
// Print out the addresses pointed and contents pointed by source_string

for (count1 = 0; count1 < length; count1++)
{
56
56
printf("Address %d = %X\t\tContent = %c\n", count1 + 1, source_string,

*source_string);
++source_string;
printf("Address %d = %X\t\tContent = %c\n", count1 + 1, source_string,

*source_string);
++source_string;
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
57
57
Objective : To practice the command of 'strncpy'
Objective : To practice the command of 'strncpy'

#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <conio.h>

#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <conio.h>
main()
{
main()
{
int count;
char sent_1[100], sent_2[100];
int count;
// Assign all the elements in sent_1 and sent_2 to NULL

for (count = 0; count < 100; count++)
{
// Assign all the elements in sent_1 and sent_2 to NULL

for (count = 0; count < 100; count++)
{
sent_1[count] = NULL;
// Read in a string value for sent_1

scanf ("%[^\n]", sent_1);

// Copy the first 5 characters from sent_1 to sent_2

strncpy(sent_2, sent_1, 5);
// Copy the first 5 characters from sent_1 to sent_2

strncpy(sent_2, sent_1, 5);
// Print out the string value of sent_2

printf("\n\n\nThe content of sent_2 is %s\n\n\n", sent_2);
// Print out the string value of sent_2

printf("\n\n\nThe content of sent_2 is %s\n\n\n", sent_2);
}
58
58
Objective : To practice the command of 'strcmp' using array notation.
Objective : To practice the command of 'strcmp' using array notation.

#include "stdafx.h"
#include <string.h>
#include <stdio.h>

#include "stdafx.h"
#include <string.h>
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
main()
{
int result;
int result;

printf("Enter first string : ");


printf("Enter second string : ");
fflush(stdin);

fflush(stdin);
// Compare the strings of sent_1 and sent_2 and assign the value to result
result = strcmp(sent_1, sent_2);
// Compare the strings of sent_1 and sent_2 and assign the value to result
// Do if result is smaller than 0

if (result < 0)
printf("\n\nFirst string comes before Second string\n\n\n");
// Do if result is smaller than 0

if (result < 0)
// Do if result is equal to 0
if (result == 0)
printf("\n\nFirst string and Second string are the same\n\n\n");
if (result == 0)
59
59
// Do if result is greater than 0

if (result > 0)
printf("\n\nSecond string comes before First string\n\n\n");
}

if (result > 0)
}
60
60
Objective : To practice the command of 'strcmp' using pointer notation.
Objective : To practice the command of 'strcmp' using pointer notation.

#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
main()
{
main()
{
int result;
char *sent_1, string_1[100], *sent_2, string_2[100];
// Initialize pointers sent_1 and sent_2 to string_1 and string_2

respectively
sent_1 = string_1;
sent_2 = string_2;
int result;
// Initialize pointers sent_1 and sent_2 to string_1 and string_2

respectively
sent_1 = string_1;
sent_2 = string_2;



fflush(stdin);

fflush(stdin);
// Compare the string values between sent_1 and sent_2 and assign the
value to result
// Do if result is less than 0

if (result < 0)
61
// Compare the string values between sent_1 and sent_2 and assign the
value to result

if (result < 0)
61
if (result == 0)
if (result == 0)

if (result > 0)

if (result > 0)
62
62
Objective : To practice the command of 'strncmp' using pointer notation.
Objective : To practice the command of 'strncmp' using pointer notation.

#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
main()
{
main()
{
int result;
int result;
// Initialize sent_1 and sent_2 to string_1 and string_2 respectively

sent_1 = string_1;
sent_2 = string_2;
// Initialize sent_1 and sent_2 to string_1 and string_2 respectively

sent_1 = string_1;
sent_2 = string_2;



fflush(stdin);

fflush(stdin);
// Compare the first 4 characters of sent_1 and sent_2 and assign the
value to result
result = strncmp(sent_1, sent_2, 4);

if (result < 0)
63
// Compare the first 4 characters of sent_1 and sent_2 and assign the
value to result
result = strncmp(sent_1, sent_2, 4);

if (result < 0)
63
if (result == 0)
if (result == 0)

if (result > 0)

if (result > 0)
64
64
Objective : To practice the command of 'strstr'

#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
main()
{
main()
{
char *string_1 = "Borland International", *string_2 = "land", *ptr;
char *string_1 = "Borland International", *string_2 = "land", *ptr;
// To look for the position of first occurrence of string_2 in string_1

ptr = strstr(string_1, string_2);
// To look for the position of first occurrence of string_2 in string_1

ptr = strstr(string_1, string_2);
printf("The sub-string is : %s\n\n\n", ptr);
printf("The sub-string is : %s\n\n\n", ptr);
65
65

#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
main()
{
main()
{
char string_1[100], string_2[100], *result;
char string_1[100], string_2[100], *result;
// Read in a string value for string_1

printf("Enter first string
: ");
scanf ("%[^\n]", string_1);

printf("Enter first string
: ");

printf("Enter a string to search : ");
fflush(stdin);

printf("Enter a string to search : ");
fflush(stdin);
// Look for the possition of the first occurrence of string_2 in string_1

result = strstr(string_1, string_2);
// Look for the possition of the first occurrence of string_2 in string_1

result = strstr(string_1, string_2);
// Do if result is equal to NULL

if (result == NULL)
printf("\n\n\nSorry! Can't find such string in the sentence\n\n\n");
// Do if found
else
{
// Do if result is equal to NULL

if (result == NULL)
printf("\n\n\nSorry! Can't find such string in the sentence\n\n\n");
// Do if found
else
{
printf("\n\n\nYes! The string is managed to be found\n");

printf("The string is in the characters of %s\n\n\n", result);
printf("\n\n\nYes! The string is managed to be found\n");

printf("The string is in the characters of %s\n\n\n", result);
}
66
66
Objective : Revision on the topic of Array
Objective : Revision on the topic of Array
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <windows.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
main()
{
int student_batchno[10], count;
char student_name[10][100];
float student_CGPA[10];
int student_batchno[10], count;

char student_name[10][100];
float student_CGPA[10];
for (count = 1; count <= 3; count++)

{

{
printf("Student Name : ");

scanf ("%[^\n]", student_name[count]);

scanf ("%[^\n]", student_name[count]);
printf("Batch No. : ");

scanf ("%d", &student_batchno[count]);

scanf ("%d", &student_batchno[count]);
printf("Student CGPA : ");

scanf ("%f", &student_CGPA[count]);

scanf ("%f", &student_CGPA[count]);
fflush(stdin);
printf("\n");
fflush(stdin);
printf("\n");
system ("cls");
system ("cls");
printf("The data you key in are\n");

printf("-----------------------\n");

printf("-----------------------\n");
67
67
for (count =1; count <= 3; count++)

{
for (count =1; count <= 3; count++)

{
printf("\nStudent Name : %s", student_name[count]);

printf("\nBatch No. : %d", student_batchno[count]);
printf("\nStudent CGPA : %.2f", student_CGPA[count]);
printf("\nStudent Name : %s", student_name[count]);

printf("\nBatch No. : %d", student_batchno[count]);
printf("\nStudent CGPA : %.2f", student_CGPA[count]);
printf("\n");
printf("\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
68
68
Objective : To understand the declaration , input and output manipulation of a

STRUCTURE
Objective : To understand the declaration , input and output manipulation of a

STRUCTURE
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
struct HND
{
struct HND
{
char name[100];
int batchno;
float CGPA;
char name[100];
int batchno;
float CGPA;
} EE_student[10];
} EE_student[10];
main()
{
main()
{
int count;
int count;

{

{

scanf ("%[^\n]", EE_student[count].name);

scanf ("%[^\n]", EE_student[count].name);

scanf ("%d", &EE_student[count].batchno);

scanf ("%d", &EE_student[count].batchno);

scanf ("%f", &EE_student[count].CGPA);

scanf ("%f", &EE_student[count].CGPA);
fflush(stdin);
printf("\n");
fflush(stdin);
printf("\n");
69
69
system ("cls");
system ("cls");

printf("-----------------------\n");
{

printf("-----------------------\n");
{
printf("\nStudent Name : %s", EE_student[count].name);

printf("\nBatch No. : %d", EE_student[count].batchno);
printf("\nStudent CGPA : %.2f", EE_student[count].CGPA);
printf("\nStudent Name : %s", EE_student[count].name);

printf("\nBatch No. : %d", EE_student[count].batchno);
printf("\nStudent CGPA : %.2f", EE_student[count].CGPA);
printf("\n");
printf("\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
70
70
Objective : Observe the advantage of STRUCTURE compare with ARRAY
Objective : Observe the advantage of STRUCTURE compare with ARRAY
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
struct HND
{
struct HND
{
char name[100];
int batchno;
float CGPA;
char name[100];
int batchno;
float CGPA;
} EE_student[10], MM_student[10];
} EE_student[10], MM_student[10];
main()
{
main()
{
int count;
int count;

{

{

scanf ("%[^\n]", MM_student[count].name);

scanf ("%[^\n]", MM_student[count].name);

scanf ("%d", &MM_student[count].batchno);

scanf ("%d", &MM_student[count].batchno);

scanf ("%f", &MM_student[count].CGPA);

scanf ("%f", &MM_student[count].CGPA);
printf("\n");
printf("\n");
fflush(stdin);
fflush(stdin);
71
71

EE_student[count] = MM_student[count];

EE_student[count] = MM_student[count];
system ("cls");
system ("cls");

printf("-----------------------\n\n");
{

printf("-----------------------\n\n");
{
printf("Student Name : %s\n", EE_student[count].name);

printf("Batch No. : %d\n", EE_student[count].batchno);
printf("Student CGPA : %.2f\n", EE_student[count].CGPA);
printf("Student Name : %s\n", EE_student[count].name);

printf("Batch No. : %d\n", EE_student[count].batchno);
printf("Student CGPA : %.2f\n", EE_student[count].CGPA);
printf("\n");
printf("\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
72
72
Objective : Understand the application of the ARRAY within a STRUCTURE
Objective : Understand the application of the ARRAY within a STRUCTURE
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
struct database
{
struct database
{
char date[100];
int invoiceno[10];
float amount[10];
int no_of_invoice;
char date[100];
int invoiceno[10];
float amount[10];
int no_of_invoice;
} day[10];
} day[10];
main()
{
main()
{
int count_1, count_2, no_day;
printf("How many days of data to key in? ");

scanf ("%d", &no_day);
printf("How many days of data to key in? ");

for (count_1 = 1; count_1 <= no_day; count_1++)

{

{
fflush(stdin);
fflush(stdin);
printf("\n\nDate : ");
scanf ("%[^\n]", day[count_1].date);
printf("No. of Inoice received on %s : ", day[count_1].date);

scanf ("%d", &day[count_1].no_of_invoice);
printf("No. of Inoice received on %s : ", day[count_1].date);

73
73
for (count_2 = 1; count_2 <= day[count_1].no_of_invoice; count_2++)

{

{
printf("\nInvoice No. : ");

scanf ("%d", &day[count_1].invoiceno[count_2]);

printf("Amount
: ");
scanf ("%f", &day[count_1].amount[count_2]);
printf("Amount
: ");
printf("\n");
printf("\n");
system ("cls");
system ("cls");

printf("-----------------------\n\n");
{

printf("-----------------------\n\n");
{
printf("Date : %s\n", day[count_1].date);

{

{
printf("Invoice No. : %d\n", day[count_1].invoiceno[count_2]);

printf("Amount
: RM%.2f\n", day[count_1].amount[count_2]);
printf("Invoice No. : %d\n", day[count_1].invoiceno[count_2]);

printf("Amount
: RM%.2f\n", day[count_1].amount[count_2]);
printf("\n");
printf("\n");
printf("\n\n");
printf("\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
}
}
}
}
}
}
74
74
Objective : Mathematical operation within a STRUCTURE
Objective : Mathematical operation within a STRUCTURE
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
struct database
{
struct database
{
char date[100];
int invoiceno[10];
float amount[10];
int no_of_invoice;
float total_amount;
char date[100];
int invoiceno[10];
float amount[10];
int no_of_invoice;
float total_amount;
} day[10];
} day[10];
main()
{
main()
{
printf("How many days of data to key in? : ");

printf("How many days of data to key in? : ");


{

{
fflush(stdin);
fflush(stdin);
day[count_1].total_amount = 0;
day[count_1].total_amount = 0;
75
75
printf("No. of Invoice received on %s : ", day[count_1].date);

printf("No. of Invoice received on %s : ", day[count_1].date);


{

{


printf("Amount
: ");
printf("Amount
: ");
day[count_1].total_amount += day[count_1].amount[count_2];
day[count_1].total_amount += day[count_1].amount[count_2];
printf("\n");
printf("\n");
printf("\n\n");
printf("\n\n");
system ("cls");
system ("cls");

printf("-----------------------\n\n");
{

printf("-----------------------\n\n");
{

printf("Total Amount : %.2f\n", day[count_1].total_amount);

printf("Total Amount : %.2f\n", day[count_1].total_amount);
printf("\n");
printf("\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
76
76
Objective : To understand the format of STRUCTURE within STRUCTURE
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
struct particular
{
struct particular
{
char name[100];
int studentID;
float CGPA;
char name[100];
int studentID;
float CGPA;
};
};
struct HND
{
struct HND
{
int batchno;
int no_of_EE_student;
int no_of_MM_student;
int batchno;
int no_of_EE_student;
int no_of_MM_student;
} batch[10];
} batch[10];
main()
{
main()
{
int count_1, count_2, batch_total;
int count_1, count_2, batch_total;
printf("Total of Batches : ");

scanf ("%d", &batch_total);
printf("Total of Batches : ");

scanf ("%d", &batch_total);
77
77
for (count_1 = 1; count_1 <= batch_total; count_1++)
{
printf("\n\nBatch No. : ");
scanf ("%d", &batch[count_1].batchno);
printf("\n\nBatch No. : ");

scanf ("%d", &batch[count_1].batchno);
printf("No. of EE students : ");

scanf ("%d", &batch[count_1].no_of_EE_student);
printf("No. of EE students : ");

scanf ("%d", &batch[count_1].no_of_EE_student);
fflush(stdin);
fflush(stdin);
for (count_2 = 1; count_2 <= batch[count_1].no_of_EE_student;

count_2++)

count_2++)
{
fflush(stdin);
fflush(stdin);
printf("\nName
: ");
scanf ("%[^\n]", batch[count_1].EE_student[count_2].name);
printf("\nName
: ");
scanf ("%[^\n]", batch[count_1].EE_student[count_2].name);
printf("Student ID : ");
scanf ("%d", &batch[count_1].EE_student[count_2].studentID);
printf("Student ID : ");
scanf ("%d", &batch[count_1].EE_student[count_2].studentID);

scanf ("%f", &batch[count_1].EE_student[count_2].CGPA);

scanf ("%f", &batch[count_1].EE_student[count_2].CGPA);
printf("\n");
printf("\n");
printf("\n\n");
printf("\n\n");
system ("cls");
system ("cls");

printf("-----------------------\n");
{

printf("-----------------------\n");
{
printf("\n\nBatch %d\n", batch[count_1].batchno);

78
printf("\n\nBatch %d\n", batch[count_1].batchno);

78

count_2++)

count_2++)
printf("Student Name : %s\n",

batch[count_1].EE_student[count_2].name);
printf("Student ID : %d\n",
batch[count_1].EE_student[count_2].studentID);
printf("Student CGPA : %.2f\n",
batch[count_1].EE_student[count_2].CGPA);
printf("Student Name : %s\n",

batch[count_1].EE_student[count_2].name);
printf("Student ID : %d\n",
batch[count_1].EE_student[count_2].studentID);
printf("Student CGPA : %.2f\n",
batch[count_1].EE_student[count_2].CGPA);
printf("\n");
printf("\n");
printf("\n\n");
printf("\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
79
79
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
struct time
{
struct time
{
int hour, minutes, seconds;
int hour, minutes, seconds;
};
};
struct machine
{
struct machine
{
int
number, sensor, cyclinder;
char
purpose[100];
char
robot_tupe;
struct time downtime;
int
number, sensor, cyclinder;
char
purpose[100];
char
robot_tupe;
struct time downtime;
} station[100];
} station[100];
main()
{
main()
{
int number, count, down[100];
int number, count, down[100];
printf("How many items do you want to key in? : ");

printf("How many items do you want to key in? : ");

for (count = 1; count <= number; count++)

{

{
80
80
printf("\n\nPlease key in which station is down : ");

scanf ("%d", &station[count].number);
printf("\n\nPlease key in which station is down : ");

scanf ("%d", &station[count].number);
printf("\nFunction of station %d
: ", station[count].number);
scanf ("%s", station[count].purpose);
printf("\nFunction of station %d
: ", station[count].number);
scanf ("%s", station[count].purpose);
printf("No. of sensors in station %d : ", station[count].number);

scanf ("%d", &station[count].sensor);
printf("No. of sensors in station %d : ", station[count].number);

scanf ("%d", &station[count].sensor);
printf("No. of cyclinders in station %d : ", station[count].number);

scanf ("%d", &station[count].cyclinder);
printf("No. of cyclinders in station %d : ", station[count].number);

scanf ("%d", &station[count].cyclinder);
printf("Downtime \n");
printf("hour : ");
scanf ("%d", &station[count].downtime.hour);
printf("minutes : ");
scanf ("%d", &station[count].downtime.minutes);
printf("seconds : ");
scanf ("%d", &station[count].downtime.seconds);
printf("Downtime \n");
printf("hour : ");
scanf ("%d", &station[count].downtime.hour);
printf("minutes : ");
scanf ("%d", &station[count].downtime.minutes);
printf("seconds : ");
scanf ("%d", &station[count].downtime.seconds);
printf("\n\n");
printf("\n\n");

{

{
down[count] = station[count].downtime.hour * 3600 +

station[count].downtime.minutes * 60
+ station[count].downtime.seconds;
down[count] = station[count].downtime.hour * 3600 +

station[count].downtime.minutes * 60
+ station[count].downtime.seconds;
system ("cls");
system ("cls");

printf("-----------------------\n\n");
{

printf("-----------------------\n\n");
{
printf("Station %d\n", station[count].number);

printf("Function of station : %s\n", station[count].purpose);
81
printf("Station %d\n", station[count].number);

printf("Function of station : %s\n", station[count].purpose);
81
printf("No. of sensors
: %d\n", station[count].sensor);
printf("No. of cyclinders : %d\n", station[count].cyclinder);
printf("Downtime
: %d hour %d minutes %d seconds\n",
station[count].downtime.hour,
station[count].downtime.minutes,
station[count].downtime.seconds);
printf("Downtime in second is %d\n", down[count]);
printf("No. of sensors
: %d\n", station[count].sensor);
printf("No. of cyclinders : %d\n", station[count].cyclinder);
printf("Downtime
: %d hour %d minutes %d seconds\n",
station[count].downtime.hour,
station[count].downtime.minutes,
station[count].downtime.seconds);
printf("Downtime in second is %d\n", down[count]);
printf("\n\n");
printf("\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
82
82
Objective : To observe the control flow between the calling and called function
Objective : To observe the control flow between the calling and called function
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
void modify (int b);
void modify (int b);
main()
{
main()
{
int a = 2, b;
int a = 2, b;
printf("a = %d (from Main, before Calling Function)\n", a);
printf("a = %d (from Main, before Calling Function)\n", a);
modify (a);
modify (a);
printf("\n\na = %d (from Main, after Calling Function)\n", a);
printf("\n\na = %d (from Main, after Calling Function)\n", a);
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
void modify (int b)

{
void modify (int b)

{
b *= 3;
b *= 3;
printf("\n\nb = %d (within Called Function)\n", b);
printf("\n\nb = %d (within Called Function)\n", b);
return;
return;
}
83
83
Objective : To observe the control flow between the calling and called function for
multiple arguments
Objective : To observe the control flow between the calling and called function for
multiple arguments
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
modify (int data_1, int data_2, int data_3);
modify (int data_1, int data_2, int data_3);
main()
{
main()
{
int number_1 = 200, number_2 = 300, number_3 = 400;
int number_1 = 200, number_2 = 300, number_3 = 400;
printf("Values in Calling Function - Main\n");

printf("=================================\n");
printf("Number 1 = %d\n", number_1);

printf("=================================\n");
modify (number_1, number_2, number_3);
modify (number_1, number_2, number_3);
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
modify (int data_1, int data_2, int data_3)

{
modify (int data_1, int data_2, int data_3)

{
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("Values in Called Function - Modify\n");

printf("==================================\n");
printf("Data 1 = %d\n", data_1);

printf("==================================\n");
84
84
return;
return;
85
85
Objective : To understand the usage of function with a return value
Objective : To understand the usage of function with a return value
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
int modify (int data_1, int data_2, int data_3);
int modify (int data_1, int data_2, int data_3);
main()
{
main()
{
int number_1 = 20, number_2 = 3, number_3 = 4, answer;
int number_1 = 20, number_2 = 3, number_3 = 4, answer;

printf("=================================\n");

printf("=================================\n");
answer = modify (number_1, number_2, number_3);
answer = modify (number_1, number_2, number_3);
printf("\n\nAnswer = %d (in Main after return from Called Function)\n", answer);
printf("\n\nAnswer = %d (in Main after return from Called Function)\n", answer);
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
int modify (int data_1, int data_2, int data_3)

{
int modify (int data_1, int data_2, int data_3)

{
int final;
int final;
86
86
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");

printf("==================================\n");

printf("==================================\n");
final = data_1 * data_2 * data_3;
final = data_1 * data_2 * data_3;
return (final);
return (final);
87
87
Objective : To understand the usage of function with an array
Objective : To understand the usage of function with an array
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
int sum (int number[]);
int sum (int number[]);
main()
{
main()
{
int count_1, count_2, array_1[100], array_2[100];
int count_1, count_2, array_1[100], array_2[100];
printf("Calculate Addition of 3 arrays with 5 numbers\n");

printf("---------------------------------------------\n");
for (count_1 = 1; count_1 <= 3; count_1++)
{
printf("Calculate Addition of 3 arrays with 5 numbers\n");

printf("---------------------------------------------\n");
{
printf("\nARRAY %d values\n", count_1);

printf("==============\n");
printf("\nARRAY %d values\n", count_1);

printf("==============\n");

{

{
printf("No. %d = ", count_2);

scanf ("%d", &array_1[count_2]);
printf("No. %d = ", count_2);

scanf ("%d", &array_1[count_2]);
array_2[count_1] = sum (array_1);
array_2[count_1] = sum (array_1);
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
88
88
printf("Addition of ARRAY %d = %d\n", count_1, array_2[count_1]);
printf("Addition of ARRAY %d = %d\n", count_1, array_2[count_1]);
printf("\n\n\n");
printf("\n\n\n");
int sum (int number[])

{
int sum (int number[])

{
int answer = 0, count;
int answer = 0, count;

answer += number[count];

answer += number[count];
return (answer);
return (answer);
89
89
Objective : To understand the usage of function with a structure
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
struct rect
{
struct rect
{
int x_1, x_2;
int x_1, x_2;
} a;
} a;
struct info
{
struct info
{
int y_1, y_2;
int y_1, y_2;
} b;
} b;
struct rect get (struct rect temp);

struct info print (struct info rec);

struct info print (struct info rec);
main()
{
main()
{
struct rect data;
struct info stru;
struct rect data;

struct info stru;
data = get (a);
data = get (a);
printf("\n\nValues after Called Function - Get\n");

printf("----------------------------------\n");

printf("----------------------------------\n");
90
90
printf("x1 = %d\nx2 = %d\n\n\n", data);
stru = print (b);
stru = print (b);
printf("\n\nValues after Called Function - Info\n");

printf("-----------------------------------\n");
printf("y1 = %d\ny2 = %d\n\n\n", stru);
printf("\n\nValues after Called Function - Info\n");

printf("-----------------------------------\n");
struct rect get (struct rect temp)

{

{
printf("Enter x1 value : ");

scanf ("%d", &temp.x_1);

temp.x_1 += 3;
temp.x_2 += 3;
temp.x_1 += 3;
temp.x_2 += 3;
return (temp);
return (temp);
struct info print (struct info rec)

{
struct info print (struct info rec)

{
int y3;
int y3;
printf("Enter y1 value : ");

scanf ("%d", &rec.y_1);

y3 = rec.y_1;
rec.y_1 = rec.y_2;
rec.y_2 = y3;
y3 = rec.y_1;
rec.y_1 = rec.y_2;
rec.y_2 = y3;
return (rec);
return (rec);
}
91
91
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
struct rect
{
struct rect
{
int x_1, x_2;
int x_1, x_2;
};
};
struct rect get (void);

struct rect print (void);
struct rect get (void);

struct rect print (void);
main()
{
main()
{
struct rect data;
struct rect rec;
struct rect data;

struct rect rec;
data = get();
data = get();

printf("----------------------------------\n");
printf("data.x_1 = %d\n", data.x_1);
printf("data.x_2 = %d\n\n", data.x_2);

printf("----------------------------------\n");
printf("data.x_1 = %d\n", data.x_1);
printf("data.x_2 = %d\n\n", data.x_2);
rec = print();
rec = print();
printf("\n\nValues after Called Function - Print\n");
92
92
printf("------------------------------------\n");
printf("rec.x_1 = %d\n", rec.x_1);
printf("rec.x_2 = %d\n\n", rec.x_2);
printf("------------------------------------\n");
printf("rec.x_1 = %d\n", rec.x_1);
printf("rec.x_2 = %d\n\n", rec.x_2);
printf("x1 = %d\nx2 = %d\n\n\n", rec);
printf("x1 = %d\nx2 = %d\n\n\n", rec);
struct rect get (void)

{
struct rect get (void)

{
struct rect temp;
struct rect temp;


return (temp);
return (temp);
struct rect print (void)

{
struct rect print (void)

{
struct rect info;
struct rect info;

scanf ("%d", &info.x_1);

return (info);
return (info);
93
93
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
struct rect
{
struct rect
{
int y_1, y_2;
int y_1, y_2;
} a;
} a;

struct rect print (struct rect info);

struct rect print (struct rect info);
main()
{
main()
{
struct rect data;
struct rect stru;
struct rect data;

struct rect stru;
data = get (a);
data = get (a);

printf("==================================\n");
printf("y1 = %d\ny2 = %d\n\n\n", data);

printf("==================================\n");
printf("y1 = %d\ny2 = %d\n\n\n", data);
stru = print (a);
stru = print (a);

printf("====================================\n");

printf("====================================\n");
}
94
94

{

{

scanf ("%d", &temp.y_1);

return (temp);
return (temp);
struct rect print (struct rect info)

{
struct rect print (struct rect info)

{

scanf ("%d", &info.y_1);

return (info);
return (info);
95
95

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Introduction to

Penang Skills Development Centre. All rights reserved.

Rev 1, Feb 2006

Programming Languages and

Programming Languages and

Problem Solving Using Programming

Problem Solving Using Programming

Introduction and Objectives

Introduction and Objectives

Computer and Their Uses

Computer and Their Uses

Interpreter and 4GL

Interpreter and 4GL

Introduction and Objectives

Introduction and Objectives

Compiler & Interpreter

Compiler & Interpreter

Computer Programs and Programming Languages

Computer Programs and Programming Languages

Basic Keywords of Programming

Basic Keywords of Programming

Programming Tools and Concepts

Programming Tools and Concepts

Introduction and Objectives

Introduction and Objectives

Variables, Operators and

Variables, Operators and

Fundamental of Input and Output

Fundamental of Input and Output

Introduction and Objectives

Introduction and Objectives

The Structure of C Program

The Structure of C Program

A First Look at Function

A First Look at Function

Introduction to MS Visual C/C++ 6.0

Introduction to MS Visual C/C++ 6.0

Basic Program Control Structures

Basic Program Control Structures

Controlling Programs Execution

Controlling Programs Execution

Selection Control Structures

Selection Control Structures

Introduction and Objectives

Introduction and Objectives

Selection Control Structures

Selection Control Structures

Array, Pointer and Character String

Array, Pointer and Character String

Introduction and Objectives

Introduction and Objectives

Structure and Function

Structure and Function

Introduction and Objectives

Introduction and Objectives

C Keywords / Reserved words

C Keywords / Reserved words

Programming Languages and

Programming Languages and

Problem Solving Using

Problem Solving Using

Introduction and Objectives

Introduction and Objectives