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Performance and Efficiency Test of A Refrigeration Plant (Lecture)
Performance and Efficiency Test of A Refrigeration Plant (Lecture)
cooled and condensed into a liquid by flowing through a coil or tubes with cool
water or cool air flowing across the coil or tubes. This is where the circulating
refrigerant rejects heat from the system and the rejected heat is carried away by
either the water or the air (whichever may be the case).
The condensed liquid refrigerant, in the thermodynamic state known as a
saturated liquid, is next routed through an expansion valve where it undergoes
an abrupt reduction in pressure. That pressure reduction results in the adiabatic
flash evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant. The auto-refrigeration effect
of the adiabatic flash evaporation lowers the temperature of the liquid and vapor
refrigerant mixture to where it is colder than the temperature of the enclosed
space to be refrigerated.
The cold mixture is then routed through the coil or tubes in the evaporator. A
fan circulates the warm air in the enclosed space across the coil or tubes
carrying the cold refrigerant liquid and vapor mixture. That warm air evaporates
the liquid part of the cold refrigerant mixture. At the same time, the circulating
air is cooled and thus lowers the temperature of the enclosed space to the
desired temperature. The evaporator is where the circulating refrigerant absorbs
and removes heat which is subsequently rejected in the condenser and
transferred elsewhere by the water or air used in the condenser.
To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator
is again a saturated vapor and is routed back into the compressor.
3. Vapor Compression Cycle
The thermodynamics of the vapor compression cycle can be analyzed on a
temperature versus entropy diagram as depicted in Figure 2.
the vapor travels through the remainder of the condenser and is condensed into
a saturated liquid. The condensation process occurs at essentially constant
pressure.
Between points 4 and 5, the saturated liquid refrigerant passes through the
expansion valve and undergoes an abrupt decrease of pressure. That process
results in the adiabatic flash evaporation and auto-refrigeration of a portion of
the liquid (typically, less than half of the liquid flashes). The adiabatic flash
evaporation process is isenthalpic (i.e., occurs at constant enthalpy).
Between points 5 and 1, the cold and partially vaporized refrigerant travels
through the coil or tubes in the evaporator where it is totally vaporized by the
warm air (from the space being refrigerated) that a fan circulates across the coil
or tubes in the evaporator. The evaporator operates at essentially constant
pressure and boils of all available liquid there after adding 4-8 deg Kelvin of
super heat to the refrigerant as a safeguard for the compressor as it cannot
pump liquid. The resulting refrigerant vapor returns to the compressor inlet at
point 1 to complete the thermodynamic cycle.
It should be noted that the above discussion is based on the ideal vaporcompression refrigeration cycle which does not take into account real world
items like frictional pressure drop in the system, slight internal irreversibility
during the compression of the refrigerant vapor, or nonideal gas behavior (if
any).
4. Performance of the standard vapor-compression cycle
The standard vapor-compression cycle is shown on the temperature-entropy
diagram in Figure 3.
Because in the adiabatic compression the heat transfer is zero, the work
equals h1 h2. The difference in enthalpy is a negative quantity, indicating that
work is done on the system. Even though the compressor may be of the
reciprocating type, where flow is intermittent rather that steady, process 1-2 still
represents the action of the compressor. At a short distance in the pipe away
4
from the compressor, the flow has smoothed out and approaches steady flow.
Knowledge of the work of compression is important because it may be one of the
largest operating costs of the system.
The heat rejection in kJ/kg is the heat transferred from the refrigerant in
process 2-3, which is h3 h2. This knowledge also comes from the steady-flow
energy equation, in which the kinetic energy, potential energy, and work terms
drop out. The value of h3 h2 is negative, indicating that heat is transferred from
the refrigerant. The value of heat rejection is used in sizing the condenser and
calculating the required flow quantities of the condenser cooling fluid.
The refrigerating effect in kJ/kg is the heat transferred in process 4-1, or h1
h4. Knowledge of the magnitude of the term is necessary because performing
this process is the ultimate purpose of the entire system.
The coefficient of performance of the standard vapor-compression cycle is the
refrigerating effect divided by the work of compression:
h h
Coefficien
t of performanc
e 1 4
h2 h1
(1)
Sometimes the volume flow rate is computed at the compressor inlet or state
point 1. The volume flow rate is a rough indication of the physical size of the
compressor. The greater the magnitude of the term, the greater the
displacement of the compressor in cubic meters per second must be.
The power per kilowatt of refrigeration is the inverse is the inverse of the
coefficient of performance, and an efficient refrigeration system has a low value
of power per kilowatt of refrigeration but a high coefficient of performance.
Example No. 1
A refrigeration system using refrigerant 22 is to have a refrigerating capacity of
80 kw. The cycle is a standard vapor-compression cycle in which the evaporating
temperature is -8 C and the condensing temperature is 42 C.
(a) Determine the volume flow of refrigerant measured in cubic meter per
second at the inlet to the compressor.
(b) Calculate the power required by the compressor.
(c) At the entrance to the evaporator what is the fraction of vapor in the mixture
expressed both on a mass basis and a volume basis?
Given:
Refrigerant 22.
Refrigerating Capacity = 80 kW
Evaporating temperature = -8 C
Condensing temperature = 42 C
Required:
(a) Volume flow of refrigerant measured in cubic meter per second at the inlet to
the compressor.
(b) Power required by the compressor.
(c) Fraction of vapor in the mixture expressed both on a mass basis and a
volume basis at the entrance of the evaporator.
Solution:
Use Refrigerant 22 Table from Refrigeration and Air Conditioning by Stoecker and
Jones
At 1, -8 C
h1 = hg1 = 402.341 kJ/kg
hf1 = 190.718 kJ/kg
vg1 = 61.0958 L/kg
vf1 = 0.76253 L/kg
s1 = 1.76394 kJ/kg.K
At 2, 42 C condensing temperature, constant entropy
h2 = 438.790 kJ/kg
At 3, 42 C
h3 = 252.352 kJ/kg
h4 = h3 = 252.352 kJ/kg
(a) Volume flow of refrigerant = wvg
w(h1 - h4) = 80 kw
w(402.341 - 252.352) = 80
w = 0.5334 kg/s
Volume flow of refrigerant
= (0.5334 kg/s)(61.0958 L/kg)
= 32.59 L/s
= 0.03259 m3/s - - - Ans.
(b) Power required by compressor
= w(h2 - h1)
= (0.5334)(438.790 - 402.341)
= 19.442 kw - - - Ans.
6
0.292
hg1 hf 1 402.341 190.718
(answer)
Volume Basis:
1 xm vf 1 xmvg1
Total volume =
Total volume = (1 - 0.292)(0.76253) + 0.292(61.0958) = 18.38 L/s
xv
xmvg1
Totalvolume
61.0958
0.292
0.971
18.38
(answer)
4.1Heat Exchangers
Some refrigeration systems use a liquid-to-suction heat exchanger, which
subcools the liquid from the condenser with suction vapor coming from the
evaporator. The arrangement is shown in Figure 5a and the corresponding
pressure-enthalpy diagram in Figure 5b.
is to subcool the liquid from the condenser to prevent bubbles of vapor from
impeding the flow of refrigerant through the expansion valve.
Example No. 2
A refrigerant 22 vapor compression system includes a liquid-to-suction heat
exchanger in the system. The heat exchanger warms saturated vapor coming
from the evaporator from -10 to 5 C with liquid which comes from the
condenser at 30 C. The compressions are isentropic in both cases listed
below.
(a) Calculate the coefficient of performance of the system without the heat
exchanger but with the condensing temperature at 30 C and an
evaporating temperature of -10 C.
(b) Calculate the coefficient of performance of the system with the heat
exchanger?
(c) If the compressor is capable of pumping 12.0 L/s measured at the
compressor suction, what is the refrigeration capacity of the system
without the heat exchanger?
(d) With the same compressor capacity as in (c), what is the refrigerating
capacity of the system with the heat exchanger?
Given:
Refrigerant 22
Liquid-to-suction heat exchanger
Evaporator from -10 to 5 C
Condenser at 30 C
Required:
(a) Coefficient of performance of the system without the heat exchanger but
with the condensing temperature at 30 C and an evaporating temperature
of -10 C.
(b) Coefficient of performance of the system with the heat exchanger?
(c) Refrigeration capacity of the system without the heat exchanger?
(d) Refrigerating capacity of the system with the heat exchanger?
Solution:
h6 h5 401.555 236.664
5.46
h2 h1 431.787 401.555
coefficient of performance
(answer)
h4 = h1 h6
= h3 + h6 h1
= 236.664 + 401.555 411.845 = 226.374 kJ/kg
= h4 = 226.374 kJ/kg
h6 h5 401.555 226.374
5.38
h2 h1 444.407 411.845
coefficient of performance
(answer)
At 1, v = 65.3399 L/kg
Refrigerating Capacity
12.0 L s
12.0 L s
h6 h5
401.555 236.664
65
.
3399
L
kg
65
.
3399
L
kg
= 30.3 kW
(answer)
12.0L s
12.0 L s
h1 h5
401.555 226.374
70
.
2751
L
kg
70
.
2751
L
kg
= 29.9 kW
(answer)
The essential differences between the actual and the standard cycle
appear in the pressure drops in the condenser and evaporator, in the
subcooling of the liquid leaving the condenser, and in the superheating of the
vapor leaving the evaporator. The standard cycle assumes no drop in
pressure in the condenser and evaporator. Because of friction, however, the
11
pressure of the refrigerant drops in the actual cycle. The result of these drops
in pressure is that the compression process between 1 and 2 requires more
work than in the standard cycle. Subcooling of the liquid in the condenser is a
normal occurrence and serves the desirable function of ensuring that 100
percent liquid will enter the expansion device. Superheating of the vapor
usually occurs in the evaporator and is recommended as a precaution against
droplets of liquid being carried ever into the compressor. The final difference
in the actual cycle is that the compression is no longer isentropic and there
are inefficiencies due to friction and other losses.
5. Compressor
5.1Types of Compressors
The most common compressors used in chillers are reciprocating, rotary
screw, centrifugal, and scroll compressors. Each application prefers one or
another due to size, noise, efficiency and pressure issues. Compressors are
often described as being either open, hermetic, or semi-hermetic, to describe
how the compressor and/or motor is situated in relation to the refrigerant
being compressed. Variations of motor/compressor types can lead to the
following configurations:
Hermetic motor, hermetic compressor
Hermetic motor, semi-hermetic compressor
Open motor (belt driven or close coupled), hermetic compressor
Open motor (belt driven or close coupled), semihermetic compressor
Typically in hermetic, and most semi-hermetic compressors (sometimes
known as accessible hermetic compressors), the compressor and motor
driving the compressor are integrated, and operate within the refrigerant
system. The motor is hermetic and is designed to operate, and be cooled by,
the refrigerant being compressed. The obvious disadvantage of hermetic
motor compressors is that the motor drive cannot be maintained in situ, and
the entire compressor must be removed if a motor fails. A further
disadvantage is that burnt out windings can contaminate whole refrigeration
systems requiring the system to be entirely pumped down and the refrigerant
replaced.
An open compressor has a motor drive which is outside of the refrigeration
system, and provides drive to the compressor by means of an input shaft with
suitable gland seals. Open compressor motors are typically air-cooled and can
be fairly easily exchanged or repaired without degassing of the refrigeration
system. The disadvantage of this type of compressor is a failure of the shaft
seals, leading to loss of refrigerant.
Open motor compressors are generally easier to cool (using ambient air)
and therefore tend to be simpler in design and more reliable, especially in
high pressure applications where compressed gas temperatures can be very
high. However the use of liquid injection for additional cooling can generally
overcome this issue in most hermetic motor compressors.
5.2Reciprocating compressors
12
Reciprocating
compressors
are
piston-style,
positive
displacement
compressors.
5.2.1 Performance
Two of the most important performance characteristics of a
compressor are its refrigerating capacity and its power requirement.
These two characteristics of a compressor operating at constant speed
are controlled largely by the suction and discharge pressures.
5.2.2 Volumetric efficiency
Volumetric efficiencies are the bases for predicting performance of
reciprocating compressors. Two types of volumetric efficiencies will be
considered, actual and clearance. The actual volumetric efficiency va
is defined by
volumeflowrateentering
compressor
,m3 s
va
displaceme
nt rateof compressor
,m3 s
(2)
where the displacement rate is the volume swept through by the
pistons in their suction.
Clearance volumetric efficiency depends on the reexpansion of gas
trapped in the clearance volume, as in Figure 8.
13
The maximum volume in the cylinder, which occurs when the piston
is at one end of its stroke, is V3. The minimum volume, or clearance
volume, is Vc, which occurs at other end of the piston stroke. The
discharge pressure is pd.
In the first instance, assume that the suction pressure is p1. Gas
trapped in the clearance volume must first expand to volume V1 before
the pressure in the cylinder is low enough for the suction valves to
open and draw in more gas. The volume of gas drawn into the cylinder
will be (V3 V1), and the clearance volumetric efficiency vc for this
case is (V3 V1)(100)/(V3 Vc). When the suction pressure is p2, the
intake portion of the stroke is reduced to V3 V2. In the extreme case
where the suction pressure has dropped to p3, the piston uses its entire
stroke to reexpand the gas in the clearance volume and the clearance
volumetric efficiency is 0 percent.
The clearance volumetric efficiency can be expressed in another
way, illustrated in Figure 8 using p1 as the suction pressure. The
percent clearance m, which is constant for a given compressor, is
defined as
Vc
m
100
V3 Vc
(3)
Adding Vc Vc to the numerator of the expression for hvc gives
V V V V
V V
vc 3 c c 1 100 100 c 1 100
V3 Vc
V3 Vc
(4)
and
14
vc 100
V1 Vc
Vc V1
100 100
1 100
V3 Vc
V3 Vc Vc
Therefore
vc 100 m 1 1
Vc
(5)
If an isentropic expansion is assumed between Vc and V1.
V1 vsuc
Vc vdis
(6)
where vsuc = specific volume of vapor entering compressor
vdis = specific volume of vapor after isentropic compression to pd
Values of the specific volumes are available from the pressure-enthalpy
diagram of the refrigerant or from tables of properties of superheated
vapor.
Substituting Equation (6) into Equation (5) gives
v
vc 100 m suc 1
vdis
(7)
5.2.3 Performance of the ideal compressor
Figure 9 shows the effect of evaporating temperature on clearance
volumetric efficiency.
15
The mass rate of flow controls the capacity and power requirement
more directly than the volume rate of flow. The mass rate of flow, w
kg/s, through a compressor is proportional to the displacement rate in
liters per second and the volumetric efficiency and inversely
proportional to the specific volume of gas entering the compressor. In
equation form
100
w displaceme
nt rate vc
vsuc
(8)
Example No. 3
An ammonia compressor has a 5 percent clearance volume and a
displacement rate of 80 L/s and pumps against a condensing
temperature of 40 C. For the two different evaporating temperatures of
-10 and 10 C, compute the refrigerant flow rate assuming that the
clearance volumetric efficiency applies.
Given:
Ammonia compressor
5 % clearance volume
Displacement rate = 80 L/s
Condensing temperature = 40 C
Evaporating temperatures are -10 C and 10 C.
Required:
Refrigerant flow rate
Solution:
16
Equation (8)
w displaceme
nt rate
vc 100
vsuc
vc 100 m suc 1
vdis
417.477
vc 100 5
1 86.445%
112.5
w displaceme
nt rate
w 80L s
vc 100
vsuc
86.445100
0.166kg s
417.477
at -10 C (answer)
vc 100 m suc 1
vdis
205.22
vc 100 5
1 94.199%
95
w displaceme
nt rate
w 80L s
vc 100
vsuc
94.199100
0.367kg s
205.22
17
at 10 C (answer)
19
20
21
va
h2 h1
100
actualworkof compressio
n,kJ kg
435
.391 403
.876
100 70.9
44.45
(answer)
25
26
5.4Centrifugal compressors
P wV2t2
and
(15)
Another expression for ideal power is the product of the mass rate of
flow and the isentropic work of compression,
P whi 1000
kJ kg
(16)
Equating the two expression for power, Equation (15) and (16), yields
V22t 1000
hi
(17)
Although, Equation (17) is based on some idealizations, it can provide
an order-of-magnitude estimate of the tip speed and can also show
important comparisons.
Example No. 5
A two-stage centrifugal compressor operating at 60 r/s is to compress
refrigerant 11 from an evaporating temperature of 4 C to a condensing
temperature of 35 C. If both wheels are to be of the same diameter,
what is this diameter?
Given:
Two stage
60 r/s, Refrigerant 11,
Evaporating temperature = 4 C
Condensing temperature = 35 C
Required:
Diameter
Solution:
At 4 C evaporating temperature, Table A-4. (Stoecker and Jones)
h1 = 390.93 kJ/kg
s1 = 1.68888 kJ/kg.K
28
h2 h1
V22t 1000
410 390.93
V2t2 1000
V2t 97.65m s
per stage
r2 V2t
D2
120 97.65
2
D2 0.518m
(answer)
5.5Scroll compressors
29
5.6Controls
In simple commercial refrigeration systems the compressor is normally
controlled by a simple pressure switch, with the expansion performed by a
capillary tube or simple thermostatic expansion valve. In more complex
systems, including multiple compressor installations, the use
of electronic controls is typical, with adjustable set points to control the
pressure at which compressors cut in and cut out, and temperature control by
the use of electronic expansion valves.
In addition to the operational controls, separate high pressure and low
pressure switches are normally utilized to provide secondary protection to the
compressors and other components of the system from operating outside of
safe parameters.
In more advanced electronic control systems the use of floating head
pressure, and proactive suction pressure, control routines allow the
compressor operation to be adjusted to accurately meet differing cooling
demands whilst reducing energy consumption.
6. Condensers and Evaporators
The most widely used types of condensers and evaporators are shell-and-tube
heat exchangers (Figure 18) and finned-coil heat exchangers (Figure 19).
30
31
q
qx
q
to ti
hoAo kAm hi Ai
(23)
Alternate expressions for to ti are available from Equation (21) and (22)
q
q
to ti
UoAo Ui Ai
(24)
Equating Equations (23) and (24) and canceling q provides an expression for
computing the U values
1
1
1
x
1
0.023
k
k
(26)
where h = convection coefficient, W/m2.K
D = ID of tube, m
k = thermal conductivity of fluid, W/m.K
V = mean velocity of fluid, m/s
= density of fluid, kg/m3
= viscosity of fluid, Pa.s
cp = specific heat of fluid, J/kg.K
Equation (26) is applicable to turbulent flow, which typically prevails with the
velocities and properties experienced in most commercial evaporators and
condensers.
Example No. 6
A refrigerant 22 condenser has four water passes and a total of 60 copper
tubes that are 14 mm ID and have 2 mm wall thickness. The conductivity of
copper is 390 W/m.K. The outside of the tubes is finned so that the ratio of
outside to inside area is 1.7. The cooling-water flow through the condenser
tubes is 3.8 L/s.
(a) Calculate the water-side coefficient if the water us at an average
temperature of 30 C, at which temperature k = 0.614 W/m.K, = 996
kg/m3, and = 0.000803 Pa.s.
33
(b) Using a mean condensing coefficient of 1420 W/m 2.K, calculate the overall
heat-transfer coefficient based on the condensing area.
Given:
Refrigerant 22 condenser
4 passes, total of 60 copper tubes
14 mm ID, 2 mm wall thickness
Conductivity of copper is 390 W/m.K
Ratio of outside to inside area = 1.7
Cooling water through condenser tubes = 3.8 L/s
Water at 30 C:
k = 0.614 W/m.K, = 996 kg/m3, and = 0.000803 Pa.s.
Mean condensing coefficient = 1420 W/m2.K
Required:
(a) Water side coefficient, hi.
(b) Overall heat-transfer coefficient based on the condensing area, Uo.
Solution:
(a) Water-side coefficient:
0.8
0.4
VD cp
hD
0.023
k
k
D = 14 mm = 0.014 m
k = 0.614 W/m.K
= 996 kg/m3
= 0.000803 Pa.s
cp = 4190 J/kg.K
V
3.8 103 m3 s
Q
A 60tubes
0.014m 2
4
pass
V 1.6457
ms
0.014 996
h 0.014
1.6457
0.023
0.614
0.000803
0.8
h 7,313W m2 K
(answer)
(b) Overall heat-transfer coefficient
1
1
x
1
34
0.000803
4190
0.614
0.4
1 1 xAo Ao
Uo ho kAm hi Ai
ho = 1420 W/m2.K
k = 390 W/m.K
Ao / Ai = 1.7
A
1
1
Am Ao Ai Ao o
2
2
1.7
Ao / Am = 1.25926
x = 2 mm = 0.002 m
hi = 7,313 W/m2.K
Uo 1420
390
7,313
Uo 1060
W m2 K
(answer)
As the fluid flows inside the tubes through a condenser or evaporator, a
pressure drop occurs both in the straight tubes and in the U-bends or heads
of the heat exchanger. Some drop in pressure is also attributable to entrance
and exit losses. The expression for pressure drop of fluid flowing in straight
tubes is
L V2
p f
D 2
(27)
Where p = pressure drop, Pa
f = friction factor, dimensionless
L = length of tube, m
Since the pressure drop in the straight tubes in an evaporator or
condenser may represent only 50 to 80 percent of the total pressure drop,
experimental or catalog data on the pressure drop as a function of flow rate
are desirable. If the pressure drop at one flow is known, it is possible to
predict the pressure drop at other flow rates. The expression available to
straight tubes, Equation (27), indicates that the pressure drop is proportional
to the square of the velocity and thus the square of the flow rate.
The other contributors to pressure drop resulting from changes in flow
area and direction are also almost exactly proportional to the square of the
flow rate, so if the pressure drop and flow rate p1 and w1 are known, the
pressure drop p2 at a different flow rate w2 can be predicted:
w
p2 p1 2
w1
(28)
6.3Liquid in shell: heat transfer and pressure drop.
35
The liquid is directed by baffles so that it flows across the tube bundle
many times and does not short-circuit from the inlet to the outlet. The
analytical prediction of the heat-transfer coefficient of liquid flowing normal to
a tube is complicated in itself, and the complex flow pattern over a bundle of
tubes makes the prediction even more difficult. In order to proceed with the
business of designing heat exchangers, engineers resort to correlations that
relate tubes and baffles. Such an equation by Emerson can be modified to the
form
hD
termscontrolled
bygeometry
Re0.6 Pr0.3
k
w
0.14
(29)
where = viscosity of fluid at bulk temperature, Pa.s
w = viscosity of fluid at tube-wal temperature, Pa.s
The Reynolds number in this equation is GD/, where G is the mass velocity
or mass rate of flow divided by a characteristic flow area.
One important realization emerges from a Equation (29), for a given
evaporator or condenser when water flows in the shell outside the tubes
Water sideheat transfercoefficien
t const flowrate 0.6
(30)
The convection coefficient varies as the 0.6 power of the flow rate compared
with the 0.8 power for flow inside tubes.
The pressure drop of liquid flowing through the shell across tube bundles is
also difficult to predict analytically, but when an experimental point is
available for one flow rate, predictions of the pressure drop at other flow
rates can be made quite accurately. Figure 22 shows the water pressure drop
taken from catalog data of a water-chilling evaporator. The application
exponent in the pressure-drop-flow-rate relationship here is 1.9.
36
Example No. 7
A shell-and-tube condenser has a U value of 800 W/m 2.K based on the waterside are and a water pressure drop of 50 kPa. Under this operating condition
40 percent of the heat-transfer resistance is on the water side. If the waterflow rate is doubled, what will the new U value and the new pressure drop be?
Given:
U1 = 800 W.m2.K
p1 = 50 kPa
40% of heat transfer resistance is on the water side
Water-flow rate doubled
Required:
New U value = U2
Solution:
U1 = 800 W/m2.K
h1 = Water-side coefficient
1
1
0.40
h1
U1
h1
1
1
0.40
800
2,000
For w2 / w1 = 2
h2 w2
h1 w1
0.8
h2 2000
2 0.8 3482
.2W m2 K
Remaining resistance = (0.60)( 1 / 800 ) = 0.00075
New U-Value:
1 1
1
0.00075
0.00075
U2 h2
3482
.2
U2 964W m2 K
(answer)
New Pressure Drop:
w
p2 p1 2
w1
w2
2
w1
p2 50 2 2 200kPa
(answer)
6.4Extended surface; fins.
The bar fin, shown in Figure 23 is a rudimentary fin whose performance
can be predicted analytically and will be used to illustrate some important
characteristics.
38
The fins are of length L and thickness 2y m. The conductivity of the metal
is k W/m.K, and the air-side coefficient is hf W/m2.K. To solve for the
temperature distribution through the fin, a heat balance can be written about
an element of thickness dx m. The heat balance states that the rate of heat
flow entering the element at position 1 from the end of the fin plus that
transferred to the element from the air equals the rate of heat transferred out
of the element at position 2 toward the base. For one-half a fin width and a
fin depth of Z m, the heat balance in symbols is
dt
dt
kyZ
Zdxh
f ta t kyZ
dx 1
dx 2
(31)
where ta = temperature of air
t = temperature of fin
Canceling Z and factoring gives
dt
dt
ky
dxhf ta t
dx 2 dx 1
(32)
For the differential length dx the change in the temperature gradient is
d dt
d2t
dt
dt
dx 2 dx
dx
dx 2 dx 1 dx dx
(33)
Substituting into Equation (32), we get
d2t hf ta t
ky
dx2
(34)
By solving the second-order differential equation (34) the temperature
distribution throughout the fin can be shown to be
t tb coshM L x
ta tb
coshML
(35)
39
ML
The bar fin is not a common shape but the dominant type of finned surface is
the rectangular plate mounted on cylindrical tubes. The net result is a
rectangular or square fin mounted on a circular base, one section of which is
shown in Figure 24a.
The fin effectiveness of the rectangular plate fin is often calculated by using
properties of the corresponding annular fin (Figure 24b), for which a graph of
the fin effectiveness is available, as in Figure 25. The corresponding annular
fin has the same area and thickness as the plate fin it represents.
40
Example No. 8
Compute the fin effectiveness of an aluminum rectangular plate fin of a
finned air-cooling evaporator if the fins are 0.18 mm thick and mounted on a
16-mm-OD tubes. The tube spacing is 40 mm in the direction of air flow and
45 mm vertically. The air-side coefficient is 55 W/m2.K.
Given:
0.18 mm thick, 16-mm OD tubes
Tube spacing 40 mm in the direction of air flow
45 mm vertically
Air-side coefficient = 55 W/m2.K = hf
Required:
Fin effectiveness
Solution:
hf = 55 W/m2.K
Alumimum Fins, k = 202 W/m.K
2y = 0.00018 mm
y = 0.00009 mm
hf
55
M
55m1
202 0.00009
ky
Equivalent external radius.
41
2
2
16
16
re 2
40 45
2
2
re = 23.94 mm = 0.02394 m
ri = 8 mm = 0.008 m
(re - ri)M = (0.02394 - 0.008)(55) - 0.88
re/ri = 23.94 mm / 8 mm = 3
From Fig. 25:
Fin Effectiveness = 0.68 - - - Ans.
The air-side area of a finned condenser or evaporator is composed of two
portions, the prime area and the extended area. The prime area Ap is that of
the tube between the fins, and the extended area Ae is that of the fin. Since
the prime area is at the base temperature, it has a fin effectiveness of 1.0. It
is to the extended surface that the fin effectiveness less than 1.0 applies.
Equation for the overall heat-transfer coefficient can be revised to read
1
1
1
x
1
UoAo Ui Ai hf Ap Ae kAm hi Ai
6.5Gas flowing over finned tubes; heat transfer and pressure drop
A precise prediction of the air-side heat-transfer coefficient when the air
flows over finned tubes is complicated because the values is a function of
geometric factors, e.g., the fin spacing, the spacing and diameter of the
tubes, and the number of rows of tubes deep. Usually the coefficient varies
approximately as the square root of the face velocity of the air. A rough
estimate of the air-side coefficient hf can be computed from the equation
derived from illustrative data in the ARI standard.
hf 38V0.5
(37)
where V is the face velocity in meters per second.
The drop in pressure of the air flowing through a finned coil is also
dependent upon the geometry of the coil. Figure 26 shows the pressure drop
of a commercial cooling coil when the finned surfaces are dry.
42
As expected, the pressure drop is higher for coils with a larger number of
fins per meter of tube length. The ordinate is the pressure drop per number of
rows of tubes deep, so the values would be multiplied by 6 for a six-row coil,
for example.
For the coil series whose pressure drops are shown in Figure 26 the
pressure drop for a given coil varies as the face velocity to the 1.56 power.
That exponent is fairly typical of commercial plate-fin coils.
6.6Required condensing capacity
The required rate of heat transfer in the condenser is predominantly a
function of the refrigerating capacity and the temperatures of evaporation
and condensation. The condenser must reject both the energy absorbed by
the evaporator and the heat of compression added by the compressor. A term
often used to relate the rate of heat flow at the condenser to that of the
evaporator is the heat-rejection ratio
rateof heatrejected
at condenser
,kW
Heat rejection
ratio
rateof heatabsorbed
at evaporator
,kW
(38)
43
44
k 4kt
14
(39)
hcv
h dx 0.943 g h
cv
3 14
fgk
tL
W m2 K
(40)
The equation for the mean condensing coefficient for vapor condensing on
the outside of horizontal tubes is
g 2hfgk3
hct 0.725
tND
14
W m2 K
(41)
where N = number of tubes in vertical row
D = OD of tube, m
Example No. 9
Calculate the mean condensing heat-transfer coefficient when refrigerant 12
condenses on the outside of the horizontal tubes in a shell-and-tube
condenser. The outside diameter of the tubes is 19 mm, and in the vertical
45
rows of tubes there are respectively, two, three, four, three, and two tubes.
The refrigerant is condensing at a temperature of 52 C and the temperature
of the tubes is 44 C.
Given:
Refrigerant 12.
OD = 19 mm
Vertical rows of tubes = 2, 3, 4, 3, and 2 tubes
Condensing temperature = 52 C
Temperature of tubes = 44 C
Required:
Mean condensing heat-transfer coefficient hcond
Solution:
Condensing Coefficient:
g 2hfgk3
hcond 0.725
tND
14
14
hcond 1065
W m2 K
(answer)
6.8Fouling factor
After a water-cooled condenser has been in service for some time its U
value usually degrades somewhat because of the increased resistance to
heat transfer on the water side due to fouling by the impurities in the water
from the cooling tower. The new condenser must therefore have a higher U
value in anticipation of the reduction that will occur in service. The higher
capacity with new equipment is provided by specifying a fouling factor 1/hff
m2.K/W. This term expands for the U value into
A
A
1 1 xAo
o o
Uo ho kAm hff Ai hi Ai
(42)
46
6.9Desuperheating
Even when the refrigerant condenses at a constant pressure, its
temperature is constant only in the condensing portion. Because the vapor
coming from the compressor is usually superheated, the distribution of
temperature will be as shown in Figure 29.
Evaporators
In most refrigerating evaporators the refrigerant boils in the tubes and
cools the fluid that passes over the outside of the tubes. Evaporators that boil
refrigerant in the tubes are often called direct-expansion evaporators, and
Figure 30 shows an air-cooling evaporator and Figure 31 a liquid cooler.
47
6.11
48
K
To write the equation in another form divide both sides by t
q
hr Ct2to3
At
49
6.12
50
7. Expansion Devices
The last of the basic elements in the vapor-compression cycle, after the
compressor, condenser, and evaporator, is the expansion device. The purpose of
the expansion device is twofold: it must reduce the pressure of the liquid
refrigerant, and it must regulate the flow of refrigerant to the evaporator.
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7.1Capillary tubes
The capillary tube serves almost all small refrigerant systems and its
application extends up to refrigerating capacities of the order of 10 kW. A
capillary tube is 1 to 6 m long with an inside diameter generally from 0.5 to
0.2 mm. The name is a misnomer, since the bore is too large to permit
capillary action. Liquid refrigerant enters the capillary tube, and as it flow
through the tube, the pressure drops because of friction and acceleration of
the refrigerant. Some of the liquid flashes into vapor as the refrigerant flows
through the tube.
Numerous combinations of bore and length are available to obtain the
desired restriction. Once the capillary tube has been selected and installed,
however, the tube cannot adjust to variations in discharge pressure, suction
pressure, or load. The compressor and expansion device must arrive at
suction and discharge conditions which allow the compressor to pump from
the evaporator the same flow rate of refrigerant that the expansion device
feeds to the evaporator. A condition of unbalanced flow between these two
components must necessarily be temporary.
7.2Selection of a capillary tube
The designer of a new refrigeration unit employing a capillary tube must
select the bore and length of the tube so that the compressor and tube fix a
balance point at the desired evaporating temperature. Final adjustment of the
length is most often cut and try. A longer tube than desired is first installed
in the system with the probable result that the balance point will occur at too
low an evaporating temperature. The tube is shortened until the desired
balance point is reached.
7.3Graphical method of capillary tube selection
Graphs to facilitate the selection of capillary tubes are based on data by
Hopkins and revised with data by Whitesel. The first graph (Figure 35)
presents the refrigerant flow rate as a function of the entering pressure to the
capillary tube for a tube that is 1.63 mm in diameter and 2.03 m long.
52
53
55
56