Aircraft Materials and

Processes

Properties of Materials
HARDNESS - The property of a material that enables it to resist

penetration, wear, or cutting action.

STRENGTH - The ability of a material to withstand forces which tend to
deform the metal in any direction, or the ability of a material to resist
stress without breaking.
ELASTICITY - The capability of an object or material to be stretched
and to recover its size and shape after its deformation.
PLASTICITY - The property of a metal which allows it to be reshaped.
DUCTILITY - The property which allows metal to be drawn into thinner
sections without breaking.
MALLEABILITY - That characteristic of material that allows it to be
stretched or shaped by beating with the hammer or passing through
rollers without breaking.

 TOUGHNESS - The property of a metal which allows it to be

deformed without breaking.

BRITTLENESS - The property of a metal to break when,
deformed, or hammered. It is the resistance to change in the
relative position of the molecules within the material.
CONDUCTIVITY - The characteristic of a material which makes it
possible for it to transmit heat or electrical conduction.
DURABILITY - The property of metal that enables it to withstand
force over a period of time.
DENSITY the weight of a unit volume of the materials.
FUSIBILITY the ability of a metal to become liquid by the
application of heat.
THERMAL EXPANSION
Contraction ability of metals to shrink when subjected to
cooling.
Expansion expand upon the application of heat.

Aircraft Metals
Two Main Group of Aircraft Metals:
NON-FERROUS METALS the term that describes

metals which are have elements other than Iron as

their base. Aluminum, Copper, Titanium, and
Magnesium are some of the common non-ferrous
metals used in Aircraft Construction and Repair.
FERROUS METALS any alloy containing iron as
its chief constituent, most common ferrous metal in
aircraft structure is steel, an alloy of iron with a
controlled amount of carbon added.

NON-FERROUS METALS:
1.

ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS

o - Pure aluminum lacks sufficient strength to be used in

aircraft Quenching
o construction. However, its strength increases considerably
when it is ALLOYED, or mixed with compatible metals.
TYPES OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS:
Cast Alloys those suitable for casting in sand,
permanent mold or die casting.
Wrought Alloys those which may be shaped by rolling,
drawing or forging. These are the most widely used in
aircraft construction, being used for stringers, bulkheads,
skin, rivets, and extruded sections.

GENERAL CLASSES OF WROUGHT ALUMINUM

ALLOYS:
1. Non-Heat Treatable Alloy the mechanical properties
obtained by cold working are destroyed and any
subsequent heating cannot restore it except by additional
cold working.
2. Heat Treatable Alloy alloy which responds readily to
heat treatment which results in considerable
improvement of the strength characteristics. Greater
strength is obtained and used for structural purposes.

Cast alloys

Wrought Alloys

Basic Designation for Wrought and Cast Aluminum

Alloys (AA-Numbering System)
Wrought Alloys

Alloy Number Major Identifying Elements

1XXX Pure Aluminum (99.00% minimum aluminum)
2XXX Copper
3XXX Manganese
4XXX Silicon
5XXX Magnesium
6XXX Magnesium and Silicon
7XXX Zinc
8XXX Other elements
9XXX Unused series

 Cast Alloys

Alloy Number Major Identifying Elements

1XXX 99.00 % minimum aluminium
2XXX Copper
3XXX Silicon with added copper and/or magnesium
4XXX Silicon
5XXX Magnesium
6XXX Unused series
7XXX Zinc
8XXX Tin
9XXX Other elements

Aluminum Association Numbering System

Hardening of Aluminum Alloys

Aluminum Cladding
Several aluminium alloys as for example 2024 and 7075 are very

susceptible tocorrosion. Sheets of such material are clad with a thin layer
of pure aluminium with 1 % zinc on both sides as a means of corrosion
protection. These layers are permanently welded to the base material in a
rolling process at high temperature. Other than electroplated stock, clad
material can be formed. The thickness of the clad layers is about 3 or 5 %
of the material thickness. An ink print on US sheet metal that reads ALclad,
Clad or ALC indicates that such sheet is clad.

2. MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Magnesium alloy are used for cast and wrought form available in

sheets, bars, tubing, and extrusions. Magnesium is one of the lightest

metals having sufficient strength and suitable working characteristics
for use in aircraft hardware. However, it is susceptible to corrosion and
tends to crack.

3. TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Titanium and its alloys are light metals with very high strength. It has

an excellent corrosion resistance characteristics, particularly to the

effects of salt water.

4. NICKEL AND ITS ALLOYS

Nickel is the base element for most of the higher temperature heat-

resistant alloys. While it is much more expensive than iron, nickel

provides an austenitic structure that has greater toughness and
workability than ferrous alloys of the same strength.

MONEL contains about 68 % nickel and 29% copper, along with

iron and manganese. It works well in gears and parts that require
high strength and corrosion resistance at elevated temperature.

INCONEL high strength, high temperature alloys containing approximately

about 80% nickel, 14 % chromium, and small amounts of iron and other
elements.

5. COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS

It is easily identified by its reddish color and by the green and blue
colors of its oxides and salt. Copper has excellent electrical and thermal
conductivity and it is primary metal used for electrical wiring.

BRASS an alloy of copper and zinc.

BRONZE an alloy of copper and tin.

HEAT TREATMENT is a series of operations involving the

heating and cooling of metals in their solid state. Its purpose is to make the
metal more useful, serviceable and safe for a definite purpose.
SOLUTION HEAT TREATMENT is the process of heating certain
aluminum alloys to allow the alloying elements to mix with the base metal.
QUENCHING rapid cooling by means of water, oil, brine, etc.
SOAKING or HOLDING held the temperature within about plus or
minus 10 degrees Fahrenheit of this temperature and the base metal until
the alloying elements is uniform throughout.
o NATURAL AGING when an alloy is allowed to cool at room
temperature and can take several hours or weeks.
o ARTIFICIAL AGING accelerating the aging process by cooling
at an elevated temperature.
o ANNEALING is the process that softens a metal and decrease
internal stresses.

STRAIN HARDENING also referred to as COLD WORKING or

WORK HARDENING. This requires mechanically working of metal (stretches,
compresses, bends, drawn, etc.) below its critical range.

3 Steps of Heat Treatment

The heat treatment takes place in three steps.
o Step 1: Solution heat treat, that is heating of the material to a

specified temperature and holding it there for a specified time.

o Step 2: Quenching
o Step 3: Age hardening (precipitation) at room temperature or
elevated temperature
The quenching must occur rapidly. After quenching the material

initially is soft and ductile.

Methods of Heat Treatment

Temper Designation System

Basic Temper Designation
F As fabricated
O Annealed
H Strain hardened (Non heat treatable products only)
W Solution heat treated
T Heat treated to produce stable tempers other than F, O, or H

Temper Designation for Non Heat Treatable Alloys

H 1 Strain hardened produced by cold working the metal to the desired

dimension.
H2 Strain hardened, then partially annealed to remove some of the
hardness.
H3 Strain hardened, then stabilized.
The degree of hardening is indicated by a second digit following one of the

above designations:
2
4
6
8
9

1/4 hard
1/2 hard
3/4 hard
full hard
extra hard

o A third digit may be used to indicate a variation of a two digit number.

Temper Designation for Heat Treatable Alloys

T1 Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and naturally aged

to a substantially stable condition

T2 Annealed
T3 Solution heat treated and cold worked.
T4 Solution heat treated and naturally aged.
T42 Solution heat treated from 0 temper to demonstrate response to heat

treatment by the user, and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition

T5 Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and artificially aged
T6 Solution heat treated and artificially aged.
T62 Solution heat treated from 0 F temper to demonstrate response to heat

treatment by the user, and artificially aged

T7 Solution heat treated and stabilized
T8 Solution heat treated, cold worked, and artificially aged
T9 Solution heat treated, artificially aged, and cold worked
T10 Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process, cold worked, and

artificially aged

FERROUS METALS:
1. IRON
Is like a chemical which is fairy soft, malleable and ductile in its

pure form. It is silvery white in color and is quite heavy, having a

density of 7.9 grams per cubic centimeter.

2. STEEL
To make steel, pig iron is re-melted in a special furnace. Pure

oxygen is the forced through the molten where it combines with

carbon and burns. A control amount of carbon is then put back into
the molten. The molten steel is then poured into molds where it
solidifies into ingots. The ingots are then placed in a soaking pit
where they are heated to a uniform temperature of about 2200
degrees F. They are then taken from the soaking pit and passed
through steel rollers to form late or sheet metal.

a. CARBON
Carbon is the most common alloying element found in steel.

When mixed with iron core compounds of iron carbides called

CEMETITE form. It is the carbon in steel that allows the steel to
be heat treated to obtain varying degrees of hardness, strength
and toughness. The greater the carbon content, the more
receptive steel is to heat treatment and therefore, the higher its
tensile strength, and hardness. However, higher carbon content
decreases the malleability and weldability of steel.
LOW CARBON STEELS contains between 0.10 and 0.30 percent
carbon. Primarily used in safety wire, cable bushing, and
threaded rod ends.
MEDIUM CARBON STEELS contains between 0.30 and 0.50
percent carbon.
HIGH CARBON STEELS contains between 0.50 to 1.05 percent
carbon and are very hard. Primarily used in springs, files, and
some cutting tools.

b. SILICON

When it is alloyed with steel it acts as a hardener. When used in small

quantities, it also improves ductility.

c. PHOSPHOROUS

Raises the yield strength of steel and improves low carbon steels resistance
of atmospheric condition. However, no more than 0.05 percent is normally
used in steel, since higher amounts cause the alloy to become brittle when
cold.

d. NICKEL

Adds strength and hardness to steel and increase yield strength. It also slows
the rate of hardening when steel is heat treated, which increases the steels
contains 3% nickel and 0.30% carbon, and used in producing aircraft
hardwired such as bolts, nuts, rod end and pins.

e. CHROMIUM

Alloyed with steel to increase strength and hardness as well as improve its
wear and corrosion resistance. It is used in balls and rollers of anti-friction
bearings.

f. CHROME MOLYBDENUM (chrome-moly) STEELS

Commonly used alloy in aircraft. Making it an ideal choice for

landing gear structures and engine mounts.

g. VANADIUM
When combined with chromium, vanadium produces a strong,

tough, ductile steel alloys. Most wrenches and ball bearings are
made of chrome-vanadium steel.

h. TUNGSTEN
Has an extremely high melting point and adds this characteristics

to steel when it is alloyed. Typically used for breaker contacts in

magnetos and for high speed cutting tools.

j. Stainless steel (CRES) Is a classification of Corrosion

Resistant Steel that contain large amount of chromium and nickel. Their
strength and resistant to corrosion make it well suited for high-temperature
applications such as firewalls and exhaust system components. The most
widely used stainless steels for general use are those in the 300 series, called
18-8 because they contain approximately 18 percent chromium and 8
percent nickel.
Advantage/Disadvantage:
More difficult to cut and form than many materials.
Have much greater expansion coefficient than other steels which means
they conduct heat at lower rate making it more difficult to weld.
It loses its corrosion resistance under high temperature.
Difficult to work because of its strength therefore experienced mechanic
is necessary to work with this material successfully.
NOTE: Inert-gas welding is preferred because this process causes less
deformation due to heat expansion of the metal and it prevents oxidation.

 Austenitic Steel are chromium-nickel and

chromium-nickel-manganese alloys. They can be
hardened only by cold working and heat
treatment serves only to anneal them. They are
formed by heating the steel mixture above the
critical range and holding to form a structure
called Austenite A controlled period of partial
cooling is allowed followed by a rapid quench
just above the critical range. They are non
magnetic although some may be slightly
Ferritic Steel contains NO
magnetic.
carbon, they do not respond to heat
treatment. It contains substantial
amount of chromuim and many
have small amount of aluminum.
They are always magnetic.
Martenisitic Steelsare straight chromium
Alloys that harden intensely if they are allowed to cool
rapidly from high temperatures. They differ from the two
preceding groups because they can be harden by heat
treatment.

Steel Numbering System

HEAT TREATMENT FOR STEELS:

ANNEALING is a form of heat treatment that softens steel and

relieves internal stress. It is heated about 50 degrees F above its

critical temperature, soaked for specified time then cooled.
NORMALIZING the process of forging, welding, or machining

usually leave stresses to the steel that could lead to failure. To

normalize, it is heated about 100 degrees F above its critical
temperature and held there until the metal is uniformly heat soaked,
then removed from the furnace and allowed to cool in still air.
HARDENING is heated above its critical temperature so carbon

can disperse uniformly in the iron matrix.

TEMPERING reduces the undesirable qualities of martenisitic

steel. It is heated to a level considerable below its critical

temperature and held there until it becomes heat soaked, then
allowed to cool to room temperature in still air.

Hardness Testing
Is a method of determining the results of heat

treatment as well as the state of a metal prior

to heat treatment.

Since hardness values can be tied in with

tensile strength values and, in part, with wear

resistance, hardness tests are a valuable check
of heat treat control and of material
properties.

Practically all hardness testing equipment now

uses the resistance to penetration as a

measure of hardness.

Brinell Tester
Uses a hardened spherical

ball, which is forced into the

surface of the metal.

To determine the Brinell

hardness number for a metal,

measure the diameter of the
impression, using the
calibrated microscope
furnished with the tester.
Then convert the
measurement into the Brinell
hardness number on the
conversion table furnished
with the tester.

Rockwell Hardness Tester

measures the depth, and

the hardness is indicated

directly on a dial attached
to the machine.

Rockwell hardness numbers

are based on the difference

between the depth of
penetration at major and
minor loads. The greater
this difference, the lower
the hardness number and
the softer the material.

Barcol Tester
Is a portable unit designed for

testing aluminum alloys,

copper, brass, or other
relatively soft materials.

It should not be used on

aircraft steels.

The unit can be used in any

position and in any space that

will allow for the operators
hand.

It is of great value in the

hardness testing of assembled

or installed parts, especially to
check for proper heat
treatment.

CASE HARDENING TREATMENTS:

1.

CARBURIZING forms a thin layer of high carbon steel on the

exterior of low carbon steel.

PACK CARBURIZING is done by enclosing the metal in a fire-clay
container and packing it with a carbon-rich material such as
charcoal. The container is then sealed, placed in furnace, and
heated.
GAS CARBURIZING is similar to pack carburizing except the carbon
monoxide gas combines with gamma iron and forms a high-carbon
surface.
LIQUID CARBURIZING produces a high-carbon surface when a part is
heated in a molten salt bath of sodium cyanide or barium cyanide.
2. NITRIDING differs from carburizing in that a part is first
hardened, tempered and then ground to its finished dimensions
before it is case hardened.
3. CYANIDING is a fast method of producing surface hardness on
an iron-based alloy of low carbon content.

Composite
the most important material to be adapted for

aviation since the use of aluminum in 1920s.

-are materials that are combinations of two or

more organic or inorganic components

(Core, Reinforcing material, Matrix).
-making composite structures is more

complex than manufacturing most metal

structures.

 Advantage
Light Weight - Composite materials are

mainly used to reduce weight, that means if

weight can be saved, more cargo, fuel or
passengers can be carried.
More advantages are:
high strength to weight ratio
reducing of parts and fasteners
reducing wear
corrosion resistance

Disadvantage

General expensive (labor intensive and often requires

complex and expensive fabrication machines)
not easy to repair; that means you need well trained staff,
tools, equipment and facilities to repair composite components
(some composites absorb moisture)
Hard to inspect for flaws

AFRP - Aramide Fibre Reinforced Plastic

Aramide Sheets

Aramide Fiber
Reinforced
Plastic Rod for
Fiber Optic
Cables

CFRP - Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic

Carbon Fibre sheet

GFRP - Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic

Construction of Fiber glass from Fiber sheet

Fiber Glass final product

HOBE - Honeycomb before Expansion

Honey comb Fabrication:

-Corrugation process essentially a one-layer at a time operation. Materials which
can be converted using this process includes plastics, plastic reinforced glass and
paper.
- Expansion process all bonds are made simultaneously.

Elements of Composite Structure

Core

Materials is the central member of the assy when

the core is bonded between thin face sheets, it provides a
rigid, lightweight component. This type of construction is
also known as Sandwich Construction.

Examples:
Foam
Honeycomb excellent strength to weight ratio.
Styrofoam
Urethane
Wood

 Reinforcing

Materials when combined with matrix, is what gives the

major strength to the composite core.

Examples:
Fiberglass is made from small strands of molten silica glass and
then spun together and woven into cloth. The wide range of
application of this material and its low cost make it one of the most
popular used. Low strength to weight ratio than other fibers
materials.
Aramide fibers yellow in color, lightweight, excellent tensile
strength. Ideal material for Aircraft parts that are subject to high
stress and vibration (rotor blades and jet engine enclosures).
Graphite black graphite is also known as Carbon Fiber is very
strong and stiff, and is used for its rigid strength properties. This
material is used to manufacture primary structural components like
ribs and floor beams. Stronger in compressive strength than Kevlar
and more brittle and it has a problem of being corrosive when
bonded to aluminum.

 Matrix

is the bonding material that completely surrounds the fiber

to give strength and transfer the stress to the fiber. The newer material
have good stress distributing, heat resistance, chemical resistance, and
durability properties. Most of the newer matrix materials are Epoxy
Resins.

Resin Matrix are two part systems consisting of a resin and a

hardener or catalyst which acts as a curing agent.

Resin is a type of plastic, and they are broken down into two categories:
o

Thermoplastic resin use heat to form the part into specified shape
and its not permanent when added heat it can be change to another
shape in this case temperature on its installed areas should not exceed
to 750 degrees Fahrenheit.
Thermo set use heat to form and shape permanently. It means once
the plastic is formed, it can not be reformed even if it is heated. Most
structural components are designed of thermo set resins.

Example of Thermoplastic Resins:

Acrylic Resins - identified by

trade names as Lucite or
Plexiglas or in Britain Perspex.
It is stiffer than cellulose
acetate. More transparent and
for all purpose is colorless. It
burns with a clear flame and
produces a fairly pleasant odor.
If acetone is applied to acrylic
it leaves a white residue but
remains hard.
Used in Aircraft Windshield.

Plexiglass
Cellulose Acetate -

Teflon

transparent and lightweight.

It has a tendency to shrink
and turn yellow. When
applied with acetone it
softens.
Used in Aircraft Windshield.

Vinyl used in aircraft

electrical insulation
and tubing.

Example of Thermoset Resins:

Epoxy Resins one type of
thermosetting plastic resin which has
good adhesion, strength, and
resistance to moisture and chemical
properties. They are used to bond
non porous and dissimilar materials,
like metal and composite
components.

Prepreg abbreviation for pre-impregnated

fabrics that have resin already impregnated
into the fabric.

WOOD STRUCTURES:
wood structures requires a great deal of handwork and therefore,
are extremely expensive.

WOOD

SOLID WOOD used for some aircraft wing spars and is made of solid pie

cut from a log. Most solid cut by quarter sawing to prevent war page.
LAMINATED WOOD made up of two or three pieces of thin wood glued
together with the same direction.
PLY WOOD consist of three or more layers of thin veneer glued together
so the grain of each successive layer crosses the others at an angle of 45
degrees of 90 degrees.
2 BASIC SPECIES OF WOOD USED IN AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION:
1.

HARDWOOD come from deciduous trees having broad leaves.

a. MAHOGANY this hardwood is heavier and stronger than spruce. Primary
use in aircraft construction is for face sheets of plywood used in aircraft skin.
b. BIRCH a heavy hardwood with very good shock resistant characteristics. It
is recommended for the face plies of plywood used as reinforcement plates on
wing spars and in the construction of wooden propellers.

2.

SOFTWOOD come from coniferous trees with needle like or scale like
leaves.

a. SITKA SPRUCE most common wood used in aircraft structures. It is

relatively free from defects, has a high strength to weight ration and
available in large size. FAA chosen Sitka Spruce as the reference wood
for aircraft construction.
b. DOUGLAS FIR the strength properties exceed those of spruce;
however, it is much heavier. Further more, it is more difficult to work than
spruce, and has a tendency to split.
c. NOBLE FIR slightly lighter than spruce and is equal or superior to
spruce in all properties except hardness and shock resistance. It is often
used for structural parts that are subject to heavy bending and
compression loads such as spars, spar flange, and has tendency to split.
d. BALSA an extremely light wood. Balsa lacks of structural
strength, it is often sliced across its grain for use as a core material for
sandwich-type panels that requires lightweight and rigidity.

 QUALITY OF WOOD:
Some of the categories a woods quality is based on include how straight the

grain is, the number of knots, pitch pockets, splits and presence of decay.
1. GRAIN DEVIATION regardless of the species of wood used aircraft

construction, it must have a straight grain. This means all of the woods fiber
must be oriented parallel to the materials longitudinal axis. A maximum of
deviation of 1:15 is allowed. In other words, the grain must not slope more
than 1 inch in 15 inches.
2. KNOTS it identifies where a branch grew from the tree trunk.

3. PITCH POCKETS small opening within the annual rings of a tree can fill

resin and form pitch pocket. It slightly weaken the piece of wood.

4.
.

5.
.

CHECKS a crack that runs across the annual rings of a

board and occurs during the seasoning process.
SHAKE a crack or separation that occurs when two
annual rings separates along their boundary.
SPLITS a lengthwise separation of the wood caused by
the wood fibers tearing apart.
STRAINS AND DECAY
STRAINS It is caused by decay usually appears streaks
in the grain. Strains that uniformly discolor the annual rings are
evidence of decay.
DECAY is caused by fungi that grow in damp wood,
and is prevented by proper seasoning and dry storage. A simple
way of identfying decayed wood is to pick at a suspected area
with the point of a knife. Sound wood will splinter, while a
knife point will bring up a chunk of decayed wood.

Knots
Grain Deviation
Pitch Pockets

Strains

Splits
Wood Decay

Did you know that:

The Boeing P-26A was the first allmetal monoplane fighter produced
in quantity for the U.S. Army Air
Corps. Its nickname was the
Peashooter.

The wings on the Grumman X-29

experimental plane made use of a
feature of composites materials that
allow them from bending out of shape.
(bend only in one direction and not on
the other.)

 Mirage 4000 uses

carbon fiber
composites on its
fin, rudder,
elevons, fuselage,
access panels,
fore planes and
many other parts.
50% of V22 Ospreys
structure is composite.

Aurora a
secret
hypersonic
aircraft
capable of
Mach 6
composes of
15% metal
and 85%
composite
and therefore

Lockheed F22 uses

composites for at least
1/3 of its structure.

Blackbird
. Lockheed's SR-71 Blackbird
spy plane, first flown in 1964,
was made almost entirely of
titanium. The SR-71
reconnaissance aircraft's
airframe was 93% titanium to
withstand the 500 degrees F
skin temperature generated
at Mach 3.2 speed. The SR-71
was dubbed the 'Blackbird'
for its all black appearance.
The silver-gray titanium skin
was painted black to help
dissipate heat and prevent
reflected sunlight from
blinding the pilot.

Titanium Trivia
Titanium was not put to use until the 20th century. Although
titanium was discovered in 1791, a large-scale process to refine
it was not developed until the late 1940's. In the United States,
the government funded the start-up of the titanium industry for
development of titanium as a strategic metal for aircraft,
missiles, and spacecraft.
In the 1950's Titanium was dubbed; 'Wonder Metal', 'Strategic
Metal', and 'Metal of the Future'. Titanium's unique physical
qualities of low density and weight, high strength, durability,
corrosion resistance and biological compatibility make it useful
in a variety of applications. Titanium is used in aircraft and
spacecraft, surgical skeletal implants, eyeglass frames, sports
equipment, watches, and jewelry.

The END!

- Engr. Santa Roja F. Fadul

Lic. No. 0000931