Professional Documents
Culture Documents
EWB USA TP 103 Concrete Construction Field Techniques Revc
EWB USA TP 103 Concrete Construction Field Techniques Revc
EWB USA TP 103 Concrete Construction Field Techniques Revc
Concrete Construction
Field Techniques for Use in the Developing World
Jon Fripp PE1 , Phuc Vu PE2, and David Cruz PE3
Subject Key Word: Concrete Construction
Key Words: Concrete, Mix Design, Slump, Field Control, Field Test
CivilEngineerTechnicalMentor,TexasA&MEWB,NorthTexasProfessionalEWB,andSouthernMethodist
UniversityEWB
2
CivilEngineerTechnicalMentor,SouthernMethodistUniversityEWBandPortlandProfessionalEWB
3
CivilEngineer,MembershipCoordinator,NorthTexasProfessionalEWBandSouthernMethodistUniversityEWB
Page1
EWBUSATechnicalPaper103:ConcreteConstruction~FieldTechniquesforUseintheDevelopingWorld
available from a variety of sources. However, the use of these techniques and practices
requires equipment and testing that is often not available for short-term projects in the
developing world.
This paper addresses concrete mix design and control for small projects that include
concrete slabs and walls. It does not address mortar design. Throughout this paper,
reference is made to the engineer as the person in charge. In some cases, an
experienced technician or mason may be a suitable person to direct aspects of a small
project.
The techniques and procedures presented in this paper are applicable where
conventional quality control and testing approaches are not possible. The focus of these
techniques is on achieving good enough results which can be appropriate for many
limited resource based construction projects. However, the short cuts presented are not
appropriate for high value and high-risk projects. Projects of more than one story or
greater than 10 feet in height require a more thorough treatment. An engineer with
experience in concrete work must make the decision as to when they are appropriate.
The use of any construction technique should never be put to a popular vote. It is
incumbent upon the responsible engineer to assure that the ad-hoc approaches are
good enough for the project being constructed.
Materials
Concrete is made up of water, cement, aggregate, and additives. In many developing
world situations, additives are not readily available. Therefore, the three components
discussed in this guidance paper are as follows:
1. Water: Relatively clean, clear water should be used. While the water does not
need to be potable, water that is contaminated with salts, tannic acid, algae,
sewage, oils and chemicals should be avoided. The pH of mixing water should
be between 4.5 and 8.0 which can be checked with a hand held pH meter.
2. Cement: This is usually obtained in 70 lb or 94 lb bags of Portland cement. The
larger size is approximately equivalent to one cubic foot. It is important to assure
that the cement is relatively pure and has not been pre hydrated. Figure 1 shows
photographs of cement that should be rejected.
Page2
EWBUSATechnicalPaper103:ConcreteConstruction~FieldTechniquesforUseintheDevelopingWorld
Figure 1: Reject concrete that has been hydrated (left photo) or material that contains
contaminants (right photo).
The engineer in charge should spot check some of the delivered material to assure that
it does not contain inappropriate materials such as dirt, saw dust and seed hulls. Such
contamination not only adversely affects the strength but also indicates that the overall
product is of substandard and often unknown quality.
The engineer in charge must also assure that the concrete has not been pre hydrated.
If the bags are wet or the concrete has a solid feel, the cement should be rejected and
not used for the project. Cement that has been hydrated cannot be made right by
breaking it with hammers. A visual inspection is usually sufficient to assess the
adequacy of the cement. Be sure to protect delivered cement bags from rain. If the
project is being constructed in an area of high humidity (often characteristic of the
tropics) prolonged storage of greater than a week should be avoided.
3. Aggregate: This is divided into coarse aggregate and fine aggregate.
a) Fine Aggregate: This is sand and/or small crushed stone material. It should
be less than 3/8 inch in size and can include rock powder or rock dust. Be
careful to avoid contaminants such as debris, mica, and soil.
b) Coarse Aggregate: This is gravel or crushed stone. Angular stone is
preferred over smooth stone. The coarse aggregate should be 3/8 to 1.5 inch
in size. However the maximum size of the coarse aggregate should not be
more than 1/5th the distance between form faces, 1/3 depth of slab or 3/4ths
the distance between reinforcing bars. The coarse aggregate must be sound
rock. If it is weak, the concrete will be weak. Avoid mudstone, coal, lignite, as
well as porous or sandstone rock. A field expedient test is to sharply strike a
sample rock with a hammer. If it readily shatters, do not use that type of rock.
If weak rock is the only material that is available, the designer should assume
that the resulting concrete will be weak.
Page3
EWBUSATechnicalPaper103:ConcreteConstruction~FieldTechniquesforUseintheDevelopingWorld
It is often necessary to separate the fine and coarse aggregate materials on site. A
screen frame can be fabricated on site and used to segregate materials (Figure 2).
Figure 3: Example gradation samples. Rock to the left of the red pen is too large and
should not be used.
Page4
EWBUSATechnicalPaper103:ConcreteConstruction~FieldTechniquesforUseintheDevelopingWorld
Mix
A typical, workable concrete mix design in the developing world is 3:2:1. This means 3
parts gravel, 2 parts sand and 1 part cement. The typical water to be added is part
which results in a water/cement ratio of 0.5. Most mixing that is done on a site in the
developing world is accomplished by volume (referred to as volumetric mixing). This is
accomplished by measuring materials by volume typically by buckets or shovels of
consistent size. It is important to keep careful count of the buckets (or shovels) during
the mixing process as often the work becomes fast and workers may lose count.
On site mixing is the norm for work in the developing world. Ideally, it is done in a
powered mixer (Figure 4) but can also be accomplished on the ground (Figure 5). If
mixing on ground or trough -mix the cement and sand in a dry condition; then add the
gravel. If mixing in a rotating drum, start with the gravel. The engineer should take
particular care with on ground mixing to avoid debris contaminating the mix.
After the dry materials are mixed, then slowly add enough water to make the mix
workable. Typically, the added water is about 1/2 the volume of the cement (a
water/cement ratio of 0.5). The mix should be the consistency of wet dough or stiff, dry
oatmeal. It should not be shiny or visibly wet. Do not add too much water or it will
adversely affect the strength of the concrete. The detrimental effect of too much water
can be dramatic. An increase of one gallon of water per 70 lb sack will generally
increase the water/cement ratio by 0.1 and decrease the strength by 1000 psi. It is
important to maintain close supervision of adding water when mixing on the ground.
Mixing on the ground often results in excess water being added which affects the
strength and water tightness of the concrete. A lower limit for a water/cement ratio is
generally 0.35. A water/cement ratio of 0.6 is the upper limit for water tight concrete.
Figure 4: Typical powered mixers. Inspect before use to assure they are clean and in
working order
Page5
EWBUSATechnicalPaper103:ConcreteConstruction~FieldTechniquesforUseintheDevelopingWorld
Figure 5: Typical on ground mixing. Note excess water and the accumulation of debris
in the mix. Care should be taken to minimize this.
Slump
A slump test is done to check the consistency of the mix. A slump test involves filling an
inverted, bottomless cone with the concrete mixture. The concrete is placed in three
lifts and compacted with 25 strikes of a smooth tamping rod. The cone is removed and
the amount that the concrete slump is measured from the top of the cone and
compared to the specifications. This is illustrated in Figure 6.
Page6
EWBUSATechnicalPaper103:ConcreteConstruction~FieldTechniquesforUseintheDevelopingWorld
Page7
EWBUSATechnicalPaper103:ConcreteConstruction~FieldTechniquesforUseintheDevelopingWorld
Forms
Concrete placed as a slab or walls generally requires forms to establish the necessary
final shape. Excavation should be larger than the slab to allow for this form work. Forms
must be very strong to resist the weight of the concrete. A form failure during
construction can not only be very expensive but dangerous as well.
In the developing world, the most common material for forms is wood. It is important
that this wood is a sound material. The surface of the wood that is in contact with the
concrete should be smooth and free of holes, dents, sags, or other irregularities. The
wood should be cleaned and free of dirt and dust before placing the concrete. A typical
approach for walls is to use inch plywood and 2x4s on a 2-foot spacing. It is
important to secure with sufficient bracing both inside and outside. Put spacers between
the forms and use a level to assure the forms are straight. The construction of the forms
must not be rushed.
Coat the wood with plastic, diesel fuel, or vegetable oil to assure that the concrete does
not stick to the forms. This also reduces moisture from the concrete from being
absorbed into the wooden forms. Vegetable oil is preferred if the concrete project is to
contain potable water. Figure 9 shows forms under construction for a water storage tank
and the coating of a form with vegetable oil as a release agent. For most small projects
of the type addressed by this paper, leave the forms on for 24 hours (7 days if possible).
Reinforcement
Most concrete construction requires steel reinforcement. This steel reinforcing bar
(rebar) is available by commercial manufacture. Rebar is typically round and is
patterned to create a firm bond with the concrete. The size and spacing of the rebar is
determined in the design and is usually tabulated in a reinforcement schedule on the
plans. It is not generally something that is determined in the field. Rebar is referred to
by number which is in increments of 1/8 of an inch (#3 is 3/8 inch diameter) or in
millimeters (25 = 25 mm = 1 inch = no. 8). It must be cut and/or bent rebar as specified.
Do not use rebar that is coated in oil or excessive rust.
Page8
EWBUSATechnicalPaper103:ConcreteConstruction~FieldTechniquesforUseintheDevelopingWorld
In a slab, the steel should be in the lower 1/3rd of the depth and with at least 1.5 inches
(2 inch optimum) between the bar and the subgrade (ground). Use chairs to hold the
rebar in place and at the depth required. These must be spaced so that the weight of
the concrete does not push the steel down during placement. Typically these chairs are
wire or plastic. However, they can be made in the field with concrete and short pieces
or scrap rebar. Examples are shown in Figure 10. Rock, wood, and dirt clogs should
not be used to hold the rebar in place.
Figure 10: Commercially available plastic chairs and field constructed concrete chairs.
For most applications, the steel bar that is spliced should be overlapped by 18 inches.
The overlap should be secured in at least two places with tie wire. On right angle or
cross overlaps, the installers should double loop with tie wire in a saddle type
arrangement. A simple wire tie tool is often used to facilitate this operation (Figure 11).
Tie wire may also be used in walls to assure that the steel remains in the center of the
forms. For seismic applications, additional issues related to rebar placement are
necessary.
Exposed ends or rebar must be covered with a rebar cap until they are covered with the
concrete pour for safety of the workers. This important protection is commercially
available as plastic caps but they can also be made in the field by drilling a hole into a
block of wood. These are especially important for use on vertical pieces or rebar since
a fall onto this can result in impalement and serious injury. The engineer in charge
should periodically inspect the site to be sure that caps have not been knocked off or
stolen.
Page9
EWBUSATechnicalPaper103:ConcreteConstruction~FieldTechniquesforUseintheDevelopingWorld
Page10
EWBUSATechnicalPaper103:ConcreteConstruction~FieldTechniquesforUseintheDevelopingWorld
Figure 12: Improvised treme being used to place concrete from height
For slab construction, the concrete should be installed over a damp bed or compacted
earth, sand, or gravel (Figure 13). The base should be free of organic material. Fill from
one edge of the form to full height. Compact the concrete with a shovel, then compact
by screeding. To screed, first move a straight timber up and down across the wet
concrete in a tamping motion. Then drag the timber across the slab in a sawing motion,
level with formwork, to move excess concrete and bring the top surface to the design
grade.
Page11
EWBUSATechnicalPaper103:ConcreteConstruction~FieldTechniquesforUseintheDevelopingWorld
will adversely affect the ultimate strength of the concrete surface. The nature of final
finishing depends on the ultimate purpose of the project. For example, a slip resistant
finish can be achieved by sweeping the concrete with a stiff broom to achieve light
scour lines (referred to as broom finishing) before the concrete has completely
hardened.
Curing
It is important to not allow a placed concrete batch to dry too fast. The water must
combine with the cement to form the concrete. If the water evaporates before the
concrete has formed (been cured) the resulting mix may be under strength. This is often
a particular concern with slab construction since so much of the slab is exposed to the
air and the sun.
Curing is the process of keeping the concrete damp to allow hardening at the proper
rate. This is a critical concern in hot, dry climates. An approach that is typically
employed on limited resource projects is to cover the placed concrete with plastic,
burlap bags, or damp straw. Jute or burlap sacks can be wrapped around columns and
wetted. In damp areas such as rainforests, the ambient moisture may be sufficient.
Within 24 hours, the slab can be walked on. Spray water on concrete walls 3 times a
day after removing forms. Curing is generally complete in 3 to 7 days (Figure 14).
Figure 14: A finished slab can be walked on without any foot imprints and is ready for
further work
Generally, a properly mixed concrete will be waterproof. However a sealant is often
applied especially if there is a concern about small cracks forming during curing. It is
applied after curing is complete. If a sealant is used, it is important to assure that it is
not toxic. Proper ventilation is also necessary if sealing within a closed tank. A cementsand slurry can be used to seal small cracks if a commercial sealant is not available.
Page12
EWBUSATechnicalPaper103:ConcreteConstruction~FieldTechniquesforUseintheDevelopingWorld
Concrete Strength
A 3:2:1 mix with a strong aggregate and low w/c ratio will produce a very strong (4000
to 5000 psi) concrete. However, designers are discouraged from assuming this high
strength is readily accomplished in resource limited conditions. Given the inherent
uncertainties in cement quality and propensity for inexperienced construction crews to
add more water than is ideal, it is generally assumed that concrete strength is in the
3000 psi range for design purposes. Where resources are very limited and quality
control on both the aggregate and mix can be especially problematic, it is safer to
assume that an even lower concrete strength is achieved.
The implications of low strength aggregate on the ultimate strength of a concrete mix
was demonstrated on a 2012 EWB project in Guatemala. The project included the
construction of a concrete water storage tank. Test cylinders were formed, sealed, and
hand carried to the United States for testing. These test cylinders showed a 1500 psi
strength (Figure 15).
Figure 15: Test cylinders of field mixed concrete. Indication of breaks showed a deficit in
the aggregate strength. Note break across the aggregate.
The mix was accomplished on site and the aggregate material was hand carried in from
a nearby stream. It was not feasible to test the aggregate and a visual inspection did
indicate that it was not ideal. Careful slump tests were performed during the entire
construction which showed good control and a relatively low w/c ratio. Since this
empirical series of tests where consistent across several cylinders, it can be assumed
that the mix was controlled and the low strength is likely due to poor quality aggregate.
Fortunately, the engineers for this effort had assumed a low value for the concrete
strength and the design accommodated this approach with thicker elements. This
example is provided as an illustration of why it is potentially dangerous for designers to
assume that concrete strengths expected in the developed world under ideal conditions
can be achieved in resource limited conditions.
Safety and Management
Safety is always the first priority on any construction job. Construction is inherently
dangerous in any environment, but the remote locations that are often characteristic of
work in the developing world can delay obtaining medical care in the event of an
Page13
EWBUSATechnicalPaper103:ConcreteConstruction~FieldTechniquesforUseintheDevelopingWorld
accident. The engineer in charge should conduct a safety meeting every morning to
make all participants aware of the days activities and any associated safety issues. All
sites should have a designated safety person who is trained in first responder aid as an
adequate first aid kit including eyewash. Traditional safety equipment such as hard
hats, steel toe boots, safety vests, goggle and gloves are preferred for all workers.
However it is recognized that it is sometimes difficult to enforce the universal use of
developed world personnel safety gear in limited resource communities and still
maintain local involvement. The engineer in charge may have to make some
compromises and distribute limited safety equipment to workers who are involved in the
most risky aspects of the job. Regardless of limitations, under no circumstances should
work proceed without adequate rebar caps on all vertical rebar. Serious injury including
impalement has resulted from falls onto exposed rebar during construction operations.
Clear records should be recorded of developments during construction. Modification
and adjustments should be clearly documented. Every site should have a person who is
in charge of safety and construction procedures. This person should have and maintain
in their possession all the relevant design documentation for the project. Democratic
votes are good for planning phases of a project but when a site is under way, a single
point of contact (POC) is needed for effective and safe construction (Figure 16).
Page14
EWBUSATechnicalPaper103:ConcreteConstruction~FieldTechniquesforUseintheDevelopingWorld
primitive conditions. However, adequate mix design and quality control during
construction is critical to obtain a quality project. This paper has outlined several dos
and donts that are useful for engineers who are using this material for projects in the
developing world.
References:
ASTM C143-78 Standard Test Method for Slump of Portland Cement Concrete.
Developed by subcommittee C09.60, American Standard for Testing and Material
International.
ASTM C231 Standard Test method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the
Pressure Method. Developed by subcommittee C09.60, American Standard for Testing
and Material International.
ASTM C172 Standard Practice for sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete. Developed by
subcommittee C09.60, American Standard for Testing and Material International.
ASTM C39 Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete
Specimens. Developed by subcommittee C09.61, American Standard for Testing and
Material International.
ACI 350, 2006, American Concrete Institute. Code Requirements for Environmental
Engineering Concrete Structures and Commentary
Cement Trust (2013) What is the Development Impact of Concrete? Cement Trust
Symposium, McMinnville, Oregon
Page15