GRAY) TX AN INTRODUCTION TO EINSTEIN'S GENERAL RELATIVITY James B. HartleA “physics first” approach to Einstein’s general relativity Einstein's theory of general relativity sa comerstone of modem physics. It embraces wealth of frontier scientific topics including curved spacetime, black holes, gravitational waves, and cosmology. General relativity is increasingly central io contemporary physic and astronomy and therefore to an undergraduate physics education. The aim ofthis ground-breaking new text isto make this fundamental theory accesible to undergraduate students. Using a "physics fist” approach, a minimum of new mathematic, and a wealth of applications, renowned reativst. Jas Hartle provides a fluent and accesible introduction for physicist and others interested in this central achievement of modem science. "This isan excellent introduction o general relativity with a handson approach thats based on physical situations finest ike black hols and the expanding universe. 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By concentrating on physical ideas and the very latest observational results, Hare achieves his amirable ‘im of making general relativity accesible without relying on daunting mathematics. This book i likely to become a classic that every physics student should poses.” Jonathan Halil, Imperial Colege,Lomdon Professor Hares to be commended for writing suc a fine and much raed introductory book on general eat. With the ight balance of physical ides and mathematical details delivered in a clears, this wil be 2 welcomed txt" Bet Lok Hu, Univers of Maryland “This book should make 2 major matin undergraduate education. Itisfarclearer and mor physically motivating than oer texts. The cexgston iat precisely the right ee. and clear work examples and god problems make it escially ef” Michel Hobson, University of Gamisridge for ects general eatvity has lanl en the pure of graduate stents. 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To onder any of our prxlus, contact cur customer service department at (800) 824-779, (201) 7675021 outside ofthe US, or vst your campus bookstore Pearson sre LaTetaonay ISBN 0-8053-86b2-9 | 20000 oli7s0805l3866ze!IMPORTANT SPACETIMES (geometrized units) Flat Spacetime artesian Coordinates a =a tae bay ede = ndash Spatial Spherical Polar Coordinates ae 424 2UP 4A Static, Weak Field Metric a8 = 200° )d += 20'NGde Fa Faz, Ue < D, Schwarzschild Geometry Schwarzschild Coordinates de 246? + sin 046) ddington-Fiokelstein Coordinates 128) ae addr 0d av? av) + Ped + 008 Mar 5 ay aed pan Sees agar Ede + pe a meer) sata whereLinearized Plane Gravitational Wave AP ode ae? bay es dae? ‘wher (ows and ola inf, 9.2 ere) tt {ora wave propagating in the =-eston Friedman-Robertson-Walker Cosmological Models sin stoned wearveolare| 2 Jur cavwes]. [ae fiat on [ a k= 1, closed senna ecto AE arae conte], (Sola i k= =1, open ‘THE GEODESIC EQUATION «+ Lagangian fc the Geodesic Equation oats patie ae a a0" (F)- (we) ‘whore ian rity parame along the woe line x? = x) ofthe goodie, + Goodcsicegiton for tex parle connate bass) fe pe aha ae fur Ti ae ae “ae = Tae whet isthe proper tne along the geodesic and = dd age the cordate basis components fhe Toursckiy ota t= The Chol symbols, oll fom Lagrange eto ote eer formal (819) The gees ation fe ight ey takes the same form wih replaced By an aie poromctr and w= 0 + Comersed Quinte fu consan whore sa Killing vector... = (0.1, 0, 0)ina coon basis where the metic ay is inkpendent osGRAVITY An Introduction to Einstein’s General Relati James B. Hartle University of Caforia, Sata BarbaraActon Bie Ad Bk Tuten set ‘eEihn Csi sited Nene etc aT Poissy Cap anemone ni oe et ib ‘Sy pnnund pectin senso yer my oy ‘i cess neu panne ne thew ct pore oe ‘cn ns evs hrs os Lisa canes ie tin Dt, gers conTo Mary JoContents Preface w PART I Ml SPACE AND TIME IN NEWTONIAN PHYSICS AND SPECIAL RELATIVITY 1 an 23 2s 1 Gravitational Physies 3 1 Geometry as Physics 13 Grwviy IsGeomexy 13 Experiments Geometry 15 Dierent Geomevies 18 Specilyng Geomeuy 20 Counts and Line Element 1 Coots and Invariance 27 1 Space, Time, and Gravity in Newtonian Physics 31 at 32 33 aa as Incl Frames. 31 The Peicile of Relativity 36 Newtonian Gravity 38 Giavitionl and ner Mass Variational Principle fe Newtonian Mechanics 42 ples of Special Relativity a7 “The Adin of Velctes andthe Michlson-Mrey Experiment 47 Entin's Reston ands Consequences 49 Spacetie 52 ‘ime Dilation andthe Twin Pandox 60 Lorentz Boows 65 Units 71vi Contents 5 W Special Relativistic Mechanics 7 Su FourVestore 77 52 Special Relativistic Kinematics §2 53 Speci Relativistic Dynamics 8 54 Variational Pricipl for ree Paicle Motion 89 55 LigtRays 91 56. Oberversand Obsertions 9S PART II Ml THE CURVED SPACETIMES (OF GENERAL RELATIVITY. 105 6 m Gravity as Geometry 107 61 Tesing the Equality of Gravitational and Inet Mass 107 62. The Bquivlence Pancple 10 63 Gocksin a Gravion Field 113 64 The Global Positioning System 121 65 Spactine InCuned 125 66 Newtonian Gravity in Space Terms 126 7M The Description of Curved Spacetime 135 2A Coordinates 135 72 Meme 138 73 The Summation Comenton 138 TA Local neil Frames 140 75. Ligh Cones and WoddLines 142 15 Length, Ares, Volume, and Four Volune for Diagonal Mens 16 7.7 Embedding Diagrams and Wormtoles 48 18 Necorsin Curved Spacetime 152 719 Thce-DimensionalSurtaes in Four Dimensona Spacetine 158 8 Geodesics 169 BL TheGeodesieguaion 169 2 Solving the Goodesc Equation Symmetric and (Conservation Laws 175, 83 Nall Geodesy 178 84 Local Inertia Frames and Frey Fling Paes 1799m The Geometry Outside a Spherical Star 186 91 Schwarscil Gcomeny 186 92 The Gravtona Reishi 189 92 Panicle Ortits—Prcsson ofthe Feition 191 9c” Light Ray Orbis—The Deletion ani Tine Delay of Ligh 200 10 W Solar System Tests of General Relativity 219 TO) Gravitational Redshift 219 102 PPN Pamesess 221 102 Measurements ofthe PPN Parameter y 223 104 Menutement ofthe PPN Parancer Pression of Marcus Peibetion 230 11 Mi Relativistic Gravity in Action 234 1A Gravitational Leasing 284 112 Accretion Disks Around Compact Objects 244 113 BinaryPaters 250 12 W Gravitational Collapse and Black Holes 255 1211 The Schwarrschild Black Hole 286 122. Collapse to Blick Hole 262 123. Krudal-Sreheres Coainaes 269 124 Nonsphencal Gravitational Coase 275 13 Ml Astrophysical Black Holes 281 TRL BlackHoles in X-Ray Binaries 282 132 Block Holein Galany Centers 285, 133 Quintin Evaporation of Blak Holes Hawking Radiation 289 14 MA Little Rotation 296 M.A Rotational Dragging of Inet Frames. 296 142. Gyoscopesin Cured Spacetime 297 143 Geodeic Prevession 298 M4 Spacctime Outside x Showy Rotting Spherical Boy 302 145. Gyrosipes inthe Spoctine of Slowly Rotating Body 303 146 Gyrosand Fret Fling Frames 30815 Ml Rotating Black Holes 310 1s 152 153 158 155 Cosmic Censorship 310 The Kerr Geometry 311 The Horizon of a Rotating Black Hole 313 Orbits the Equatorial Plane 316 ‘The Erpophere 322 16 Wl Gravitational Waves 331 1 162 163, 6 ‘Linearized Graitational Wave 332 Detecting Gravitational Waves 383, CGewvittional WivePoaiztion 336 Gravitational Wave Interferometer: 339 ‘The Energy in Gravitational Waves 42 17 Wl The Universe Observed 347 mu na na The Composition ofthe Universe 47 The Expanding Unive 352 Mapping the Universe 360, 18 Cosmological Models 366 18 182 183 i 5 186 187 Homogeneous, lstropic Spcetimes. 366 ‘The Cosmologieal Redshift 368 Mater, Ratio, and Vacoum 372 voluton of the Fla FRW Modes 376 ‘The Big Bang and Age and Sie ofthe Universe 380 Spatly Curved Rodeason-Wallor Metis 384 Dynamics of the Univese 387 19 Ml Which Universe and Why? 400 4 m2 Surveying he Universe 402 Explaining the Universe 410, PART III Ml THE EINSTEIN EQUATION 417 20 MA Little More Math 419 24 m2 203 ans as Veco $19 Dual Ystrs 421 ‘Tenors 427 ‘The Covarat Desitive 430 rely Fling Frames Again +4021 mf Curvature and the Einstein Equation 445 211 Teds Gravitational Faces 45 212 Baution of Geodesic Devon 450 213. Riemann uname 434 214. The inacn Bgation in Vacuum 456 215. Linearized Griy 459 22 The Source of Curvature an 221 Densities 471 222 Convention 478 222 Comsantion of Berry Momentum 478 223 The Hien Equation 482 224 The Newtonian Limit 485 23 Wl Gravitational Wave Emission 491 21 The Linariod Einstein Equation wih Sources 491 282 Sobving he Wave Equation with aSorce 493 223 The General Soliton of Linearized Grity 496 234 Prafacion of Wesk Gravitational Wines 498 BAS Grwiatona Radiation fom Binary Stats 502 246 The Quadrupole Forma forthe Eerey Loss in Grvittionl Wases $06 2A7 fet of Gravitational Rsition Detected ina Binary Pokar S08 238 Strmg Source Expectations $10 24 M Relativistic Stars 515 2A The Power ofthe Pal Principe 516 262 Relist Hydrostatic Eguliboam 520, 283 Selle Models 525, 264 Materinits Gro Ste 524 HS Smbiliy 528 246 Bounds onthe Maximum Mass of Neaon Sts 535 APPENDIXES A Units 5a Al Units in General s4t 'N2 Units Employed in tls Book $42 8 mi Curvature Quantities 545,1s ma ra 12 4 192 01 a 21 42 “Topping the Roatonal Energy of Black Hole 326 Distance Seales in Cosmology 383 ‘The Thermal History of the Universe 375 ‘What Came Before the Big ang? 381 Big Bang Naceosytbesis 400 ‘AMechanism for Inston $12 (Gradient, Divergence, an Curl 437 Tides fom Tidal Forces 448 ‘The Ground State of Mater 526 Putas 5Preface insti'selatvintic they of rion —genera ett wil sholy be 2 ‘iu old Ati cor sone ofthe most eal and evlutionary conceptions ‘of moder science the Idea that gravity sth geometry of Fourdimensionsl ‘ured spacetime. Together with quantum tooy, general lai Is ee ofthe ‘wo mont profound development of weate- ~ of oder of mapitade sy mpttially approaches the Sun the EarthPART Space and Time in Newtonian Physics and Special Relativity ‘The major phenomena of gravitational physies ae briefly described and the idea thatthe geometry of space and time isa physical question is introduced. Essential elements of Newtonian physics and special relativity are reviewed. Tools, {or describing the geometry of spacetime are developed.Gravitational Physics Gravity is oe of the four fundamental interactions, The classi theory of [envity—Einsein'speveralrelaity—is the subject of ds book. General ele Svs cena the understanding of ote astrophysical phenomens sch 4s back holes, postr usar, the final destiny of tars the Bg Dan, and the ‘hiverse sel. Geneal ead also concerned wit the mine departres ‘ofthe orbits ofthe planets fom the laws of Newion and is 2 necessary ingte- ‘eat nthe operation ofthe Global Postoning System axe chery day. As oe ‘ofthe fundamental forces, griy i ental o the quest eae theory of [A ierations; many ofthe des for hse “Binal theories originate in general Gravion physisis thas ato Fomie science. Hs mpotan applications lia bsh th rest and sale tances considered in comtemporary physi ‘Ont largest cles, praiational physics set axropbyses and cosmol- ‘943. On the smallest Sas itis ied to quantum and elementary particle pis. ‘These to ros bose one atthe bi bang, whee the whole ofthe observable “see days compeesed note smallest possible volume, This intoductory fext teats onl the classical (nonguntun) they of gravity whose det apl- ‘tions ac mos on age dance scl, ut he Wes nd metus develop Der teemerge in ileent gues ate fone ofthe ver small This inode ‘on gives it survey of some of the phenomena for which cuscal general inivity portant “The gine of general relativity canbe raced tthe concep revolution that fellowes Eisen notion of special lav in 1905, Newon's enue ‘ld grvittonl force lw x icomsset with special relay. According Fewon's avo odes of mass my adm aac one anotet with gravis ‘nal fore whore magnitudes Fam = Sa, on ‘wher ris the distance hetwoen them, and G is Newton's grvitational con {Bane 6.67 x 10" dyn cm? The Newtonian paitationa force ats istata ‘Beowly The force on one mass depends onthe psitin ofthe second athe Same fSe, However instntanoae interaction x poibited n special laity where CHAPTERChapt Graton Pryce signal can ave aster than tbe sped of ight Newtonian gravity can therefore ‘only be an appmoxntin to a yet more fundamental hey In 1915, Eien’ quest for a envi theory of gravy resuhed tn ‘ew force law of anew theory of a eas erin el, ba na po ‘ound conceptual revelution nour views of space andtine Easels tha he experimental ft thal sf withthe same aseeation in gravitas He led marly to an understanding of gravity in ero the carve ofthe {our-limesional union of pace and Uine~spacetine Mas curves scene in ‘its. and the ejects along which al masses flare the staph paths inthis cuved spacetin. In Newtcran tao the Sun exer a grviationl force fon the Ean and the Earth mowes aroun the Soni espnse to tit fre. In eer ela the mas ofthe San cures the sirounding spect, andthe Eas moves cn a staight ph i tha curved spacetime, Gravity sgomety. "The remainder of ths chapter bey inodues some phenomena in the un ‘ese for whose understanding general relay ¥ important. A few properties ofthe gravationa iteration that elp to explain whes gravis Inport can ready be Sen fromthe Newtonian rian force a (1): + Gravity ie unverintercton in Newtonian thory betwee ll mas, and, ‘nce E = me In ease pity baween ll forms of ney ‘+ Grvity is unscreened. There ae no negative graiatinal charges to ance estve ones. and threfire tis ot posible shield (screen the ravitatonal Intention Gravity is abeays tractive 1 Gravity is aong-ange interaction. The Newtonian fre lw is I/r? era ‘dom There Is no length Sale that strange for eration interactions as there re for srg ad weak iterations. + Gravity i the weakest ofthe for fundamental neractions acting between ‘nial elementary panicles al accessible energy scale. The aio of the sralatonalatraction wo the electomagneti epson betwee two pons Separated by a distance rs Fem. Omi Gm gw, Clix - " 12) Fae” eer an ‘where my is the mass ofthe proton and is its hare “These four facts explain a great deal abou the role raity plays in physi encmens. Tey explain, for example, why, altoogh ii the weakest fre, {Enty gover the orgniation ofthe univers on he largest dance sales of “Sophjacs and cosmology. Those distance salsa fr beyond the suslomic anges ofthe strong and wet ntrctons.Elestontanetic interactions coud be Jong range were tee any largeseae objects with net lets chao. Bul the universes elecicalypeul and electromagnetic free ar so mh stronger than gravitational forces tht any large-scale het charge is guckly newled (Grav Is ef te gover the sirctre ofthe vere oth lanes sesChoptr 1 Gaon Physics yon eee et AAGURE LI Genin psi dea wih pheomenton sees of send ist ‘mein fo te mrss othe cote aresrange en coed a (Sepory pipe Thre ae phenonen for whch sai ie mpoantoes wle fang of le tha shows on is lt of carter mas carer (See Reese ones inated ies Oe lire penta he {Peon pys dele are show by squares Phaser aon eee ine ‘Betsenabe, bese thy tke place mse Hack les Phenanena cee age Shine 2644 — cm ce te oso wich vate ry impor The apes eset tier of stops he nso tet claneny pry ‘Foesnese dunce town 10" Gay the Pack ag martin te Duet (ees cl ad aun ry. Ses ering the neo vue sets Bisson dette se of te ole th pola sc sis he and (Sete it ume ieee awa ba exon ha tatChapter Gravabonal Physics This books aot cooceme with ll phenomena for which gravity is impertnt tut ther with phenomena for which elastic gral iporant Newnan vy, for sane, adequate fr understanding the internal rote ofthe Sunes out ht reli rity becomes peta fo aa yt of mas ‘Mand sie Roly whea the characterise dimensceess ao formed With the velocity of ihe om ts sgnificant fraction of unity igre 1.1 shows a range of phenomena inthe Universe and thei chamtersbe valves of Mad R. The oes cess the Hine 2GM = eR ae the nes for which relativistic gravity ts most important. We ‘ow desert few ofthese in moe etal. Precision Gravity in the Sola System By the measure (1.2) the Eat snot very relavsic system: Gy /e?Ry ~ 11" The asteomical symbol for the Earth ix.) Yet sch ste prelion ele in clocks atthe art ofthe Global Positioning System (GPS) Fgure 1.2), that it woul fa i aboot balan hour wee we effects of general relay oot taken it account in thei operation (Chapter). Forth Sun(©) GMo/e*Ro ~ 10-*- General reaivsiceffcts on the hits ‘ofthe plant te therefore small, but hy are detectable in presse observations Fer example, he prsie aout by which the postion of the Mercury’s ck ‘approach the Son shite in cheb isa esto general lav Genera ‘het ete ges ei ae portChapter Gaitaonal Physics ‘eltviy predicts atthe pth of ight rays wl be Beat when they’ pss near ‘he Sun and th their ine of passage inweased ovr tat predicted by Res fan thoy——both ny effet that ae ty oie incoported in pein tstrnenial overvatns (Chapter 10) Relative Stars Mos stars suport themselves pins the ever present ative fore of gavity ty the pressure of gas hated y thermonoelea ations at thet cores. When 8 str run ot of thrmonicer fel, gravitational cll ensus. The cores of ‘ome colasing as windup supported by nonthermal parce of prose Ted inet highly compact white dwat and neuen stars. Wit masses on the ore ‘of soar ms and rai of ore 10 km, neton sas ae relative objets, GitjctR ~ who popes ae discussed in Chape 24, Thee i a max ‘mum mass for ocuton str nd white dart ofa few solar misses. The ongoing, Black Holes ever slatvity predicts that blk Hoe i rested whenever miss om [ress inna volume small enough tat the gravitational pul at he suseChapter Graton Pysie too large fr anything to escape, even Fight (Chaps 12 an 18) Ip Newtonian ‘mechanics, particle of mass m starting at rads with veloity V escapes the ‘rvittonal stration of «mass M when it nal vec is arester than te {Scape veloc, Voce t Which ts Knee energy balances ts negative ravi toe pote ener. namely Fm VBage = Sa as ‘The escape velocity exceed the velo of fight when 3M as) Akbough Newtonian analysis i oo applicable to a telatvstic station, (1.5) turns otto be the coe relaviste ceri for «spherical mass to be black Bale with pope ier, ‘The sire tha defines a blck ole is alle is event hos, Mas, ae nation, and absersers can fl though bt, clays, nothing can ‘mee fom i Altiough crested im nature trough often messy gravitational collps, general relativity pedis tht black oles are remarkably simple o joc haacterie by js ow numbers Ax, Chandrsear pt “The black holes of nature ae te most prfst macroscope objects there inthe univers; eon element in ther conation are ur concep of space atime. And rt neCopter Graton Physics since general elatvty provides nly a ingle uigu family of sltons foe heir serpin, thy are the simples objects a well" (Chandrasekhar 1983) ‘Black oles of few solar masses havebeen detected inet around acompan- fon tar, Supermssive black oles of upto aprorimaey a bilion solar masses ave ben detected at the centers of glaies. A th cele of eur own My Way ther isan approximately dhec-lion solar mass lack ol. dee, at he ine fof writing. tere is growing evidence tht al safcenly massive plas have ‘lac hoes thir oes ‘Alough blak holes ae dak dhenseles, the suongly curved spacetime sound thems the we for some ofthe most damate eaomona in conte pony stupysles, Mate falling towards aac hoe gow nto bit about, ‘rating «bot disk thal the scree ofthe radlation fom Xray sources (Fg {re 1, Mater Rowing onto a tating, magnetized tack holes he powerhouse for quasar. Blak holes tay well te hind gamma ray burs, which inch the biggest explosions sine the big hang, (The detection Backhoes and heir asuophyscamporance are the subjects of Chap 13.) Gravitational Waves Genera elativity predicts that ples a spacetime curvature can propa with the sped of lah though othrwiteempsy space, These pes are gevtatonal ‘raves (Chapter 16), Any mass aonsphercal, nonrestilnear mation produces aviatioal waves (Chaps 2). tut gravitational waves ate produced most co- prctsly im eves sich athe coalescence of two compact sar, the merge of fase blak bles or the big bang. Mas is in motion a many places ia the vers, and this gration analog of charge is unscrened. The universe is. tteefre, not expecially dim in grevistionl radiation. Indeed, coalescing Wack tks a the her of pais of ring gli cou be the most energetic events te univers with most energy emited n gravitational waves. The weak cou- pling mate (12) makes paviatioal radiation dic to detect. However, that same weak coupling is whit makes detecting gravitational radiation So ine teresting, Once produced ite absorbed. Therefore, arvitatonal waves cold frovidet new window onthe universe hit would eabl us to sce othe earliest omens ofthe ig bang ado tebe ofthe fermation af bck oles “Gravitational radiation, never diel rexel on Ea has ben detected by infect on the eis of bodies emiting the radiation, The waves can be detected by prose measurements ofthe relative mosion of masses produced a the pple ‘of spaceie crate pases by. But wave from the binary sla sylem tha is ‘ight in graviatioal ration at arth produce fractional chung inthe sisance been wo test masses ta is of order oly of 1 pst sn 10. That sa ‘tang smllrthan a tom fer th §.000, 000m sz ofthe largest gravitational ‘ease detectors in space contemplated atthe tne of wring (gure 13). "As big a the espesnental challenge, detector ae now und cnstton ‘on te rae ofthe Fah and under stad fr Space that will make graviatina ‘eave astronomy realist posility i the fst decades of the 218 ety0 Chapter Grveationa Physics FIGURE LS Ariss cone ofthe LISA gavin ane intone ipce The Universe As mentioned cali, gravity govems the stead evolution of the niente on tho largest sales of space and te These are the sales of coomology (hap ‘Observations ofthe mation of glues show ou universe is expanding. Ob servations of ther dsbution on the lngest stance sales show or universe te remarkably regular oduy-much the sume ca verge in al places din all of pts ht ee set mg oz cme he Moor ti ig tes d= the raoroectr On ru he eed pt pend ler eben eared ou ily a e MeDonal Ob ger 20 0 hat aT ieecoe wold detect nl Sewing oi Locke in Teva aod te Obcrre 109 fe etaig oes In Been, oly oer (cite Azan ease, Pace Thesers co feted photon seed every Fw secs, Reaing ‘ey an sen puis using 209 pessoas ach pons hve hen ected fr ne an ty eae Smtaing sb 10 potns abot 10 tires pr ne! nce 1070s ie weg some nal vtoiy, decelerate, eaches a maximum height, accelerates down ‘ward, andrews the srface of he Earth. Any att body own pad en the sume intl pein with he sme inal velocity woud follow exactly the “Tis uniqueness o trajectory in Space and ine spel propery of vi. ‘The marin ofa Body inw magnetic ed depends on what kind O hare i has. ‘ovges wih ane sgn cage willbe detected one wa, bodes With he opposite ‘hogs willbe deflected the oe, and bois with charge wil tbe defected Stall Only in a gravitational eld do at Bods with the same inal conions follow the sme curve in space ad ine isin’ was ht this uniqueness of path nspastime could be expned Jn tem of he geometry ofthe for imersonal ulna pace abd ne called ‘uct, Spotl, be groped thatthe presence of amas sachs Earth ures th geomet of spacetime reas apd that inthe absence o ay oer Feros, al bodes move on the sua paths inthis curved spacetime. Bodies fe rom forces move on staph lines oF te-dimeasional Evetdean space in Newtonian mechanct—thas par of News's st aw. Eissin's idea a the Earth mes init flat around the Sun nt Becase a ors of grav Ais ‘ont bu because iis aiowing the Stags possible ath nthe sights nom clean pometry of spacetime prey the Sun, 2.2. Experiments in Geometry “The i story hat inthe tt 18205 the great mathematician C. F Gauss car ‘isd out en experiment o vent oe of the sandr thems of he Bucldean [omen of spce—that he inkior angles ofa wiangle add up wo 180°. Using ‘Be mounainops of Hohenhagen, Broken, pd Inscsberg as vertices and assum ing tha igh rye move om right ines, he sad to ave measured the anges, found the sur, end determined 80" woth accuracy with which the angles cold ‘remeasured (Se Figue 22) ‘The Pistol evidence is ot conlusve ao wheter Gaus actualy cared ‘atti experiment However he might have des and hit empties an im Portant pont. The sum ofthe angles was nt guaranied to Be 180" from lowe Slne, Many gsomeis of pial space are possible tht sre ren Irom6 (Chapter? Geom 96 Physics FIGURE 22 moss mip of Germany sowing the Icons of the peaks oben hae, Brockn an Isley or heron tage Caco ane surveyed check wheter tensor angles a up o 18, 5 pte by Bean Eves. These predict ferent ress for he sm ofthe interior anges fr angle. The geometry of pace i an empirical question Iisa question in physi, sbjec to measurement, hypothesis and fx By the end ofthis Book Jou wl “ow that i Gauss had sn abe wo carry out his experiment wih scien ac racy, he wold he foun a mall ilferenge i te sam ofthe ange ust de the man ofthe Earth, Ma, of oder sm of iteror anges ora winglets (where she Est’ rao) ogether with omtbuins fom he Sas te ‘other planets. Nove the appearance of th aio GM/ Re, which is caracterisic ‘of weak eaves a cused in Chapter The stances betwen the2.2. Experiment in Geometry mountains are 69k, 85 kr, and 107 hn. Using ese, his works ot wo be 3 ‘iteence of order 10" radians ()-Sosmall a discrepancy could net be detected ‘ven ith present ceholog, ba modem experiment ca detect the deviaons from Encidean geometry produced bythe Suna easure th geometry OF space ome very large scales of cosmology. (See Box 22) BOX 2.2 Determining the Spatial Geometry of the Universe Mode msssusment—not so feat i characer thm th sti to Game Sterne he cae spice on th de sae of he tse sve General wnt pases of he daion ‘galas drain ne nee gps ely 2 fet posses fer he resale geet) of he tietlonal space omen of mee wl inden Ghpey 1 Te fat eumey oe ple, th ponte cae eet he rae fre, he nga curved esmety of sae ly lk me pnts cp re woes algo the pmb poste cured nd negevey eaved Catia sy tps rune ee met of se tobe fad nti coms oth pe tery oft aca ese ch epg I Ite rter at obeteokrwn ep col be a fedataowadotance dana Ite geome) wer ‘hea gling theme end y toe ees would risa dict au ew phere a set sae i + oul end same sgl Aeros noe of es ie nd ‘dnance yw ted a er angle on postive fed sufi he per than ew in Bat plane {Prem 6, Insite nl seed regi cured ace wl fe anal (er dee Prey 1812) Ths dcssn wil fe erected ‘Shee expansions he nen x Caper 9 tt ‘fale ease sane: meng the np ie {etres of knen sie nd Ssance ne way oe teminngnhcer he ery of teen pe 1 postin cared er mepely cure. The comic The comic mcronveackrou rafaion CMB) ‘sug fom Be ht ig Bang tt began the were “reali site fr the omen ties ad ts se MEAL bes poder ea, Soy eee ee ~ Ae ‘showin ee nl cle areas pans erin Seg tewn inate ‘in ete ee stearate Yo ‘Satamang ge geo eee ana ‘ety ster pe 7w Chapter? Geometry as Pyses BOX 2.2 (continued) expanded nd cos enough fre mater ote was: {cot to mukatcn he fees omeging fly 1 {ever th merenig pyc 14 bie vex ‘Wire niens vsti intine it waldhave kd posit 18 lve pt year The epee tue of te aioe has coed o 273°K ae) eye ame al tons a gat Ty em erate Dacia fon ew eso ion of ere a ster. The tory of th oa of te Pactatons pea pect of est cha ined a known leg sale. The Actos a fers fetes ith Koons specu ss kn isan vay. Observation of ei anglican ts Ines th spl gromery ofthe averse. The Hh id ewe oe the previous gage shove a map of te temperate face m9 3d ein of he ky thn wer bene byte Booman experi e- eras a 2000 The es gues the testo ‘80r silacas of wht he np wel okie sed ‘ome theta ec a oral ns te oo fy wet poste cued et at ave), we ely cued ip. Qanate emarons of mtu tongs so the goes ey ‘fe oft the ner ature wllbe see ‘ae reat bie wil fe he ane) The prety ‘opr isn mesma yea goon FIGURE 23. Apes ‘range NAB whore he te transis" Te anal eos the ts ofr ine ong Sx? eg om he Now Poe tote ctrl ep ‘eget ece he Toe al sepa of {rats an hereto. ‘igen gromry se ser 2.3. Different Geometries “The ide of ferent geometries i easy ills nto dimensions. In your ties ofthe Bachan geometry of the plane, you met the Rains of poi Straight ine stance ange parallel tangle, cifee, chon ee, Familie theo ‘ems olde the ome decosed for a tangle E(B) =" 22 Anoter els he tio the cismferece othe adits face (cicamlerence) a» ‘aus ‘The surtace ofa sphere provides an example of a diferent two dimension some in which ch els f plane geometry ae replace by iferet he- ‘re Stuight ines can be defined om sphere ss the shrew stance baton two pins tha a sepments of great cles. Tangles are made up ofthe Intestin eet cies, A ices the locus of points euldstant (as measured con the sre) rom a point which sis center, For a sherial iangl of Lf) Boe esos tmtrego w cings ee ee i ete tae tte Saprremee Arcane atoms re eae en23 Dien Geometies FIGURE 24 The tin ofthe cicumfrece ote ads of iia Be geometry ‘tte tice of spre A celeste los foie onthe aac teint (Geese on th sree) fom scene pt nf ure the Nor Pol Bas been ‘Sesentococie nhc ci a inf constant able © ‘Trai th dae fm Noa Poe tie meee slog ny no comet rg. ‘comes increasingly fc to el the diftrece bween Mat pape andthe cuved surface ofthe spe Fr wiagles wth very sal areas (Ao! N)sthe ‘est 0 i well pproimate by the Ha spacers 22 "With te hitof geometry show in Figure 4, th aloof the crcumfeeace 0 thers of cle on a phere ea be cleat 0 Be (eicumterene) _C _ ,sntr/a) ‘eos "jay Asin, i'r o,the righthand side euces tothe Ma space result 2.3) ts not recessry fo eave the surface of the eat io drive is geome uy. Surveyors (uc as Gaus) working om te sure ofthe eh ean meas sch things a the interior angles of a tangle and the ctcumfrence and as ‘of cces By fing to Fomalas sch as (24) and (25), they coud in prineple, tellifthe geometry ofthe srace was serial nd determine the ads of cura turea Silay by surveying in three emensions we ean principle, determine the geometry of space wiht needing any extra dimensions. ‘Visualization of tree -imensional curved poms is ay a8 for o> ‘inensional curved geometnes, which can often be represented series io clean re dimensional space. However some simple ee -diensionalse- ‘tees can be thought of curved srfces ins hyp fourdimensieal Enclisean space, For example, te te-dinensionl seomety analogous othe es,‘Chopter2 Gooner as Pyses twodimensional sphere dicused lore isthe theedimensionalsrace of sphere in four dimensions ive sphere. If space ha a ied tece-sphere ge ‘metry, jouey in sagt linen any deen would evetually bring one ack othe staring point However. more detailed information about he geome: ty of space can he determined foal Fr example its ut that he volume lise a tovdimensional sphere of avr soc a spatial geometry is given by vowel ®-s[-O)] ew SEL (amet) toms 2) whee the characterise radius of curvature ofthe three-sphere geometry. For {Uiwo-sperewhove mab is mich smal than a the vole radi relation Approaches he Euclidean flat space rests (2.6) shows. If hee dimeasiogal sce ha sch a theespheregeomcry thechiractertc ras of curvature 2 full be determined by earl measurements ofthe adit and volume of two Sphere, As we wil discover in Chapter IS, insti’ theory predicts ls tc ‘re seomety ax one posit forthe spatial geometry a uniform universe ‘very lrgedsiance scales. Bot .20np. 1 describes oe efoto survey space fonthex ls 24 Specifying Geometry In sition othe geometry of he ple and the geomeuy ofthe phar, there se an inate numberof eter to dimensional geometries. For example, there isthe geometry onthe surface ofan eg Fie geome ofthe suze of plane ‘vith few fils on tla thee dmeoron here area sina infinite namber of somes. How are these diferent geomees deserted and compared mathe- tally? ‘One way © describe & geometry 6 10 embed Is 2 suface in a higher mensional Space whose geomet is Buciean, We have made vse of this tet in debribingtwordimensioaal goometies as surfaces embedded in thvee-dimensonl Euclidean geometry—planes, spheres, eggs, el. However itbecomes almost inpossible thnk of any but the simplest thee- and four Alimenstooa geome as surfaces in four ad fv dimensions. Fue te extra ‘mension in physically supertoous. An intrintedesrption of geomety that ‘makes oe of jst thephyieal mensions tha canbe measured is what ede Anse ia io specif geomeny by giving small pumber of axioms, | suites, rom which the ae esl of peomty can be deed as Heo For the geometry ofthe ft plane for example, thee are Fuchs ve anoms ‘Two points determine augue line, pale lines never nest. Some het "Meet wilbedeed xh in Beg 72.5. Coordinates ad Line lament single seomeris canbe caatizd inthis ay wit eet axioms Foe SKampl he romeny onesie of ghee be unmarid hy of ‘how ie Eo in ch th pl pale ele hsm at ‘oul ins aay nto ons, However, alo ite ‘Wt nes db hg genom sara of ott We nee me tba and dtl ta They oa gen Eton of genio se deren ad nega caalsto reba pomety fs sperfeton of he dtants been ex air ‘teary pots From tedster next pins te dane log ures canbe tat pb ingaion Sight tines teh carves fe shores SSmuncettvewn tpi, Als aera lth engo 0 ait hon we a sal Ae volume ce canbe ature y ape Tegal oe art and ome elanens, emilee seid yt dames tetven cy pms, By specting te dances betwee beat pint nd tig deren nd nega exc, he et ena emery my espe feist mae caled genta grmary. Weve exp on of tsa inte newton 25 Coordinates and Line Element ‘The Eucidean Geometry of a Plane ‘A systematic way of labeling points isa prerequisite to specification of the ‘tance Between nearby ones. A ystem of coorinats assigns unique labels to ‘exch poi ad there are mat sjstms that do so. Tn wo dimensions fer insane, ‘ere are Cartesian coordinates x, polar coordinates 8) about someon, ee (igue2. wayem .. XY 4 oN FIGURE 2S Canesan ud plar coos, Canes and ptr cous a bah ‘etc way of aing pint in ond he dee Rewces ey Pmt abe cepeel ners of it a2 Chapter? Gromer 38 Pyses Neary points have neaby values of thet coedinaes. For example, he pins (,y)and (tds,9-Fdy) are ae when de and dy are inintesinal Sila, Gp) andr +dr gdp) ae ney. Tn Cartesian coonintes (r,s) he dstance d between te pois (ry) and te-tde.y +d) Gee Figure 25) 4 [aot ease] an “The same rule can be expressed in polar coordina where the distance between ‘heer point (9) and (r+ d+) is (ee Figure 2.5) és [unt eae" en teen 28a ates he a vii da fe sl oe cot barat cnealt es in se Gerth tng ctatetireldecomnee bacee sects con ttc Sete ech ec Gece Pate o» ‘ecclesia avn be ce ig 2 cn fase ffuorsan'}” oy [raf ay. 2106) [ool 2% Ve Changing vvisbes by wring “Tis isthe comet answer: The integral could even be ake o define: by doing Innumenaly one could discover hat = 3115926535, ‘Deriving the elation betwee alls and eicunerece is eve ease in pola ‘coordina, ete the eqanton ofthe ice ost r= A Evating (28) on the ele and negra the resulting dS overt hes 2, weave en ca fase [" nao=2ee. en125, Coorinates nd Une Element “The case of wing polar coodinats to ave at (212) shows tht for a given problem, some cornu are beter than oes ‘By proceeding his way we cold deriva the theorem of Euidean pane geometry. The angle between two iersecting lies fo example canbe defied {the ratio of the length AC ofthe prt ofa lice centred cathe iesetion hares heen he nest the ile’ radius ac a en ‘With this dtintion we could prove that he su of the interior anes of 2 i angle sr Inded, we could very the avis of Eveldean plane geometry om (2) or Ga). All geometry cin be rece lo relatos between distances all, ntanes canbe reduced to tegrls of astances between nearby points all EU ‘lean plane geometry is contained in (2.7) (28). “To simmarize, port i spec by the lne element, sich as (2.7) oF (28), which gies the distance Between nearby pons ens of th cordate {nterals been hem in sme coordinate stem. Converinally ine element ‘Sutiten e+ quadtc elation or dS ep. ast sas bay? eu wth po heackts around te diferent. The form ofthe in element for 3 ge ‘mst vrefrom coniat sysem to cooiate sytem eg (27) and (28), tothe emery remains he ste ‘The Nom-Eucidean Geometry of 3 Sphere ‘An example of a non Euclidean geometry is provided by te surface of 4 t40- dimensional spere of radius a, We can use the anles 6) of reedimenscal oar coordinates to lbs! pints onthe sphere. Te stance betwen pois (8. 8) End @ 0, 9+) canbe sen aerate work (Figure 26) tobe 4S! = (a0? +i 0a?) eas) “Tis isthe line element ofthe srtace of sper. Let's a the line clement (215) to alle the ato ofthe ccumfrence to te rads ofa cle onthe sphere. By cicle me mean the los of points on the surface that re const distance (he ads) along the surface frm axed rit he ema) in he surface. Since no oe pot isdsingssl geometrically from any eter onthe sphere, we may conveniently vient ou polar coordinate systems tha the polaris sat te ener ofthe cele cr is tben curve ‘of conan . Cone the ile dened hy the equation e=6 216) forconstaat ©, The cncumferenc isthe distance around thiscurve. Nearby pins ang the curve are separated hy dg but haved — 0. Ths, (215) ges dS Line Bement Une Element ora Spherea Chapt 2 Geom 25 Pyles (os nosso FIGURE 26 Deiviog he ine clement on he phe The don mates we of fit tthe wh cineonal ere sara In he dimesoal Ean oc ‘Teint cpr om atom (a 1-088 dg) dtd ‘The sanction ws tha the dane feween @ and ¢ + along ine feo [tia esa dy The tance etwcen sd sng tao cnt one ‘ad. Bacne he? dp tat nes econ, eas qa he fps sal Tas 0s 213). ‘asin d6 along he cic and he circumference is c= fas= [" asinadg =2xasine, ern “The rai the sane from the center wo the ciel long a curve for whieh saris but =O, Along ths ears, (215) ives dS = a, adhe rai ra [ase [aavnos ew Using 218) linia in (2.17) the relation betwen he cicumferenee and ras ofa ele nthe nor Euclidean geomet ofa spe becomes c= 2axn(£) oo) Ins epresion oe ed ander cactersng the gomery. I measures thon whch be gomety cane When ean fh es mich225. Coaintes and Line Cement sale than the rads of he sphere, ¢ cx, then we have approximately em) hich the familiar sult in Euclidean geometry. The geometry ofthe surface ‘fhe Earths the sme sphere os pd spoximation. ‘The many ferent projections vod to make ps of its surface are jus i= ferent connate systems for exressing the goomtry oa sphre as deseribe a 0023, BOX 2.3. Map Projections ‘he vero rojo wd a mike lana ap of |) re tarice we emp fair eo x ese in erm stems of coors The pte 1) Iso th torments of he pe {an crest ppociasn msl ccrns {eine ent Won by (215, wih big te i fhe Earth One utc of th arth ag (he ge eared in ain ate nde (pees) Tc bute 2 s/2 0. Ease nem oF Tare a ngs ine cnt is ee a) “emake a map we nse new coe «ad omer ene hy latent oem reno yoyo. sane hte tings coins te anew Pitesti fe entre, heaton ies Diteret ropctons cresyl cies fo De fincone 26) and, )-One can ko se Tapes 2 proving» map We mabe tre pein thane "Thee es may projec ere weit fet. The simplest examples py, ymtkvin © Lite wh of hemp Tiana {andy oneeunglr ue Th el show onan us eld m utara roe the: Homer tree more fl poets MBE rece ve perso the pet fh pee fa lane. Nota popes an be peered Rea the pemy of a per ile om hfe ple A whe clas of ws poets nln i coy i im Fo or ross of hie id he se stances ae en by Be ie lent ase [Foouon) are (B) 4] © alt yey, ® 2 simple cual fa pjesma hin is be Meter ecto. sendy Krams i 1569 and Mer few Kramer a ae hat ang ne ‘op sal egal compas fearings oh spe Tht ‘te map fom the oo Be ple sold pe ve ngs ttwoe ere diets om ‘Niner iting sal eteen Caras sd Ustan ‘oul dwt set icon nop comeing se ‘mopar The angle Retwcen a ne a he ‘ul be ing ond ht when Bl conta hing te ona wo ring he tip em Cares as2% Chapter Ceomety 8 Physics share ‘Bunton an die he Metron. Th sqasor =O mapped tthe ie y= 0 The ples (dase aply~ 0, apa. The proprio tr een he spel me ‘head the lar mori othe plane Ss, 9) ht wd ned in ame 22 emiyy atte ent Merc retin ore Pewsor Trae ssitinieprntsnce pein tic wa atone ms ee te ee en supa storie rms eo Se an wee nai) Sein ite ee e cocoa oe pisppoeeeaeeen ate! Frtiectmecbet ep Rio ssa20pae ° See ee eee tena hy eset Basse Sees Sees ese eS Tn satan fees ncn 2,9. Chey we ned ‘te imap corde dimensions Ax andy is ee aA=[apamiayay=araray. a “Ta, ahough Gesind os ge on he Meior Precinct es en compared wh Soh (Coin y= On sind with = Ones Nim forexanple ac ac iach smaller The Geometry of Some More General Surfaces The line clement of the pine and the spore Were worked out before tring from aclea picture ofthese geometries us surfaces in Bucdean space Howeve. sn general lati its more wl tobe confronted wih ie clement and have to figue ou the propeies ofthe oom repress, Consider ta empl the line element asta aust + Peas?) em for various possible choices of the function (8). The choice (0) = sind ves the geome ofthe surface ofa sphere (2.15). But what uraes in thc:226 Coordinates and imaronce mensional Busidean space have ini geometries represented by the Hine ‘ement (221) fr oher boices of (0)? There are sever hts, 1 Sin te ine ements hese fel cones steht 2 Thecmumfone tfc of mst om (20) coy [" eperde=2nafe a2 3. the tne am let polis ts off sean any By working ot these various metal popeies, a peur can be bul up ofthe src, as Example 2.1 shows Example 21. A Peanot Geometry. Consider the surtace speed by 16 “The surface is symmetric under refestion inthe equatorial plane @ = 2/2 Start ing tO, the ceumference ofthe lines of constant (2.2) fst mereases atthe decries with (0): he it increases ad decreases again. A anyon the ccumfrence Is salle than the comesponding vale on a sphere AC the (a) wali) aay “Tae musimum ccumerence i (r/9ha a 8 = sin“) = 73 atin. Since the distance from pole poles fom (223) hs surface bas the elongated “peanut” shape showa in Figure 27. ino ~ io) em 2.6 Coordinates and Invariance Inthe prestdingesleuition ofthe rato ofthe dreumference to the rads fora ticle nthe plane, teste aswer was obtained whather de calealitins were Gone in Caren or polar coordinates. 1 ovis th theaters should be the same, The distance around a ele and the stance fom it its center are (eine and meaningful quatites independent ofthe choice af coordinates that ‘etre to label he pons in a plane Presented with apical disk, we cok ‘heck whether is edge cre by using 8 ape measure ose Whete: points ‘onthe edge are els from the eater. We could then we the tape measure {6 Bad the ccumferene and compute the aio of circumference rads. No ‘torinls are volved ia these operations. Coordinates ae just convenient a FIGURE 27 Asueoin fn te dren pce ‘rth sem ect ite ie cle 220 te Go) andtt~ ie? ‘pero ais we insect he ‘reunforsce ome ae ‘ie scoring 222, “The vrais are of ons 9 ped tl ‘Sound taf sme. ‘Thectample as ike sare of ey sync‘Chapter? Geometry 8 Physes and systematic way of labeling the poi in a geometry, They hive no meaning imtherseves, We ould have labeled the pints by names Joe, Alc, Fred, ‘On ups we do thie—New Yor, Bebing, et Bur such aster of labs i ot very strate and at very convenient forthe application af the methods ff calculus o problems of geometry. Coates ae a systematic set of labels, but thee area infinite name of diferent oordte systems, which re all, ‘uvalene Some may be more convenient for one eamputation or aot, athe falculutons of he cicumference in pla coordinates In 2.11) an (2.12) shos, ‘or moe wef for ene purpose ee ante, asthe maps Box 20m p. 25 show. thtesuiaent answers can be obtained sing any of hem. “The eqvalence of Cartesian and polar cordate in the plane canbe seen enealy Since the two coordinate stam are dierent ways of lbeling the ‘ints ina plane tee ast be a connection between hem platcan Be label herby coordinates (3) ot) The warslaton between these iret belts called a coordinate ponsormarion. hice tis ereosg, y=rsing, 226) ‘With thea of he coordinate transformation (2.26) the equivalence between the twoline elements 27) and (2.8), each exposing the geomet ofthe plane any be demonsuted mechanically, Stat fom (2.7) and computed and dy fom 226) de = lr)easg —rsingidd) en y = (dr)sing + eos dg 228) ‘Substiute tes int (27) ad simply to Gnd the line element (28) for dS? in polar coordinates, Te pot here that he stance betwen pear pints dis Sn merian quantiy independent ofthe coordinates used to compute ‘Te coordinates ed i computation are arity: the answers must be ex ‘pressed in pysialyinarant terms We shal 5 many more examples of this in the allowing chapters. Problems. 1. {8} (a) alae sou ate fro ay nce nian coer last ts i tae cto om whence cane (by Show he sare hg nde dimension wih caical corer 21S] The caer ofthe Sun such fru fom 2 eet mesure nl tha th eter of te Fah Bute Sa ao mh mere wave an ‘he Ean Cig Dy stinate whih wed have terete et ons easement ‘fenpies a at Ga 1 FI (a Westy te elation (2 teen he sn of eins anes of pba Tangle sis re wan ott gle ae tne (0) Prove eiton ener.Probleme 4 Draw exp of wage nthe sic of spe for wih (a) Te smote sgh jos slightly sete ta (0) Tes af angles egal 02 {© Whariste simu esumcf eng gl ona sphere canbe scat totztCungou eit shang whee te sam acest ae? |, Cael are face of ia tc or emer cafe) inthe ‘worden perty Hal he see a sphere of ras Sow a is rotate? when (6) Comer ape radi «a one semen of neh fie 0 inde thw nde d fom he Neth Pole mesuedom he phere What he age ‘ewe thins of lon ht ie sepment ps? ss ale eo Sale than te age petal send these tance om» a ae? Consider lling sorte randoematio oie ectangular cori (es litigant plane oa ne ef coors) ee) sd ett ctype (wonton trisomacae's m e (3 nance enna oe (9 fmneapemnstnct enero tm ts (Came nsf cmt mc i) Seater 1A) The safe fa ge a assim pomeny 0 3 god appeoinion the ine clemet for two-dimensional ayer geomet 221 pick a F) ‘Sch ath eating sure wld some tht on ge Calele he a he ‘ggeclle oud tems the dane frm pole fe. 9, The mic fe Eh ta ports re. The pol asf he Ear 6857 kn, i ig es han the mean equ rats, 878 km, Sopose te sare te Ens mole by an eran suace with ine emt of he i (22) 40) = ino es) fer some sl, What ates of and would est pace the known ol and gol i? 10, (8) Equal Projects An oiares map pon oe fer wich ees {costintpooronaiy eee reat th pa eas nthe slash {Date Gren = L6/2s, wha inst th) woul ake aneurin eon nines are ced has ne ane ost of perma te ene ‘pond nein! wench pete Mherever it cae eget wes lb ‘ho roprion {8} Conic! Projections Cone poems apy pints on thle in parce Uinmes (vate pect ie map (ee yt wed confason ihe coorie ‘Somthe see) Tous ngenenlr=(s.¢) and = YO 8) A parla simple 2»Chaptee2 Geom as Physics ‘dns fen pojstion tes the Nor Pale ae xg fe oi one shorn = riAandy 9. (a) Fortis simple ls ape the line tment onthe pes in tes a (0) Fd ete fneton 7) eat kesh ah tara pojeton in wh hea ‘ust poorly etwas each aren map sl the comeponcing ees Ot ‘espe int Sethe hit fc Pb 10) 12 (8.8) tour Persona Worl Map The map in Box 23 wre mde wth te Mate Inca popan HoraPloe Mike your om poe, cnr on ou ome ‘he aa odin tees Your ew fe impo ee ofSpace, Time, and Gravity in Newtonian Physics Copter’ introduced he de of geometry ad how oe i describe. This chap- terdscuses the geometry of pace ad the noon of tine assumed im Newtonian ‘mechanics. This disossion wil ab serve to review aspects of mechanics ant speci elatvy that wil be spat for ater develope 3.1 Inertial Frames Newtonian mechanics sues a geomet fr space anda pricubr idea forte ‘Nowhore tht clearer than in Neston’ it law speing the motion of fee pariciesparices on which no forces ace ating. Aevoning to Newton's Best Bua fice pais moves ona tsp line tcomtant spend. But what geometry (cies a "aight He”? What de of ime is one to define “constant pea”? “The sgt ine of Newton's rs law isthe shrest distance Between to pints in theedimensonal Euclidean space. The geometry of space i speed Carian cowinates by he ine element aS sas? say? 442 oy ving the dance dS between pois Searted by infinitesimal coon inte- als ds dy al de, This geometry the mtr extnson to ter dipensions ofthe geometry of a fit plane. 1, teefre, called fla space, Plat, Fnsidean tsomesy js sumed for space in Nestonian mechanics. To undertand how motion is describ ia the Bt spoe of Newtonian me- nic, imagine 2 weld coming fee particles moving his way and hat. An ‘bserer in lnbortory seeks to dseibe and unersting the motions of the p= ‘els tha move tragh (se Figure 3.1) To deseribe the motions, the observer fan pick a corner of he abr as the oigin of Caan cordial =) netted slong the intersection ofthe walls at Boor tat meet a ths core, “These coorntes can be set abel the pots in space through which apa ‘ike moves, The sprem of coordinates ad to provide a veference frame, oF frame foes! “mtn mf nara penn enon CHAPTER 3 a2 neti Frame ‘Chapter 3 Space Tim, and Gravity in Newtonian Psi eg JIGURE 31a bear dees «fee rae. An ose fa es ‘oy ca cose one cme asthe rin fee Canes carats (9.2) hat eine wiht intercon fh al an oor ha moat nat cree Te es cores dea eeece fea tpt ih ie menue Hy cok, nb wd to dete the mtn parc moving nh he rst a ts ‘ev’ ve fen ‘There ae many possible laboratories, which canbe moving uniformly, ace rang, rating with respec to each oh, or some combination often the (Gee Figure 3.2), Not al these reference fraes ae equal seul for expressing ‘he laws of mechanics. A priulrly well typeof elerene fre can Be com src as flows: ickae pace to serve asthe originof a Canesiancoord- ‘te systm (ae Figure 3.3) atl ines. At one moment chose tree perpen: tar Cartesian enorntes (x, 2) wth this origin pining along the deco Set by the anes of three pepeacur gyroscopes. A ter moment contin ‘etn (x, 2) bythe ection ofthese gyroscopes. Equivalely, and more ge ‘meus propagate the nal aes pall o themselves (00 rotation) athe ‘tigin moves along its stright ine path The reskin coordinate system called an mera frame The lw of Newtonian mechanics take thir tandard and simplest forms in inert ames. An observe nan inertial frame en discover parameter ith "espt to which he postions fall fee pals ae changing at constant tes ‘Tir iste. Expl. the motion of ny one pile canbe described by ving is coords asa function fie (¥.y(), 1) and its acceleration as 20: pan on sonnei oneFIGURES Te ‘Soclyedopicemana Soest v4 Caren cordate ens ‘ty s aon og anele nte a Cares corde ts tele y suo vel ang the ats, Chapter Space Te, ae Gent in Newtonian his Equation (32) i the expression of Newton’ st aw. Indeed net frames could be defied as Cartesian ference frames fr which Newton's first a olds Inte form 62) sing tho las of mechanics, an observer a nei fame can const look that measures theme. For instance, he poston fone free pail could be sed io measure. snc is poston changes ata constant rate in No every Caesin coordinate Sytem tah inertial fame. Far stance, the reference frame ofa laboratory onthe surface ofthe Earth sno exact an ite rl frame. The equations of mation of re pail reno (3.2) tse entifagal and Carlitos esl fom the eatin ofthe Ea 8 wel The Slow precession of Focal pendulum sa sue sgn thi frame fixed onthe Enh tan etal frame, butter tis oating with respect to them. (Se ox foranthe such mesurenent) "There are many neta frames, ot jas one. tthe constr give, thee sieent perpendicular diectons could have been chosen Tor the three as, efining& now frame (ey. 2) hat is ated with respect othe st A di ferent spare could have hoen chosen sth xa defining fe tha is placed with respect othe stand geerlly moving ata constant elo with respect toit Rotalns, displacements, and uriforn motos (or combinations of hes) tur out tobe the ony ways ine fames can die, “Any two ses of Canesian coordinates (x 2) and (2/2) fom diferent Inet ames ae jus dillon wy of lbeing he points of re dimensional fa space. Therefore, there must be connection between these two diferent systems of lls coordinate tansformation, Simple examples of cordnate transformations coresponding to displacement, ations and worm mations sea follows 1. Displacement by a distanced along the x-axis se Figure 3. ge 63) 2, Rotation by an ange y abut the axis Gee Figure 3.) x (cose) + (ine)s, 6) 4. Uniform mation by a veoety v alongs he axis (28 Figue 3.6) dee 6)BOX 3.1. Measuring the Rotation of the Earth with a Ring Interferometric Gyro 2 nberaory on he sre of the Eat doesnt de fea tal fare Bose th Earth retain Th Es rion re can be sued by expeines foe aie de cloned abr one sre ht make refaetceoasoenml pheremens ch {tering and stig of he Su. Oberg he pe ‘eas of gyonope o Foust perdu woul ‘etme wig fo mike rch aren: Ol pei Pesce cn be de wth ing eromee cope, The ie bid thee device sed ‘Shean in be igure below ln the fame ofthe {bee Nats ae emit in pve for ee ps0 fing to wave i Spon dress wound HCY fens tS the wring oto thee ite ng a masing. he waves ced 2 ny ‘ne tne hive se xl ances ae pe, ‘etry tree We cn wea et fame Stich be stro he ng ese ana Wa ‘pens thei rang with an gar vlc fit th fame. Wie ther nave moving suns the sin. te ctr wl have eel toby an an [BEE x jung ine frome poston a he ine of Emisin. The source oping ave mets the de {tr sr Ue sl iO Shae ht fortbe copopgang wave The dace ees "teu hr the eed fe wate. Ti lancet do Qt ~ Roun) whe ste rai ‘tering. Equing these wo Sites Se 2 shh Sten 2/00) Asse “xr se dtc wey cope metic undestanding of gravity in general reat. ‘restr night nto this ensersity of real aceleraton canbe found by distinguishing (vo roles played by mass in 3.25). Masson the lean side ‘the equation goves the inertial froperties ofthe bay and a this oe 18 ‘lid the inertial mass mo the body. This the mats ht occurs gener Neston’ av of min em hacer the xigin of the Fre (gravitational, electromagnetic lst, et) on the ethan side ofthe equation, “Tae mass on the ight hand she of 3.25) measures he sent ofthe gavito- tional ore between Does pds theefre calle the body's raitatonal mass, mor This the ras that occur i the inverse square law e311) Croan! Mase aGravitational Mas and Ira Mas Av El ‘Chapter Space, Tne aed Gay in Newtonian Pye 628) snd is analogous electric charge, Gravitational mass eters the gravitons! force law G.12), 029) snd gravitational mas density isthe suse ofthe gravitational potential (3.18). viow arn , 630) in familar terms, the gravitational mass gives the weight of body in 3 given ravine eld ok 63 Allthe masses or mass densities in able 3.1 ar gravitation Experiment shoes ht all bodies fl with the sme aseleration in a ravi tonal el Inert mass and gravitaowal mass must hese, be popotons ‘wth a propordonalty constant that ste same forall bodes, Gravion mass an be defined ob gua inertial mas fer ane bods 5a, the standard ilo ‘gramin Sevres, France The equality f accelerations then implies ts or Abadies Fem meme co [As Box 2.1 on p14 showed, his ison ofthe most accurately teste elation in lyse (more on this in Chapter 8 "This equality betcen a number my, which coals nea the general dy namical a forall forces anda number me tha measures the coping stength to panicular force graviy—is tly remarkable In Newtonian hoe. pears as an isolated wexplaind experimental fact However, iis his experimen tl fact that alls a geometric theory of gravity and undeies general elt. all bodies wih the same ial eonions fl slng the sme crv dcp ent of their composition, ten tit curve can be a proper of he geomet of ‘pete and ato force ating on hs ba 3.5. Variational Principle for Newtonian Mechanics Physics—iwhere the action i (Anon) ‘The laws of Newtonian mechanics can he fouls in tems of «vito principle called the principe of extremal actin Extesios a this rnp wl tam pace mtn le een il rato rice.415. Variational Principle fr Newtonian Mechanics te the route o formulating the equations of motion of pails in curved space time, We eview i binning with the simple ease ofa parce of mass m moving ‘none dimension in poset V(x), whose equations of modon ae summarized by te Lagrangian: 1 ia) = bmi? — Ven), a. Lia) = $i Von, 633) ere the dot denotes ine derivative, Newton's law mit = —dV x can be expressed as Lagrange’ eaten o£ (%) att onsite pose us ween pin 4 at ier 8 poi at time rls in Figure 37, For each path consiuc eal rome called its con “Te ston isan example of fctonal—a map from fanctions (in this case 21175) tsa rambers, ‘Aniong all he carves conestng 9 84 with to, hos that exeie he action satisfy Lagrange's equation 3.38), That ithe variational pincipl for [Newionan mechani. ‘Variational Principle for Newtonian Mechanics A pile moves teen a olatn space at onetime and another pint in Space a ne tme 0 aso enemize the aton in between Pt ferent, particle obeying Newton's ws of motion follows a path of ‘extemal action, We now esplin whaleemice meats an demonstrate he ei ee "Te extrem ofa fncton of one variable f(x) af the pints wher is fst eva vanihesleal maxima, local minima, or sade pins. At any ex: trem, x small change dx nx prodes ro rt ode change 3 in the vale of the Function, Thai because, ist oder in, athe 299 anda an extern, f/x =. "The extrema of fncton f(a!,...2%) of m vadables wl, occur whee all the paral derivatives 37/4 vanish, for a= Ty. .m Sach an exe 0 FIGUREAT Many ea ata cen Festa xp ate rp cn be eel bat ae Src eg path extenLeyange Equations Chapter Space Tne, and Get in Newtonian his ‘remurn canbe carstrzed asthe place where the Fit variation ofthe onction winises, oe Dane no ax for arbirary variations 8, = 1... mtn many dimensions an extemum oes not have to be a maxim or 3 minimom of the function. It can bea mak ‘mam in some dietions and «minimum aoe. ‘The extema ofthe ston functional Ss()] are define bythe vanishing of ts finder variation 8S[x()] fr aazay varans Sx of the path conmeting (4.14) t Ca. fe. To compote 85[s()] just sate x) + 3x0) for 0) In the definion ofthe action (335), expand oft onder in 83() and ingate ‘once y pat in sswon= fa [ Bese + 2 oe] aww Bem e [°af-2 (8h) « Aton 63%) Vataton ofthe path Ut connects x4 41949 at ncesaiy vanish a the endpints—Sxi4) = Bx(¢y} = 0. Theis it. 3Hb) hertore vases, ‘The remaining ter has to vanish fr arbivary 3x) dh meet hese conons for 85[x(7) © vanish Ths can happen oly ithe integrand of the tga (G30) vanes Mentill, ving E(B) ethan ox ‘The actions exremized by pth that sy Lagrange’ equation “Tis ress no rested to mosin none dimension the Lagrangian a Sanction of coordinates 2°() and tae ie derivatives, extrema sty the aglons a (ay, a(is)taen® 4 Example 33. A Pardcular Variation. Ife action i an extremum with Spec to any variation away from the pth obeying the equations of maton, ten ‘Mist also be an extremum fev ay perticalar variation, Coser reptile (V2) = 0) moving between x4 at and xp at fp Newtons laws dette tht the free parce travels betwee these pois with a constant velo, which it (in —14)/T. where T= yt ithe elapsed ime. Ths isthe sraghtine ph shown in Figure 3.8, When haf the tine F has lapsed the parle at hep 1 G40)Problems FIGURE.A8 This Spe shows lar fly opal pth comesing Psa Eatin awh poston ta tine ip Fach shaded pa cons to Stat ts pried ths psa ced al ete al ech an. ‘Pecpanth cures te oe ihe ads tight ne contin the ps. ‘Taste pu obeying Newton's a, sion cm +4). We compare the ation ofthis pat satisfying Newton's avs ‘th pats that move from xa wit a constant velit to some diferent postion {Xin otal ime 7/2 nd the Wi a dffeeat constant elo to geo rin tine 7 Examples ate shown in Figure 38 The action S(X) for these pat sa fae tion of X which any calculate fom (3.35) becase the eect i constant foncac eg, namely, (X —r)/(T/2) en teste and (rp X1/(7/2) 00 te Secon, The ation slong any leg in which the parle x moving with onstane ‘eocky V for aime fe mV 2/2. The ss for Boh eas is swen[aa-n'ea-ni/r oan Pats of exremal ston occur where d 5/4" “Theres only one sltion at tua @2) ‘which isthe path obeying Newton’ ws Problems 1. At pail moring nan neil me (2) ty ple on aaetny eee ve wr dave conta nine. Coors eter fame (e272) eng wh pete el ame Wha aga elt ou ‘Simon at (= =) What eth gations of matin obeyed by (ad Sine ting fame? Sch he ejctry oe pre he plan a Show epic aha te eas ot, 2 Show that Newton's sf mito a mia ura tanormation eae Ts ri sed wih eet an neta ae of Newnan cha ‘What ste egatins of mtn he cere Fane? 2 (8,81 ow may ges pr ur es th Focal pas ei ia Bat 32 ap. Spee?‘Choper3 Space, Tine and Gravity in Newtonian Phys 44 Find the eration! psa nse nd ome «spre of frm mas es Ivins Rs mae M. Normalize oe pt tha ait st 5. Consider te anton si f (¢e Yee] he cane (ssi coos 0) a) sich makes 13) xm, Wt he ema vale of SLC 6 (8.5. Eine prison nea ofthe Moon aston oft Moos ‘estns energy Is ths ao Inger o sal he the acy fe Lae lc ‘aang tt of theo fpr sa ert asPrinciples of Special Relativity Eins’ 1905 special theory of elatvity requires a peofound revision of the Newton ideas of spaces ine thar wet eed inthe previous capt In geil ela the Newtonian dee of Falean space anda Separate absolute tie ze subsumes a single four-dimensional union of space and ime elle gocetne, This chap review’ the ase prices of socal lati. staring from the now-Eucdean geometry ofits spacetime 4.1 The Addition of Velocities and the Michelson-Morley Experiment [Notch neds he known about Marwals equation governing eleewomapneti feist cnclde that they take the same fom in every nena rare of ‘evrioian hans, Max cquations imply hat ightirves with he ped ‘that entrar a asc pate ofthe equations! But he Galleanansorma tion (6) tee eral frames implies tha ight should wasel ith dire ‘podem een inert ames moving with respect each oe ‘More speiclly, suppose (V", V7, ¥") ae component ofthe velocity of & parle! messed none ictal rane, and (VV V) the components of "he velocity measured ina frame moving with respect the Bist long sani sith velocity Then fom 3.6, oe ey : we aa wa so that together with the trivial ansformatos ofthe y and : components one as a This cll the Newtonian addon of veloc ae CHAPTER 4 Newtonian Adon felts ”« BOX 4.1. A Modern Michelson-Morley Micchon-Morey ‘pene Experiment 11978 Dat ad Hal tne it on he atopy ‘of syce wih sj te pops fle A He elie = 3.39 ym) ed en no F-Pt inereronce—senl an pal avi ume ty woman Tey of ‘ne ity Any can ne velco ight woul ain ash he fguecy ff the ner bee {Fm fh Lae and earay were outed oa ie amt le could be sed compe een Siecone in ce. Te ge fhe her a temined y sping he beam rnnine on pu ‘eon a nd comping the esl wih onary reece incr Woe th vel fa teeta Ferenc dees ae 29) pends ote {acy woulea where athe aon aol fh Chapter 4 Pini of pil Relativity ‘Te transformation (42) impis that Maxwell’ estos ca be valid only in one ineial fame tecase they predict one velocity fr light. ln the nine teenth centiry this frame ws thoaght te the res rame ofthe pysical medium through which ligt propapated—the“ether™ The veloity of gh in tyne frame moving with epost to the ether est rare wou be given by 4). ‘anexperimen whose resus were published in 1887, Alen Michelson and ward Morey tested the Newtoalan ation of weocits law (42) fr lh ‘A mer version of their experiment is describe in more detail in Box 41 ‘Michelson and Movey compared the velocity of light in an Earth bised labora ‘ory in dretons along the Earth's rial motion and perpendicular to ato erent pins on the Earths orbit (See Figure 4.1.) The moti ofthe Exh ‘snd the Sun means that a mos points on sol wl be ving ith Spectto teeter IFit happens wo be at et with respect othe ether tone pin ints orig then ix months ater iwi be moving wih reget the ter ith obits obial speed. Supose fr snp tha the Su sat est wth espe tothe ether I Ve isthe Banh’ cial veloc, che Newton aw for aon ‘of velocities (4.2) implles dat the veloity of Hight perpendicular othe Earth's Ion ise whereas the velocity in drectons parle it shuld be 4 Va Michelson and Morey detected no dillereace. Evidemly the Newtoiah lw of Pao Bik land aif =05#25) «10-8 ee it of ore (Ve)? ~ 10-4 whe Vg st ‘eho fhe Eat eit. ie an Hal's onsite wih no varia nh gery at all Ths fee gies el est onl en min ne [Nentnin non ef vibes would peta fe: sna an the lana pedo,412 ins Reson ands Consequences FIGURE.1 ‘The Misun-Mavcy xperinen Supe he wie teenie tits cc oe at) ty wh aps skin of velociies was not omet Ether Newtonian mechanics of Maxwells ‘utions had o be med. lt tamed ot tobe mecha 4.2. Einstein’s Resolution and Its Consequences Einstein's 1905 suscesful moifcation of Newtonian mechanics sealed the Spectl theory of relat, ot special Yelaty for short To formulate i Eine Sin astuned thatthe principle of telatvy described a Section 3.2 hos for ‘Gesromagaedc phnamena as described by Maxwell's oquatons. In paricu tar, he assumed thatthe velocity of ight had the sume valve ein al inertia frames—an sump tha from the present perspective cel motivate by the Michelson Marte experimen Bul, in ssepting the principle of tlt, Enstin id no ale he Cailean tansformation, which implement tin Ne tonnan echanics, since his impis the Newtonian velocity ation iw Rater, fe found anew connection betwecn ie fames tat consistent With the ine vile ofthe velocity of pti of them. The assumption thatthe voc of ip i he sae in every inet frame requires a eetamiation and ulmatly the abandonment ofthe Newtonian ie °50 Chapter 4 Principles of Speci Rlatity of abvolt ime, One ean se this most clearly by examining the idea of simul ‘ane. Two event are simulaeous i thy occur a the same tine, Fn Newtonan theory two evet that are simultaneous in ose neal Fame ae sillseos in ‘ery oer neal fame bra theres single aol ime T ee the i ton thi idea of asuming the constaey ofthe velocity of ligt, consider the Thought experiment illusrated in Figures 42 and 43, Thyee observers A, B, ad O are riding rocket of lng J. Oe midway between A and B.A and B each emt ight signals dete slong the rocket, tomar 0, O recive the inal simulancouly. Which signal ws eit is? "aD412-instns Resolute ands Consequences “The answer depends on he neil fame ifthe velocity fHght isthe same in all ofthe, Figure 42 showsthe ines fame where the rocket i a re. An observe at ret nhs fame reson follow “The foeket et andthe wo observes "Rand B are eel distances say from 0. Te therfore takes these Tenth of time fora gh signal to propagate fom A to O ast does from B oO. Since tbe ‘eal cached a the same rat, they were emited simultaneous) ferent result obaned na neil fame in which he rok moving. such a tha shown igure 4.3. An observer at sin his frame reasons 35 FIGURE 43 The sane ce nd bev Fig 42 ia inert eet Shick te cht smote hh ped Aone po fom he oom‘Chapter Pines of Special Relay follows: “The signals are received simultaneously by 0. At ear imes when the signals were ete was awa lower to O's posion at reception than A Since both signals irel wid ped ete oe from was emi eae than {he ne from becuse i as longer distance 10 ave to each O a the ae fenton he one fom 8" ‘Tha, two event simultaneous jn one inert frame axe not smwltaneous in one moving with respect othe fist if the veloc of ligt the same in bah {Coauast Problem 7.) The Newonin idea of time mast be abandoned. We wll ext se ow. 4.3 Spacetime [Newtons fist lfc pails move at constant speed on tight ines—is tnchanged in special lav. The constostion of inertial frames described in Section 3.1 and illus in Figue 3,3 therefore also unaired: sare with ‘origin following the siright-ine aetory of fe pace. At one momen soos tree Cartesian coonintes x,y.) with hs rai. Propagate hese ses Parallel othomseses as the oigin moves dein 2) arenes. The ‘sults an inert rae. * or each ine frame there is a noton of time # such that the law of fre pate motion takes he form (3.2). But in view ofthe deacon fsa Inthe previous seston, there so reason to accept te asamgtion of Newtonian ‘ses hat the ines of fee neal frames ill gree, Rates, here pe erally a.difren notion of ine and simultane fr each neta rame neta frames are, therelore, spanned by four Crsian coordinates (x.y), and 8 igeren ier fame has 4 dierent st of four coordinates (92). The ‘sect geometric area for physics sheer, al a epee an abso lime bt rather a four-dimensional diatom of space and tive called pace time The separation of spacetime ino Sepaae noone of thre-dimeasons Space and one dimensional imei diferent in diferent neil uns, The ran fomations between inertial frames moving wih pet to eachother tit ae analogous to te Galan asformatns (36) wil mix space a tine, a8 we wills Section 45, “The defining assumption of special eat fa goometry or four mensional Spacetime 0 hich we no tim Spacetime Diagrams To describe fourimensional spacetime we fis nose to, which 50 simple it appeal but o powerful eis indispensable. This ls the ide o spacetine diagram. A spacetime diagram spot Wo ofthe coordinate wes of neta rame-~two coordinate axes of acting. Since thee are four a rt bc ein pe ya sities a Ln fame. “ec eye a of fe et Wa a43. Spacetine only two dimensions ona piss of paper two ofa most ofthese ates can be dian, Spacetime diagrams are sles or secbons of spacetime in much the Se way ean -y pt ea two-dimensional ie of thee dimensional space. {yplea example i shown in Figure 4 is convenient ous rather han ¢ 3 nan, because then bth have he sare mension ‘point Pin pate cn be called an event bocase an event cus ata pat salar place a pra ime, thats point in spacetime. Fr example, [emo explosion happened te event in spacetime that occured in 0. 1054 Se focston ofthe Cro nebula. Am even P ca e lose in spacetime by i ings coorinates (7, xe, 27) an rei rune as sown i Figure 4 "Aamtile series a cure in spacetime calle wold ine. Its the cue of positon of the parce aileron ists, Le, x) Figure 4 shows space Fie digra with wo sample word ines. The pe ofthe woeld ine gives the tlio e/V" since dt) ete = eax = eV" Zero velocity comespons in frit spe. A velo af ¢conesponds oa slope of uty. Light rays therefore ‘move along the 45" ines in aspuetine diagram. Box 420 p58 shows an early trample a a spacetine diagram wih word ines. ‘The Geometry of Fat Spacetime “The central assumption of special eat isa geometry for spacelime, As we Teams in Chapter 2 pemety Is specied by a tne element hat gies the Aisance between neat points. would be appropsae wo bern a discussion ‘of special reltivity by posing thi lin elamem. However, before dong dha Conse simple thought experimen that motats the form of he ine element Sd connects that with Einstein’ assumplon that he velocity of ight se nal ine ame. “The hough experiment i lseate in Figure 4.6, Two paral iors sep raed bya distance L are a retin a ner frame in which events ae described ty coordinates (7, )-We ake 9 toe the vertical dietion between the mi rors and + the destin paral to them. A light inal bounces back and fr fetwec the mir: the right hind prof Figue 46 shows ts word in in Spoveie diagram. clock measures te time interval Ar between the event A ‘the depart of height ay and the event C af its eur to the sme poi a Space. These tno evens ar separated by coordiate ites Ar=2je, Ax =dy= r= as, inthe inertial frame where th iors ar a es ‘Analyze the stne though experiment in an inet fame tht is moving ‘wth speed V with respect to the (29 <) metal ame along the negative {Tieton parallel fo te mire. Laat event i his fame by coordinates (e.4)-y.2 wth parle ihisrae th mimosa moving wih speed WV along te postive rection, llseated in gure 47. What ste time icra 7 inthis ame tween te depart ofa ple adits eur? Analyze ths queson ae follows: the Hip ray Wael a stance Ax? = VA" in he 53 FIGURES! Aspuctine ‘agra soning 2 feovdlnenrd th of (rime acti ular ine me, An Sena? Parle in pce) apeclrtte Op) FIGURE AS. Word ines ie Spt A the wel ne apart hat a est foal time nh era fee) Wet ie epee oe ere finer 8 Scere rene deco costo ara handheais ot5 ‘Chapter 4 Pini of pec Reaty bit? [FIGURE 46 The tung stows wo parle miro tein nil se spate ty counts 2) yh fetus tovk nd Frees emt ‘sana lock ests he ie eral = 2c berneen the pare else ‘om te love arr Aan ear at. The mel ope sho fe he ‘puctime dag ofthe ight tan ue where he yan steven ison ‘Neh te pe ay eel The veto pre and tara scp by the tine iio cae athe sare pata ptnt = Ay = Ae =O. These stp cn ‘vegan rs model of eck at anes ve ete ple ene one irc ater of 2 et advance 10! cemimetes In every see- {d From he spacetime pont of vow the vale of saison acide. I's nvem Inte ydreton wer ‘Sunes inte teton Praia re fr 8 abe ith ee sed wih hse wou ewe Chapters Pipes of Seca Reatiy though n dealing with spatial geometry it had become tional to measure the yction niches an the 4 and =-dstions i centimetre. The dsance ‘etcen two nearby points ia space would then have Been give By BS SCY ae bac a0 where € = 2.4 ean. Since space and time are But ferent dtestion in 2 Single spacetime coaingum, is dese 10 esse them in he seme unis ther centimeters or seconds. The constant ¢ then gives the conversion fact between these vo units. Toy the veloity of ight not messed tis dein? toe etal the conversion fact? = 209792458 000... ys aan (asl the way oa) ‘Measuring ime in wits of lngth means ging from he mass lengths (MET) system of units tation in mechanics oa mass length MC) syst, “Append A gives some deus of ferent uni systems and ues fran forming between the pes ued inh text “Measuring both space sn ite in length unis hs the efecto puting © = | everywhere in our formulas, For example in units Whee tie is meas ih de =a bs gas? 4a asa) de! = ~de?, and velocities ae dimensionless. Equation (421) for a Lorene oon becomes 330 4330 yew 486) (6338 where called took. For many prastial purposes ts camenient to matin ferent units for space and ime ina given nea fame. For example tseasto say lecture ‘0 ilong tha 53) 15899 billion motersong, The escan always retuned to any expression by idetying hose quant that tau be eased in mis fof tie and thie that should bemoaned inate of space. A pesrpin for boing his i given in Appendix Abu he flloming examples how weeks 1 1®)-¥, For this reason the MC system of wits normals ‘units. Unis with eT wil he sein almost ll he rest the triat *robles Example 46, Puting Back he's. Expression in us where ime is mes sored in centers an be writen nuts where ies measured secon by tting the conversion fcr he ight pases. Consider by wa of example the prof a Lorena boost (433), In MCT unit velocity bas dimensions C/T. The smensionlss sn (4.332) must therfore be veplaced by v's, incading inthe defini of y. To gta he tems om the ript hands o 4.33) to hae the uns T tht the lethand side has, must be paced by xc. The results "la. Problems 1, (BS) Today TOV ein (in rade view lees Par (Care L300) 800 nb aes Lyon Pa Di) a 1008 ing 2 ec) ASS he ay ihe oinermctt sop ptt wel ne othe ein om copy he aay “Jasin gra of he de ewes Par and Lyon 472 on oct ship proper ng leet Ear verily at psd fA ah gpa ‘Sete str ih nest eck = O cote ‘ele abl anh al clock When deste sig each he nse the rocket |Seetng a he okt lk) Eat lcs? {4.0 m ple cr fast te ton eg ht ppt te nly To ton inthe ry ae Te rarer cts ple oe te ron oor ff Shan im ag Tse teint he ea fhe pole eat he coed et thot tn daca be ln ening ple inthe bart fo isa “he er dur opcode rane pes uh Fro th rm pot ie ‘Nome ple 20 nga he bar ly ot Ts te lca ve hein ham Eni tril ay mene of pcetee igre “ret par 4 iti the Earth in the ae ston rte car bt aoe he ur ta of 00 ks om the race By ow ey sai pe a ‘Sh onsuch a slite rn ow coms lek on fe Fan? Comp jst 774 Chapter 4 Principles pei lay {18 £] Me aio some 3385 spacing in the exprsic of he i, Is dstane ca be deter rm he ears om fs eseen vl fn ompons serie (Wik Pon 1 Chater 1 ben eu he Sted se coology) However 2 ugh ofthe ace cat eased rom Huth iw ee User dw bee ceo oy v= td ‘heey * 72 hs) Me th Hable cnet Lk athe ean fo "steams ents seh a he meee (hp) fr CSS faba Ue ‘hese ets ogee withthe dn Bon Son. ogy exit eas ‘te clot 2 sari omy oat) Wa svt othe eo {6 Fsample 42 shoved wine tn n+ mig hick cul be dens tem of he wong 02 el ack cei to mis retied he Siren of mat Sh tht thar res ie Be end ng sa ess ‘ened pedir he deen of ton [S.P) In(44) wedced ave 6 tora pio gt vel tween no Inst were witha ses Ths me wa ere he al tine ‘sie ramen which he mires es 43) Neways wih ‘toot ene se ues wa eer agree: Cay th al te ‘17s (24 sig the pnp of Newnan yes dow ha a the se, ‘Shui a ret ame he morte et ame he the 11S] Calan the hyper aml etwoe he des AC ad A of tepe AC Iutastia Fee remix be: pce gt shi the rt he od Ef Es pom ew When hey raat sth dierence aes ewes ed 10, tnthenove! Reno te Stars S. Lem his scare hth lens retuned sain might oe: thee flowing paige es ye wt shite ed tev: Lae hit then, The ened tag was pt onthe expen a Faas lig year say We Rew thes ack in un a wey Yas Shp tne Forays ago we feted The Poetry ip edo a came fs the dy Tale ‘ss usta ees ih wht pal tee! fm he ah Forte [Clie nd Bo are nov in poste dec sours ea of i= [uch ea ota 2n etal ame Both ne ith ost seh me ‘sr in tht me Each eres 2 och, which ty cies ee ot = ‘moet eth real he same pono then Bo predic at we hey mos Ale lok wl yen es thn is ba of he ie lions ‘cues his ensnoving wien i. Acres hi ob ck i 5. te foe Sr Haan Be oe Sa gh 1robles ‘ead swith these esning, They oh can't be ight Was wag ‘epee? Wha wil clk eal em" (a) Stow excl te tie at ese yew pin at dimers pe Sd! 4a 4 do) athe oe ance een 1 kt i ete ace ps in a sie 13 tamil ame woo sms of map oa frame moi th ep whe rn mess en esis Kt he erty 10" By wag dance ee to evens rao Moving ime Stet oem mee ge thy ng arte thew aman second hy mang eth aan fe pein ae 1. [c} Ths prob cone te toy mel ste lst syste dcnsed Eximpi 4 Suppose you smut eee Bena ote neering Slt an thi rep ts cts ap 8 wel ean dens sl pe nach a cg, ~ fy Ths an posta a the res fas of sie to whch thee clea all ymin. Dee + ‘Soto tt dries or pens Evatt yo deviaon om ‘hemi bruce sco estore, whe ie ped a he 15, Siow hat te atone (4.28) pis ha a) i < om inn fret) = toy hr ial rae, (1) ene a rae, then (0 fay ate ei mes ae) P| ay etal fae, ten KD) > cfman te nr ame 1%. Louth perpen laine min are nce oe Iain womete sticks one adh ether moving hn a us rgd ‘te stand pretreat sow he The ean ase Insp athe emer fea te sh a Ar th th sym showt he amps i ath bres wl een the meer sls seinen a at ath beets ll terete ace ne ee ick mt ha he Ae hte eh come e tent without aig the icp of 87 Chapter Principe of pil Relativity 17, Aneto derotion of arent comratn, Example 2 shows ow th operon of {ms clck wx come wth melon Ths polon si sowing how cate ote econ wah ial was eng gt n° on is tft ‘octet ord moving wih syed V an be detrie om hein it ak tomoreatsgetV pats tcp ef-and pe). Te lente sanyo ‘nahote termined ymessunng the taker a Guam a nd ‘ocodar spe rat and gue Tsing cout the te aston tween {vot nth he eho the moving eran eh Loe Seva om is tar eth 18, [s} Stow dar wo ete spared et there some fam in which 1 2 AF = 0 Stow th foro ace sted ss here an nal frame who 2 = 40 1. (C] Ifa phtogny seen ofan objet moving ory with sped seni "he ped at pri othe lane ofthe i it pea la ahr han tracted the phxoyngh apn why (Awe the jet ube al ageSpecial Relativistic Mechanics ‘The laws of Newtonian mechanics hae to be change oe consistent wth the prncil of special relativity intadod inthe previo chsptr This chapter Eeribes spect elatviie mechanic es furdimensona, spacctime point ‘ot siew, Newtonian mechanics i an apotiation o this mechates of peal felity hts appropiate won moun sat speeds much ess tha the velocity ‘flight ina pariclarineria fame, We gin withthe conta de of four vector 5.1 Four-Vectors _Afoursetor is fined uceted tne cpm for-ieasional at space ‘oe io the sue way as ate dimensional vet (tbe elles ee vector 8 {Ges chupcr can he defined ay a dred line segment in tre-dmensional Eo ‘ican space, Boldface letters will note fourseston—eg, ato dsingush ‘Sem trom teesestors, eg, The earl trmiaclosyfour-setr an tv. ‘Setor wll be kee fr ths chupter, ut oucceding captrs wally ele ly 0 ‘eto und rey on the content stings he 0. aT “Le ANGURE $4. The win of farses is ipiction by mabe To lt frevtour vets ast tant hen ull o homes unl hy ake ange Ticehe The sma tthe deed ne seamen me oh ao he pak SEC Ramee cine souseran the sane dete iB 8 Ere tines" orl fen re em te aman eco ee en CHAPTER 578 FIGURES Bass fear set nthe Loe * FIGURE SA farsi beg te cori sce. Chapter 5 Special Relais Mechanics FIGURE S2 Tne, sce, all forester. Te dhe bind f far eto oi along ines, spre and all con in ucts, pene fF tre 49. Note a ular have Sv eg he now Bch ene Four scos can he multpiod by numbers, ded nd subacted asording 1o the usa res fr wees (ee Figue§ 1) The length of our vector te absolute vlc af he spasetine dance hetwen is al nd sip. Fores ‘whos al and tp havea spacelike separation ae called apoelit: those whos tail and ip haves timelike separation ar called mei and tose wow a tnd tip have nul separation ae alle mul. Nal founector have re enh, Examples ofthe ferent pes illstratod in igure 82 Neither te definition of four-vctor ist en, oth rls fr ion mali plication by numbers, ad sealing Teg eer ny parle ane They are imarian—the sei al etal ames. Whe he aw of mecha sc formule in ers of four vector, they wil essary tke he sume fr imevery inal fame. an the predcons wl be corset wih the prince flats Teri le the wy snd importance of fur sectos Basis Four-Vectors and Components Ina pacar ini fame, bass our estore an be inosed of wit eth iting slong the fy and = coordinate ats, 8 sb a Figure 8:3. We cl these bss Fourveciar ee a oF, ear ye. €), whee sand for, [or xe Taken togetber these Tour ar called bas for Tourveciors swan any foar weir canbe repressed gs insur combination of them a usta in Figure 34 anole tae, Hoe, H0°e. on ‘The numbers a, aa". 4)—ov, equivalently aaa, a) ae cae theSx Rouevectos -somponent ofthe four-sestor® Component ae alays writen withthe compo tent ae! as asupescp> "here re some other usefl ways of wen (1), sich 3 Wa tole ten te'e, 6 ‘or ian. gusto (53) can be writen even more compocly if we inodbce the swmaron omenton tat epeated upper and wer indies afe undertow be sumed vcr nay expression, Grek indices fe smd from 0 0 Roms ides fom 103. Ts, ee 64 seth same as (5.3). Simialy for eerecors, dada, 63) snherthe d= 12,3 are same se, 9). Any repeated inex indicates ammation, 50 (4) could also be wer anafey aaa, = so Aepeited indies are therefore called clammy indices or summation indices. We {Sr moe to say about the rules of the summation convention a Secion 7.3. Spelling the empovents a four-vector andthe basis furvectors is eu sere sptyng the four vector stl Its seul havea umber of difeeat ‘Sasol ising the components amy, Maa aa), dalle, aaa). 87) ‘Example Si. Displacement FourVectors, A simple crample ofa four ‘esos the displacement fossvelor Ax Hetween two evens A and B Sich as Soe stown in gure Wry Yarea) ate oon oatng eet A in arcu inertia Arar and ip 9.3.79) athe coordinates lean event B the the compo fers ofthe displacement fouevesor Ax betwoon the a ()—t4.R — rests wine meal gn! my knw a pw eh SB coc my be mtg ese eno indigo ie os iSieie EC ath ne hh o e = de de,+ ale, + ae, 7 Component of a Fourvecoe Summation Convention HIGURESS The betscen two pais Aang60 Lorene Boos ofa Vector Matic of at Spacetine Chapter 5 spec Relaviti Mechanics Yo yactn sq) Thiscan be writen in a moe compact form 3s soak se “This exes sa sbrand ro equations ane fr ech vale of = O11 2 The indexed afr deseo co ny ve on wo 3ueich vale yeling dileet eon ‘The components of four vectorae diferent difeen ner frames be aus the coon ass fourvetos ae diferent. The component for ‘ecto dicted ine segmeat—annform between teria ames ot Hie Pe omponents fa diplacement fourvectr, For example, or 90 el fas fy a nfm mtn amg ean (620, compen 90 (59 600 ae ou {afyou are wondering where the factors fein (421) wen. remenber atthe end ‘of he previous chapter we sal tht we woul! we = is frm m0 on Scalar Product "The salar pdt sn import dean the calcul of four-sestrs 8 itis or thre-nectrs The scalar product of two four sectors and bs denoted bya: Tsai the sual mama rales forsale 6.100 (5.1061 0 where b,c are any tre four sectors and ay number ‘Calculating scalar oducts of four vectors is simple If the scalar products of altpairof ass fourvctrs are kon becausefa™= ey an b= Bey then (san (Tere double sum inthis expression, one sum ove the ther over 8.) 4 speval notation s sed forthe scalar predate the as four sets tht ‘Point alos the orthogonal cordate ates (3) of an nel frame: ag = ep 6.2,sesh: ban be weit raga 6 ube sum oer a and implied The salar prods of al vectra once fey awe brown, “The op te determin! by the reuiement thatthe scala product of the ds saseent furvector wth el pve he square of the distance Rete the 40 ponte connecs las? saxo, ny “Te eth our vector define hy the cl prct thay conde withthe Aen dein the distance fr lo tip- Coming this with (4.6 fe (4s)? anti that nag = yr 38 Snsequence oF (5.12) a (5103), We fd o1a3 of-1 000 ifo1o0o a a as) | sooo Here nag has ben spayed as a agonal, symmeuic mars. I view of 14, tbe at ny canbe sed withthe summation erentin 1 xyes elie ‘Sent of it spestine (8 in an especialy compact or, a a nage 6.15) Ls Its role ne scaled the meric ar spacetime Trsring (15) 5.15) gives thefllowins uly equivalent explicit forms for ste wale proc oft fouectos aan in ems ft components nan ‘eer rane: baal 4 Da a (sma ad =-a"0 4 alo! gait bald 19) aba Hab (178 Asa consequence of definition hat makes no reference tpt ame ste lr product th same in al eral frames oa cere nea ame (Shor he component of ate faa a a) and the components of ae ‘ecto Salar ret Line erent of lar SpactineChapters Special Reabisic Mechanics 00 0°), thesame number ais given by abana 40H 4a bY bath! 18) ‘This follows fo the definition but can be verified explicit (8.9), Example 52. Lorentz Boosts Preserve the Orthogonalty of Coordinate ‘Axes. The (+7) ates in Figure 13 (tow with © = 1) dt appear tobe fhoponal inthe geometry of the printed page, bul they are ontogonal a the ‘seomery of spicetime. To See this expliiy ia the (x) fate conser 8 Unit displacement fouvecor aka the ani and a ent diplacment four ‘tor Balog the axis. The ("2") component ofthese fowreeors te a" = (1.0.0.0) and BY = (0.1.0.0). Tse four-estor are terete ‘riogonl because fom 5.17), ab = 0 when eval inthe ("sy tame. This means Bat they are oogonal in any ther ier fram, bt Insts do the clean explicitly inthe 2) ame. From (9) he (Gots y.2) components ae 77.0.0), B= 0y. 7.0.0) 19) rom (5.17 agin, yoy) + (yy +04 a am 5.2 Special Relativistic Kinematics Having induced the idea of four sete. let's now ten 1 thet ws for de Seribing the moton o pale in spacetime terms. This the subject of pei elastic Kinematics, ‘A patil flows nike wold ine though spacetime. This curve can fe specie by giving he the pal cordias «a faction ofr ina pacar inerial ame. Buta moe fourinensinal way of describing a world lie 0 _Eveal for coordinates ofthe parle a. inglevaue fancton fa pra {erg which vats log he worl ine. (See Figure 56.) For eah ale of the for futons "(a deteinea pont along the eu. Many partes posible, but natural one isthe proper ime tat gives the pact distance = Along the world Iie measured both psitely and negatively fom some aba. Stating oi Ths worl ne is esrb bythe euatins =H. 820 [As we discussed in Seton 43, clocks ate devices that meus dance along timelike world lines. The distance + could be meusred by a clack cad alone the world ine and is called the proper tne long52. Speck RelatbiseKierates FIGURES simp ase wl ine, Thi susie digas the wor {ee spd paranecaly com property (520) The por aso tom =I lin tep of | Fossey veces wae sh ft ese es hl See vow ules of Sand “15 me the gph The pee estar ‘Shot cave the pum of pace dhe reco al leet. ‘Gatyou apa ny he pots appear nse sear and the Yt Peat > (prdongc ih iesing inte peat lh pape pas? Example S.A Simple Accelerated World Line A paicle moves on he ‘anion wel ine describe paametclly by fa) =o sinha, x10) =o" ease (522) ‘store ais a constant with he dimension of inverse leagth. The parameter © {Ropes om a0 to +30, Forsch wae nf equations 322) deteine spit {ion spacetime. (The y nd = dimensions ae unipoian o hs example ss ll be suppressed ia what follows AS ares, the word ini sept ut igre 56 sb the ord pe am spacetime agra. Is the hyperbola a2 = a The woe line cul, therfore, alematvely be spectied by pene (0) = (2 +a)! hurts parame speciation (3.22) ere eve Exes between 1 and. The wl line i accelerated bea ts mt Sigh rope me r long the worl ine lated oo y e412). (4.8) edt? ds? = eoshade® ~@ sohoda)* = (edo. (523) Feng: tobe rro when a iszor,r = “1, andthe wording canbe expressed ‘ein proper ime the parameter a he fr 21) a6 He) =a"' salar), x0) =a" eben) 520) 8a Chapter Spc Relic Mechanics “The owrveloct isthe fur vetorw whose components i tthe evatives ‘ofthe pation slong th world ine with pect to the oper time arate — | watt 2) Foun Velocy (foe 2 ‘he fourelcsy whos tinge othe worl fin at ich point esate i Placement igen by Ax? =u" ar. See Figs $7) “The fur components af the Forel canbe expe in tens of te thceselocty W = id in a prt neil rane by ing he elton (415) between and prope Gime a alo a. «281 a Ae snd, forevap de _dede__vE ea a ana oe Jn summary recite Bevan p= (72)? fan 6.20, Fol nes wr won FIGURES? ‘Tefen we) at any pin long a price’ word ine the nt. Ait tng fur ctr otha i wine pe cone tt pot Tak5.3. Special Relic Dynamics An immediate consequence of this sul tht the scalar probet of with self leh) we 6» sothat the furvelociyialays ant imelbe Furst Indeed this follows ‘recty if (513) fs used to write the Scalar product in he form datas! waa re (530) shere the lst equity follows from the ine element nthe form (3.16) and dhe ‘omnes ds? = de Example 54 Four-Velocty ofa Simple World Line. The four velocity wor the wor line cscased in Example 53 has the components (3.25) of maifde =cosbar) isjde =sinhies). (331) “This is cocly normalized www su? 633) A fev examples re shown in igure 56. “The particle's thee velit 39) “Tis never exceeds the speed flight (V"] hut approshesit at r= 58 5.3. Special Relativistic Dynamics Equation of Motion ‘Newton's ist law of motion hol in special elatvitic mechanics a well 5 fonvldisc mechanics, Inthe sheen of forces, aay sat estar moves in {Brht ne atconstant yee, This sumarized by da 2 30) seace in view of (5.28), his equaton implies constant in any neta rane “Te ojestve of reltitie mechanics xo nt the analog of Newton's second law F = Thre noi fom which hs aw canbe derived, but Pesly it mst sty eerain propria (1) Hts sasy the pencple of Nomatizaion othe FeurvelociyNewlo's Second Law fest Mass ‘Chopers Special elie Mechanics relative ake the same form in every inertia frame; 2) it mst dace to (534) shen he fre is zr and (3) trust reduce to F = in any total ‘ame when the sped o he parle s much Tes thn the speed of Hight. The hoe (535) nary suggest self, The constant, which characterizes the pisk’sineti Properic, scaled the ex avs and fs called te fowrorce Regiment (1) 'Ssatisied because his a four vector guatin, (2 evident, apd (3) aii sith proper choice of This the corect nw of motion for pec ela "mechanics andthe spec relist genealzation of Newtons second a Bs needing the foursaccleration four-vectr a Pa 636) ‘he equation of motion 535) ean be writen inte evocative form fom. (sa pen Although (5.35) represents fou equations, they ate a al independent, Ths nomaiation of the foe vel 5 29) means 40-0) fie (538 which fom (3.38) implies wa =O, or rune, 630) This elation shows ht tae te oly thre independent equations of meta — the same number asin Newtonian pechancs. The connections scan ‘el soon, and Newton's thi i wl be disused a wel Example 55. Required Four-Force, The four-acseeation a forte world lie decried in Exple 83 and 5 has components lide = asinar), a =dujdr =acosiiar). (3.0, ‘The magnitude of this scceaton (a)? — a, so the constant. ap umed The foreforce regu to acclerat the partic along this word Une = a, where m is the pail’ est mas,5 Special Reltitie Omamics ergy- Momentum ‘The equation of motion 535) leads tral to dhe elativistic Kes of energy ecu the four momenta ined by pam. any then he equation of potion (5.35) canbe writen 42) Aimer property ofthe four momentum follows fom is defniton (5.41) dike nomaliration of te for set (8.25) pips ame 64) 1 si of 28) the compoasts ofthe four moremtum are raed ote tre: loci Vian inertial fame by a isan fesnal eh V1 same dne nb 1545) “Thos. sal elas reduces tothe ws momentum, and p edaces 9 she kicticenery pls the rest man ores reson ps socalled the ene ‘eet frst, at it component an ier rae are witon = HEB) = tmp (46) {sthe enegy and isthe shrve-momontum. Equation (5.13) canbe {elves forte nergy in erm of th tzeomomeatum 0 gve Bae eR | Gan) ‘sich shows ow rest nergy i «puto the energy of avi pace Tics fora pail at ro (947) rodues to E = men mee usal uns. This tees be het fous eqution in ati if et one of he mot famous xe allorpysis, ‘porta splition of social latvia kinematic occurs in pate seasons where theta foweanmentr x conserved in partie colons, oe ‘Repundig tothe law of energy conservation nd th conservation ttl ae ‘Somentu. Am example prt for rps sven n Box 5.1 on p98Newton's Tid Lae Foefrce in Terms of Tree force Chapter 5 Special Reais Mechanics na arcu neti frame the conection between the relists egustion of motion (3) an Newtons ls cin be made more explicit by defining the tive fare Fas =. as) ‘This asthe same form as Neston’ aw but with he relat expression for the tree momentum (S44) Solving problems inthe mechanics of special rel tivity i therefor, essential the same as solving Newton's eustion of motion “The only erence arses fam the dllerent relation of momenta o veloc (5:44) Newton's hid aw applies wo the Tore F jst a i does ia Newtonian mechanics because. hough (5.48) pis ha thera hee mente of System of parle Is cmserved in allie frames Exide ade (apydiyar te) = yF- Using 39) and (328), he Foe fre can be wrens tems ofthe thre foreas oF th 49 where she paice’s eee. The sme component ofthe equation of ‘ton 5.2) Me pg 89, 60 hich sa familiar ration fom Newtonian machanlcs This time compe: {fhe equation of motion (5121 sa ensequence ofthe other te, Ta terms ofthe tre-frce, the equations of mation ake these fer a hey do In sual Newtonian mechanics bt wit he rela expression fo energy ano ‘momentum. When the velocity is small (3.25) shows tht the special lav tic version of Newton's second law (548) reduces to the fara nonrelativistic fom. Newtonian mechanics isthe lw-elcity approxiusion special lai: techni, Example 56." Relativistic Charged Particle in a Magnet Field. pr ‘ele wih charge g and es mass m moves in anor maces Bel B wth ‘otal eng Wha the rai of te cieslar eb? What are th component ofthe eecromagneis four foe acting on the parce?” ‘As we hive already mentioned. electromagnetism Is unchanged in special sui ota the thee foc on a charged parce na mene eld is Fé 0 xB ost where Ws te veloiy ofthe charge. The parce moves in a cca it of ‘as Rat constant spe, obeying the familiar equation of mon 348). Tete fore,5.4 vitor Principle or Fre Patil Motion mai Waa = “The cept acetone hy the ss, prly Kineral la thn 02/R Theeore,| ave. 633) Th, wea os ‘nich eles the ast theft ent: The comments of the our are Fm yF-V =O(the magnetic eld does bo wosk) and ail component sayt aqtty VER 5 5.4 Variational Principle for Free Particle Motion Sestonian mechanics can he sommarzed hy pice of extremal action os fevewed in Sesion 3, The mouon a ee pate in special elit canbe ‘hrnmarized bya sir varitonl price the pint of extemal proper ‘oe. That rnp lady evident from the twin pros dco in See tn 43, The straight ines lon which ree pies move in spacetime a oth [ot longest groper tne betwee two evens Tn this section we will demonstrate hath constues variational penile at mpi the fie parle equa ton of motion (534). Tha apo bscause in Chapter § we wil ear this Esumett round. We wil posi the principle of extemal prope ime for ee pail incurs spoceine suse lt derive the fee parle equation a “The variational pincipl of extemal ropertime can te sted as follows ‘Variational Principle for Free Particle Motion The wos lin of fee patil between two timelike separated pols ‘curemires the proper ime betwee he, Consider two timelike seperated point A and in spactine and al neibe ork ines going hetsen them (Figure 3.8) Each cue wll havea vale ofthe0 ite sev pa FIGURE SS Asie ‘rremum of he atnce ewer the prt wn ‘xpd wi ety covet {ahd conasting he two proper ine sane [te = feta? 02", 50 Suppose the wor line is desea parametrically wth parame css thatthe the valve = at point anda = 1 pot Boal curves we wan to consider. This would not be the cae forthe parame) The wn ie thon spied by svg the events 3 fonction fn, 1” = <0 Equation (556) cm the he wrt “ef (sey? (aeyt_(aryt_ (acy) vw ftel() “CY -G) CEJ] 9 ‘We sth the wo fine (or mold ies) that exenize tap hat the curse {or which small aiaion 3° (9) prodes a vaishing vation Inthe eloped oper time, This a fair typeof problem fom Newtonian mechanics th ‘as revived in Seton 3.3, Think ft interand in (5.57) the Lagrangian 1 asthe dyamical aries, at a he me. Then 357 bas the ae for {sation for Newtonian mechanics 3.38). Lagrange equations atte nessa Condon Foran extremum th hee a hee. Speci, 4(_u_) a de (aaeran)* oe - (5.58 wit te eey "Io oo sm To see what happens, e's write out he Lagrange equation (3.88) for! = x a frac aeliae However, = [naps dds! i js ede da. 0 mlipying 6 dajide. (560) becomes, (500. ou (62‘Ths the coret equation of motion fora free parle (S34). solution isthe sanieh world line comectng a. The wor neo repaint ‘pastime a curve of extemal proper ne 5.5. Light Rays eo Rest Mas Particles “Te sscwson so ars concerned pres wth nonveroest mas which move ‘a poe es than the spend of light Lets now consider parle that mune at {Se yes fight = Lalo al word nes, Examples ete ano gh {8 graty— pons and rations and posbly some kins of pein." We {bev almost exclasvely on photons whlch te aso calle ight ay in el non ‘Geom aspects, bt cur tetment would cover any oer price hat moves Tete spe Esidealy the peoper tine can no longer be wsedas pam aloe the wold Boe of lien yt proper time ine hetwsen any two pms on i 2, (Hower, there are may cer parameters that could he wed. For example, the ' 1563) 1. could te writen prametically as aw (60) sets the parameter and = (1.0.0). The fou-vctr wis tangent fur (peor = dain the parameters was wen (5.28), However hee (Sram vector. Therefare. in cantast 029), 565) [Detrenchoies of prametizaton wil pve differen tangent four sectrs, bat satrsse rex ents, ‘Wah hs cote of puramstzaton, a = ha ihe equation of motion ofa ight ray i the same as fra pu: ‘Tere ace many other cokes of pram fr which this noe tue For exinpe, we could have replaced ty 0 nS), As ares Between 20 and the same sua lin. = 1 would have been desebod. Equation (3.65) ‘Sovldcomioe obec, bt (5 66) wouldnt Peters or wich the ogo ‘+ roton fr phy (8.66) he same fom as flops ae called fine [Poronsters Tete is nt a unigue aie parameter Fo example san aie Pesce, then a snean times hs also an fine paramere parameters =o. 666) rset vee let ome tnt cram mes io rameters on2 Fursomentan ta Photon ChapterS special Relavisic Mechanics tne the most convenient ones to use fo light ys esse ofthe mpl form of (565, Energy, Momentum, Frequency, and Wave Vector ‘Photons end newtins cary energy an thee-momentm, In ay neti ame ‘he energy ofa phon is conaeted ois feguneyw by anther of Einstein < amour felstions, B= ho. (son For the treesmomestun, note fom (3.44) that dhe tee velocity i ven by ‘B/E. Since | = I this implies that [| = & fra pt, he ts ‘momenta ca be waite ss where points in the dietion of propagation, has magnitude} = oad call the wave tive rector Ina ier fame the components of the fous ‘moment fa photon p can therefore be writen r= (Ei) =(nti) =, | son ‘The our vector icalled the ove fourecor vide. [rocnace | o Comparing this with (33), me see tht photons hive zero rest mas, lke Dates mosing atthe speed flight Both p and kate tangent the wot tne ‘ofa photon. The tageat vector w cold be chosen cock with either or k by adjusting the noulizaton ofthe ain parameter». The equation of tsa (5.66) can be wrt in ers of por kas & a % Bao Bao, (smh where is afin parameter, Doppler Shit and Relativistic Beaming ‘The relativistic Doppler shit is simple appliestion ofthese iss. Consider Source tht ens photons of fequeney wall dretions nthe source's te feame. Soppse im another frame the source ls moving with speed V elon the “ans What rue il be observed fora photon tat makes an ange With55 ihe Rays tbe direction of ution? This question s answered y sing 8 Lorent best 19 Soonect he canes fhe wave fourvecor im he es rast thse the ‘Shs’ rune where the sure is moving. Let k= (a8) be components of {he wave four vector ko the photo nthe ame of he source and "= (o/€) ‘he components nthe ame ofthe observer. Fro (59), (SVE 6m Buc = o/ cosa’, whore’ isthe ane teteen the ans and the direction fhe photo inthe serve’ fame, Tus, veo" | (373) LL ‘hich isthe ormula forte tise Doppler shi orl Vhs is appro aly of ai(l 4 Vena’) 378) ‘When a’ = 0, the photon is emit inthe same directo ha he sources moving a ther ea Be sift of a? = + Vos inthe frequency ofthe photon. When f= 7 the photon is moving oppose to the source an here ne shit of Se = Ver Even photons end ansverse othe direction of mation ofthe source ta’ = + 2yarereshie, tough he lean ode oft effect is V2 This sald tbc transverse Doppler shit and formula (573) sw jas ne dain, “The phenoren o elavsieReuing (Figure 3.9) flows fom th as foenaton ofthe spi! momento ofthe photon. Suppose phan makes an lars withthe Fans the sours frame where csr = K'/o, Inthe ob Server's rame, he angle it makes with she ais s defined hy cosa” = fo “The Lornt transformation (59) between te wo fames connecting (yk) eA) shows tha tows angles are relied by cosa +¥ oma! = SEY (595) 1 Voosar 7 “Taste halfofthe photons emia ia he fora hemisphere source rane a= /2) are sen bythe observer o Be emited a stir cone |= ther cose» = V- For V close 0 | this opening angle wil be sal Pans re thus bed along the direction ofthe source by wodon. The Doppler Shi implies tht the ey ofthe photons inthe forward direction is ereter ‘hun tat inthe Backward rection, means that he ines of the adatom i fet more concentrated along the dreton of maton (Pree 7) A unify faating body moving toward yu iter than Fis moving away. Ta is the penonenon of lave Beaming, Doppler shit Revit Beaming %Chapter Sspecal Reatistic Mechanics FIGURE 59° felaviic beaming, The Hewes by wish aes ‘aly na di nem fame Wane sec f 2 pts eed oral tate ruree ae or, The fae rg sho he Line ocd yn ae ‘eis ving tthe gt ni ssp = 7Stogeer he we vce te Sane 24 photons The photos renee ected lon he etn oot ‘rach the pnd of pan hr ve vss ve ger ipo init es ‘hon oes fe Doppler ct. The mena he aati trl oes 8OX5.1. Cosmic Background Cutoff an pec empenteef 273K Wes OMB ine Conic way Crees She ay tng ett gts ee ig iw he temo enn ai Russias tucareenes a Heth ere Gmc! bh SSpytome'au Comm hated wm tr Satie as opt aeee ee ‘Stlncey pte gunner peung MSTA ae fae Sapient nomena ar, 12 7, Ae aaron eof cb Sipe Gewran aad‘ Bic ‘Rennetane seem tne ave Tei tacnees een ancere erae ene tes We mont matey one Res ones oe Rue ilasacn acter he y4pentat a yep past Wiinlocanyaie ce ata Sem me eta lege eee Dei epi cece meaoe er eee Mcheemeanyamensanete ekicenirtumemmtsc te entsr ade Saeecn aa cen Sinecuseuenae baeoreet te ascant aw na ce toat Reatatemetesferentetces: iscmnadanneiu meena sess56 Obsrvers and Obvenations Sits cle te GK cao afer nis of a os Green Zen KU i) whos led ae Chevette ling the G2X cat eegy i an ite cer a spec lati For define center Une st of th process ured erie The ft a PtP =Pe te @ The ete tun mast in be ee Mra face, th tr enon ft a Spa at Sad open ete Sree ents “Tani te CM fame te wey i 1c ep ie nono Fe i pen te Cu eho foc: bres pom EE = eV? ‘That threo potion energy isthe GZK cof. “hennanSetient ord by ei spe ads apogee ame ‘Manes ont pe arta e ‘Mle ptm sve) Te conan Stet madntcumear app | Cap spe see vp 2 oes 8 | eterna | De ppm mim tmn® OO) | Te rtbe dacs sot depend he fame tr an | fast ants of he somponent of te foe nets the CMB frase: Suppne te pen with crore’ ESM op mp enc lng the cs tie witha pte of cmrgy ES tein in he Spposte decom. The CM te (computes 8.6 Observers and Observations copy (ea, gun egecagay ere thmesmameas hve bee exposed in of ‘rer ing 547) and te aprsinanoe ES > tp he Sas p a(t ecompue ners Wise smponcns and th rting eats or ECHO Toe vel simpibs wg the aporoxiston Ie = mp nore an abut for pane! pens ‘hiss he G2K ca egy. Thee poo ae fleg at speed Vey 510-2 hess thn thee Ite of leh conejnting + Laer arms foe ra “he muh fe pith Scars for 2 102 eV prot ete a eason wh 2 CMB eons Dow Titan) whee i on eto fo te st. ration pest 2 102 ema Ny fe mmr density of MB potng-abet 0 ‘These namie ghe Acug % 10% cm ~ 10 ion phy Ti ey ew tines he if he a frp of elie ihe al uber fea ie Pu orton ser degrade tt pts a Then care come fm lo arty Comic ‘enh ens er ut ave een ete a ST evan ere eu ign sap dere amber ft nul be expe fot he GZK cu ‘Onc enpaton rh igh nee tis Ba ey ‘repel ne tote “he preston of spa relativistie mechanics ae typically most easly cle [ted and mos easily understood n neta frames. Oberon of observes a tevin an ner frame are refered to the ane ofthat fe. For example, the ‘cry of ple measured By an observer at ret a etal Tae i the ‘omponsnt ofthe panicles fouemomentum along the tie ats of tha fame. Bur oot every observer sat estima neil fxme observers on he suc of 95Chapter 5 special Relavisic Mechanes FIGURE S10 An ber moving trough sine maybe hog of as iebbie clara sown te tht vig ue pie wel ‘town ah The eign spe destin he bry dene ths ‘pace etry ey oy. Ta cerverslee tine bray dee ne diton econ wh a obser velo, Orton ma ‘the Eats, fr instance, ae not. How ae the predictions for he oberon st ecole observer calcul? “Tis question especially potato generality: Thee ae general ‘no inertia ames inthe cursed spaces of geet lity tha extend net all spacetime. As we Wille tee re oval inet eames inthe neighbors ‘of each poi andthe neisortacd ofthe wold ne of fcly filing overs ‘to global ones. Therefore itis eral o have as)tematc way of exacting the preitions for observes who ae not asosned wth cba ina fe ‘This seein descrtes how to do hatin the comes of speci relat “The path ofan observer though spacetime is «timelike worl ie. An ob secver maybe thought of as crying abort long the wor ie, Atleast or stops problems, hs sborator, even i isthe Hable Space Telessps ‘ill be ey sll compared tthe dunce over which ysl phenomena he place. We thetloeealize tax being arity small Iie the abortoy th fbserver makes measurements by means of clocks al sles. (Se Figue 3) For example, an observer might measure the velocity of parle passing tou the Laboratory by noting that he parce’ path mae scram nee with oe o the loratoy’s wallets gives the dcetion and ssuring he ine ihe 10 go me distance sro the laboratory: wich gives he ses, ‘Mathematically tis ea of «local Iabortry may be Mealized as shown In Figure 310. An observer caries along four omhoroal unforseen fp e,€5, which define stm dtston and tc stil directions. esp the) 1 which the observer wil ete all measurerent Indices with bat One then sre used to emphaie that we ae dealing with an orthonoroa basse)5.6 Olvera and Observations foursecor with uit lengths ll fourvetrs mutually onbogona. The time ‘sun foursecto il be tangent othe observers weed ine since thai tbe diction a slck atest he aboratry is moving im spoceime Since the rer foar-slocity ty i ni angent vector [et (5.291. =m (536) “Te observer re pick the tee spatl has vectors a long. 3 they ae rtiogoal to sb to each ther. On if the Isbrsiory is test a neta fan wil they point slong the aes of ier rae ‘Example S27. An Orthonormal Bass for » Simple Accelerating Observer Consider the observer moving along the accelerated eed line deserted Examples $3 and 5. What are the component of et of othonoaal basis foar-sectr fe this abner io the ical fame? These fares wil ry ‘buh the chscrer’s prope time, The fourveaor eg() i the observer's four Seloiy wan) wch as component ff (.31) (eife) =a) = (oshior, sina) 0,01 om “The only contin onthe oter the four estos) ate that they be e- tov toe) hogonl to each ther, of wt length, Thee ate many [pss coresponding tothe obser’ resto o orem the spatial exes of ‘Se ohonoml me Te easiest way ost the conions i 0 ick e7) fee) t be nit four sectors in the yan z-recons,respecively. The re ‘aning four este (thease arm F(). (0.0 fo sre functions {fo # Orbogonality with (©) means e462) e421 = —cosblar) 0) + sinlaryete) =. (S78) Wo engin meas ete) e =F +O) (529) “Tee mo condtons determine f and g, The fourvectors «(tak together senn(5 77) makeup orthonormal basis fou-sectors forthe observer ae (ey(2)P = Gina), coxdea), 0.0), (5300) (een? = 0.0.10), 6.0) (207 = 0.0.0.0, (5.806) ‘As duced before, observers refer observations to the axes ofthe labor tenes nthe clocks within them, This means tht they measre the components ‘efor ecto along te bass four vectors associated wih thee laboratory. (Mervin |} means “set of) For instance. the energy of price messed {Bp amaceclersting observer the comment of Ie patil’ Tow momentum p song the bois our vector, Te tee momentum measured ip rection YsFIGURE SII Anonener ‘noting pst staonry Dtle mesues he sles meray athe Eemnponet af be foormerenm slog he Energy Measured toyan Obvener Chaper 5. Speci Relathisic Mechanics ‘he component of palong;, te. These component ae defined hy the decomp sition fe (4 P= ries oan ‘Tey can be computed as scalar peoduts with he othonomal basis foursestr ‘ofthe observer an by temporal suspending the rls or alncing indices” Popg pape. Pepe rape (8 “ae hs elon jt amp sigan swig aking it som he inv eon prc en fhe paicle # measured by an obser with Four seloty ty i the st these or B= Phe oss “Te following examples itstrate how this works Example £8. nergy of Stationary Particle Measured by an Observer ‘Moving with Speed ¥- Consider pales atresia cortin neal ne igure S11), An obser is moving with velocity V ia dh ame 50 that he lbserve’ wold nets the particle’ From he obser: pin vs the pale moves though te obser’ lhortry. What en a th particle ‘woul be measured by the observer? Weakest Krom the answer. The patie will move throug the laboratory with sped Vand so dhe messed energy i be bamy, osu here m isthe prick’ est ss, ‘Lasse hw his comes abouy salar produ withthe observer's oon ml basis athe inet rane where the patil i text the pal ose ‘um foursetorhas components P {nthe sume fame the four velocity of the observer if (5:28) on. 0.0.0) 3s j= Woe = 7.9.00) (585) “The ergy mesure by the obser acon 0 (582) 6 B=: 6) =—p tn =m, 6s) Wich isthe same as (S81, The energy measured by the observer jst be omponent ofthe pic's enesy-momentum Tour-vectr along he abrir time dcsion Saree on ce itn weno di mg esFor this simple example the computation (587) is exesively complicate. ‘The point however tht expression (3.87) is writen in an imariant form and “an computed ina reference frame To se the vantage o this consider the folowing example Example 89, Frequency Measured by an Accelerating Observer A ob tener following the word ine of Examples 5.3 and 8 observes the Fight fom {tar tht remain stationary ot he orp of the intel fae, emiting gh Sealy, Assume foe simplicity tha the ight is emit at single optical fe seen ithe est fume of the star What frequency we) wil he aberier ‘pewsute asa function of proper ime ang his ot her work ine? Toe ie rae in whch he tars stony, the wae four veto kof a photon reaching the observer hs omponeats "= (on 0.0) The observed freuecy ae) could be worked ot by tno thes campers nto te afaneous res fame of The obsere at proper lie. Tha is nO 9 Ve) Stil Problem 18) bt tis easier ono tha = ov for phn a se wa (0) = ta 538) ‘sere ts he ourselociy 5.1) Expl his gives Ad a pcos) —sinhies)) = ax exper). (3.9) At carly proper times the observer is moving rapidly toward he source athe ‘eis ed: tte properties the observer moving api aay Tom tbe source andthe bight i redsbed Stobserver onthe bridge of tuship following the word ine (5.31 thats Iooking ata ld of at le tem Fr ony ait pera of propre of ‘ener La. Can you expan why? Problems 1. (8) Conse for acon aa ose opments a Bes by 0.5. (a) Ieee. pee oro biel st, ol? 2 Trescalrpder tween ode etn ane wien 9100 ‘CopeerS Special elie Mecanis here and b ae the nts of a respecte, dy i tne Btwn "he Show ha se noon omar mei oc 2b ache, ere = (aa! 9 (and yg te parame dtl in 8 tha dso the Lact bot vee te rae wire acer wn woe Ine oso ate andra wa tue hin wor ine pom IS1 A fc prt & moring lng the ai fa int rane wih ape {i/as = V pang hgh the ogi a = Exp te price’ md [nearly ints of Vein te prope time ts he ameter 4 We oat te components fhe oealation Wir a = dd ts the dco ad he He acre 3 tt han eres alge (5.2), Ung th cxpressn an S20, vey expy haa w= Mea copy of gue ani ea othe sclein ou sso atl ae Dec thew tarshgonl a? {6 Comider apni moingslong te ais whose loci a fic fie a eae (2) Das he acess ever ted the se igh (0) Cals te comps fe pail or ec. (©) Eanes x andra atincton of prope ie ng the ret (a) What ate he campers of he ose a he re ng one ale IC) A pares moving slong te sain i ur ale nee atthe celeron sie in stannous st re ay conte Fran a amon he popes me asumig the pre pes sh 1gatiner = Othe sel Dr the wordnet he parleemapaine tere IS] A.° meso et ms 135 MeV) x moving wi sped magna of he Uireelaciny V/V Pins drtion "10th ane (a) Bin te compen eeu slay a he pile (by inst compen of te comes momen oecoe [5] Ine now. dcommissioned Sf Liner Collet crn el pote ‘sw cel © oe of apni 40 GeV in tet pie 2 eg "ately ow cenit in dat ting a ston eh gh {Tramoty Stns ah oe aha sane sounds ie amiga et Tang nh cece test eho wh hh ey? 10, tn the LEP pari sclersr tCERN, lets nd pions ven Op Eetiean Sel ng sprvimately TO hin usa 5 Sn Toe sieProblems (a) How close we thee arise moving te Yl fee? (0) lecons nd psion can be ted fr 2b, How my ta wil leon {poston mabe sou eng nhs xyes th vo adn of pill elas em of he preter @ aed | fee Lent bon in Can Sou ees Pees nro You rw ‘he 2milong Stole asekeraclenselerons a ey of |W Ge ae mare the ne of easel Wear the sess ‘nets ascot cee ed Ea the acceler and se hat op sehr ithe spi prt of he ela momentum p (a) Asuming that heron ear rome ad poston soa the web ‘Sratuntion fine evr frets ans F =e (What ae of | woe nesery tale prt ws ale 18, S} One econ or photons poss Fin he misma ney he el! ee pton woud net ane | ‘raat spn sa et ame which he pon ast sect) ities omempary scene Int Compare cory ofthe ight emay con a wih bene of rock rowenta youl IC) Aouad tector ae pce actin anlar on thee Fong {hk The sure emis tan aa ec) nn istantantas est ae ‘Safran ie toe els Hin Le loan hen nt rrolem esse enol Aeron Comer which happens ob Sty overt the 2 at ‘dig na detent ante plane oe Ears eb To sree Trove scope de wlesope se i wh espero te enh Fest as sign te detent Fah ring ss Ex hy {neato he ne To py th saton youay ss hate ar ‘Sic aproinsly lara ses hat ems erred tote olla 1 ea Being tat ns am ew fe (Gopal tte sof he bod ese pons at al pe am od age {AN 40), os eo) ha snp dston Ina be ame (ava cchimubach an onener ate tbe fo moving wis ped alms evans (a) Derive 79 relating no's dietin of opezaton athe et amet ‘eco of propane ae 101102 Chapt 5 Spec Relais Mechanics (Fin ee a which photons are esd per nt ange v4 le stance aay in he errs ame av fon angle tn he (oP unio per nt sl ange ess ae dae (4) Diss the Reming of mmr and cosy tere me be ve. iy ofthe mar ppc the easy ih 1 Work oat he fey & ft of proper time sen bythe aber Example 39 y rusting te compensa fhe were vest fhe phate 19. [8] Anoiverer mons with cons pes Val the sof an etl rae Fad he somponen tit ame of tana hse ar esa fg) 0 ek theobmenercan ser aber 28, Conse ice with fowenomentum p and an aber wih four eles) Stow th itp zen teh mere abr, he magaae o he tcc momento sere 0 +9 o? [R.A} Asume tan al inti res the eon ged pai igen be ‘heel Lovet a sehr 9 te carge om he prise, T= d/l eve, and Bd Fret een and ng else meted he Leman Cosa $item pera tame moving ih sed ange «ath pest oe fine (a) Finke component of he or re intr fF and cnt ft pr’ for eb (b) Ue te strato af compan fan 9B ets non rus ae te ee ad nga ela Be a ‘rte flew sec es ine panera ae (Anche bel ne eet i) Amon lint acon. (iy Anelene eld teytecton (yy Armond inte econ. 22 [C) The elie Racked sok scl by cesing pt fs et Sexhant The spe he eit const val he one rae ‘see cosraton of eniy amt nso in th i Sa one fet ma fr oe Bt acc fom tt oa sped es ae ‘ong sane prem fa Nott mest 28 1c) Taaom (a) Agu hata king of pie ha avs esate ta he lot ck ‘welt be consent wih Lay mains i he ome ta sseter tan gt ia oe ane it wl be an gt in al ames. (| patel ris cll aos) (Sh hc angen wester the coy a yn spe scan ert a = ded heres tbe scleral alte tay Shon tat (6) Brahe the component fons Furey wi tems ofthe te (4 Define oes yp =m id te lain etncen en) ad (Show tat he ean nll ame ere th nea of ny chon ee (© Show taf tactensinert with cal prices, na pri coset {rho wih leo an thee-omeni emg conse Gonmen Te et in (sugested otaing weno wel beam Stand he cies freon nae 103PART Il The Curved Spacetimes of General Relativity Te idea that gravity isthe geometry of curved spacetime is introduced. The tols for describing curved spacetimes and the ‘motion of test particles and light ays that probe these curved Reometries are developed. The geometries ofthe exterior of spherical sas, spherical black hoes, gravitational waves, and cosmology are explored, The basic tess of general relativity are sescribed,Gravity as Geometry ‘Wish the sucess of special lati became apparent that tbe Newtonian he of rai, which had hoe so succesfully applied to the mechanics of the ‘Siarsster for almost 300 years, could no Hager be exacly erect. The New ‘enn grit eraction is instantnecs Te patna ce Fy on 3 tras at time fd toa second mas my given magnitude by [ef.(3. 11 Gain Fo -a0F sere f(t) snd 7) ae the postions ofthe mses athe same santo tie Burin speci lati the notion of sitet silent in dete ne free. The Newtonian In (6.1) could be ue ely ane are and it woul then single out hat rae frm ll eters. The Newtonian aw of pai is ths tmconsien with he principe of ela ‘We wl sce ot some parts ofthe path tht le Einstein 0 me theory ‘of srvity thar i conse withthe prciple of weltiy. The rest wil be feral evi theory thats ualiaively diferent from Newtonian gravity {igsneral relativity pravationl phenomena ase not om ces and els at from she curvature of Tournensonl spacetime. The string pst or tese mierton is the equality of pa tatonal and inertial as. 6.1. Testing the Equality of Gravitational and Inertial Mass As dass rei in Chapter 2 the equity of eraiational and nei mass ‘teen ested To extraordinary accuracy. Because ofthe cena nprtance of ‘equality for general rei its worhieto deserbe something mor of (Gest, evn only in aschematic way ‘Experiments tesing the elit of gravitational and inertial mass seek to compre the assertions of ais of different competion fling ee ia 3 [tional fils The aeelertons ofthe Earth at the Moon fling he ‘ovina fet of the Sun were compar nthe nar ser ranging expe {Bent described n Box 2.1 en p. The accelerations agree to an accuracy of Tiel" —the move accurate curet text to date Experiments done on the sera of the Earth with son pendulum atin 2 sntlar accuracy. Such ex rnent af called Eso experiments after R Yon Eivos (1848-1919), ho Si tthe ist moder version. We dese ther basic features hee CHAPTER 107108 Chapter Gea as Geometry Imagine wo masses of diferent material the ends fa otha is suspended roma er va laboratory on the sirae ofthe Earth, sketched in Figur That isa schematic pure ofa tion pendlum. Besse the labrtoy i ‘ating wih the Ea the hanging ber no exactly aligned with he eal fone ‘fait Rater he her ngs small sgl otha ston oct a sl) component ofthe gravitational force can balance he cept aeelraton et ing rom the Ears rotation 5 shown in the igh-hand ferbsr of Figure 61 (Problem The massesarefceto move intercon perpendicular tooth te ibs at there. Gani the oly fore setng in thi Wwistng dso" along which the mases are etfectvy tel ling. Aay dlfrencehewcen he aecseraon ‘of the to masses would caus the peu ovis. Ths, alleen nthe ‘uu ftir graitaonal nde muse ould detected “To undead ho this kind a experimen works more quately dense the Boos by hand B, their raion nse by mac nd a td FUREG.1 The ethan gre nese sn pf eight lence pnp Aral wi ss ieee sponses seme By he os igi conto tcl eit The fro sg oa ‘esate pn ox tng cna gn tte ‘voce he mis The ius vende slant Ea aon ase ‘ete The mss etn with ah an cor as sarc mescton & [Staconeens te wnpeson teks neal ange sire oe ie 8 ‘te cee afte Lath own The ef gavin ce he ‘Son ate als wea Te dt ine he eng Orson paper elas ar an eral which hema ect ey ling The amon th endl to tin ea oe ath Tt ape ely rm the efor bo ses Sl een fn thea con, heehee163, Testing the Equality of Ge tatinal nd ei Mass thera masses by ma and respectively, Asse that the gravitational neil which ves he prastaona forse meron amas ef. 3.31) scons ‘er the densions of the pe. Sources sch ace arth, Sun. and Milky ‘Way wl saiay ths easly hut slr souoos clone fo the experimen are steican problem, Deno the companon off he tsi cton By §? {the components ofthe accelerations in ths Gestion by «and, Ten, may =a’ (2 mast, = 0.8. 62) I the ato of praitahnal to inet mass isthe same forall odes the pon uu can be at est ith both dies having the sme centripetal accelerate ae he tton of the Eat Any ference othe aio of eravitatonal 0 ert snaw betwoon bots of diferent compostion would show up as a ilrence {her aceeratons and a wisn the pel. From (6.2 the deren in the [svsktons a raction of theeavcrage i Ao uper lit onthe ist of dhe pendalam gives an upper limit on anda perk on devitis rm eat of gration ad inet mas. "The proveding dicts ss Heme than a carton alization ofthe a tus modem eseriners hat hate Been cid ext by Roll, Ket. and Dicks "6, Brainy and Pao (1971) and Su tal (19941 The pendulum used in te later experiment is shown in gue 6.2 few features canbe mentioned Fan four maser thn two re und. This eo minimie the eet of ‘rade in the grvittionalpotential—

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