Excessive bending, cracking and

deflection

Shear failure

Buckling and squashing in concrete

column

Limit states
Ultimate
(ULS)

structural collapse of all or part of the structure (very low probability of

occurrence) and loss of life can occur.
Loss of equilibrium of a part or all of a structure as a rigid body (tipping,
sliding of structure).
Rupture of critical components causing partial or complete collapse
(flexural, shear failure).

 Formation of a plastic mechanism - yielding of

reinforced forms plastic hinges at enough sections to
make structure unstable.
Instability caused by deformations of structure
causing buckling of members.
Fatigue - members can fracture under repeated
stress cycles of service loads (may cause collapse).
Structural integrity is provided by tying the structure
together with correct detailing of reinforcement provides
alternative load paths in case of localized failure

Example of ULS
Ultimate limit state

Conditions

Rupture of section

Rupture of critical sections of structural

members, due to moment, shear, torsion

Stability

Loss of stability of the whole or a part of the

structures as a rigid body by overturning or
other motions

Displacement

Loss of load carrying capacity of the structure

due to large displacement

Deformation

Loss of load carrying capacity of the structure

due to excessive deformation by plastic
deformation, creep, cracking and different
settlement

Mechanism

Transformation of the structure into a

mechanism

Structural design consideration based

on ULS

Limit States Design Concept

When the load is small,
reinforced concrete exhibits the elastic response,
but with the increase in the load, it exhibits the inelastic
response.

By observing this behavior, it has been found that at the

certain state, there is a significant change of behavior,
such as cracking, fatigue failure, yielding and crushing.
These structural states called as limit states " are
needed to be determined in order to understand the
behavior of reinforced concrete structures

ULS requirements
Redundancy
ability of a system to continue to carry loads after
the overloading of members.
Robustness
ability of a structural system to survive the loss of a
member and continue to carry some load.

Progressive Collapse
spread of an initial local failure from element to
element resulting, eventually, in the collapse of an
entire structure or a disproportionately large part
of it.

Serviceability Limit State

Serviceability Limit state(SLS)
is the design state such that the structure
remains functional for its intended use
subject to routine loading.
This affects such situations as doors /
windows failing to open due to structural
deformation.
It relates to factors others than the building
strength that renders the buildings
unusable.

SLS

durability

Excessive
vibration

Fire
resistance

Overall
stability

deflection

cracking

 In design, both limit states are checked (or

verified) as part of the design process for all
relevant design situations.

ULS

Characteristic
values

SLS

Mean values

the value of the

product or the
maximum expected
forces or moments on
a section and the
associated partial
margins

the characteristic value of

the strength of the
sections divided by the
relevant material partial
safety margins.

Allowable stress design

Characteristic
Load Effects
(design strength)

Characteristic Strength
Factor of Safety

Stresses caused by the characteristic loads must be less than

an allowable stress, which is a fraction of the yield
strength.
Allowable stress may be defined in terms of a factor of
safety" which represents a margin for overload and other
unknown factors which could be tolerated by the structure.

Allowable stress design

Allowable stress = (Yield stress)
(Factor of safety)
Limitations
Material non-linearity
Non-linear behaviour in the postbuckled state and the
property of steel to tolerate high stresses by yielding
locally and redistributing the loads not accounted for.
No allowance for redistribution of loads in statically
indeterminate members

How can my Structure Work?

Very generally
Need to know size
of actions to calculate
this side

E<R

E= Effect of actions
R=Resistance of structure

Need theory of structures

to calculate this side

E determined from size of pt

load and self-weight

R given by bending
resistance of beam

Ultimate limit state design

There are a number of criteria for limit state design and various categories
generally need to be considered.
As a basic example of the principle involved when considering a limit state
of rupture or excessive deformation of a section or connection (STR ) it
shall be verified that :

Ed = The design value of the effect of actions such as internal force ,

moment or vectorial representation of several internal forces or moments.
Rd = The design value of the corresponding

resistance.

PARTIAL FACTOR OF SAFETY

Other possible variations such as constructional
tolerances are allowed for by partial factors of safety
**applied to the strength of the materials and
to the loadings.
It should theoretically be possible to derive values
for these from a mathematical assessment of the
probability of reaching each limit state.
Lack of adequate data, however, makes this
unrealistic and in practice the values adopted are
based on experience and simplified calculations.

Safety in Design
For a portion of a structure critical to safety, structural failure must
be avoided.
In order for failure to be avoided,

Possible failure modes must be identified.

Failure criteria must be established for each
failure mode.
failure criteria are then used in designing the
part
A factor of safety also is applied to reduce the
chance of failure in a structure, thereby
minimizing the risk of injury to those in contact
with the structure.

 Structure to be designed for the Limit States at

which they would become unfit for their
intended purpose by choosing, appropriate
partial safety factors, based on probabilistic
methods.
Two partial safety factors,

one applied to loading (f) and

to the material strength (m) shall be employed.

Partial safety factor for material

(Load * Load Factor)

(Resistance
)
(Resistance Factor)

m takes account;
Possible deviation of the material in the structure
from that assumed in design
Possible reduction in the strength of the material
from its characteristic value
Manufacturing tolerances.
Mode of failure (ductile or brittle)

Partial factors of safety for loads

Design load =
Characteristic of load x partial factor of safety (f )

allows for;

Possible deviation of the actual behaviour of the

structure from the analysis model
Deviation of loads from specified values and
Reduced probability that the various loads acting
together will simultaneously reach the
characteristic value.

Actions things that

produce stresses

Loads
Settlements
Accelerations
(earthquake)
Fire

All loads are actions

Loads forces

Self-weight
You and me
Wind
Snow
etc

Basis of design

Loading

Characteristic
values

Design values

CHARACTERISTIC AND DESIGN LOADS

The characteristic loads used in design and defined in BS
8110: Part 1, clause 2.4.1, are as follows:
1. The characteristic dead load Gk is the self-weight of
the structure and the weight of finishes, ceilings, services
and partitions;
2. The characteristic imposed load Qk is caused by
people, furniture, and equipment etc. on floors and snow
on roofs.
3. The characteristic wind load Wk depends on the
location, shape and dimensions of the buildings.

Characteristic load
Characteristic load
The maximum working load that the structure has to
withstand and for which it is to be designed is called
the characteristic load, Fk !
The strength that one can safely assume for the materials
(steel and concrete) are called their- characteristic
strengths
BS 648: Schedule of weights for building material
BS 6399: Design loadings for buildings,
Part 1: Code of practice for dead and imposed loads
Part 2: Code of practice for wind loads
Part 3: Code of practice for imposed roof loads

Load combination
(Table 2.1, BS 8110)

Arrangement of loads
1. To cause most severe effects
Adverse applied to load that tend to produce
more critical design condition
Beneficial applied to loads that tend to produce
less critical condition

Design load
In order to account for variation in loads due to:

Errors in the analysis and design of structure

Constructional inaccuracies
Possible unusual load increases
inaccurate assessment of the effects of loads
unforeseen stress distributions in members
the importance of the limit state being
considered

Design loads
The characteristic loads Fk are
multiplied by the appropriate partial
safety factor for loads to give the design
loads acting on the structure.
design load = characteristic load partial
safety factor
for load

= Fk .f

characteristic Actions
EC 2
Defines action as a set of forces, deformations or acceleration acting
on the structure.
EC 1
Characteristic values of both permanent and variable actions
specified in BS EN 1991
Document

Subject

BS EN 1991-1-1

Densities, self-weight and imposed loads

BS EN 1991-1-2

Actions on structures exposed to fire

BS EN 1991-1-3

Snow loads

BS EN 1991-1-4

Wind loads

BS EN 1991-1-5

Thermal actions

BS EN 1991-1-6

Actions during execution

BS EN 1991-1-7

Accidental actions due to impact and explosions

Classification of Actions
Permanent(Qp)

Actions due to self-weight of

structural and non-structural
components, fittings, ancillaries,
and fixed equipment etc.

Variable (Qv)

Actions due to construction and service

stage loads such as imposed (live) loads
(crane loads, snow loads etc.), wind
loads, and earthquake loads etc.

Accidental (Qa)

Actions due to explosions, impact of

vehicles, and fires etc.

Classification of Actions
Permanent

Self-weight*
Settlements

Variable

Imposed loads*
Wind loads*
Snow loads*

Accidental
Fire
Blast
Impact

Design value of actions

Design value = representative value x FOS

Fd = Frep f

Load combination
and FOS for ULS of
equilibrium
Load combination and FOS for ULS of strength

Ultimate design loads

a) single span beams

b) continuous beam

Load combination

a) all spans carrying design and permanent loads

b) alternate spans carrying the design permanent and
variable load, other spans carrying only the design
permanent load

 Load set 2 for continuous slab

Can be used provided the assumptions are
satisfied
In a one-way spanning slab the area of each bay
exceeds 30m2
Ratio of characteristic variable load to
characteristic permanent load does not exceed
1.25
Characteristic imposed load does not exceed 5
kNm-2, excluding partitions

Partial safety factor

Limit state

Values of m

concrete

Steel

Ultimate

1.5

1.15

Deflection

1.0

1.0

cracking

1.3

1.0

Deflection related to whole member

ULS is higher probability of failure have to be
decreased, and localised.

Determination of Factor of Safety

There are several points to consider when
choosing a safety factor.
The factor of safety must be greater than 1.0 to
prevent failure.
If the factor of safety is too big, performance is
sacrificed.
If the factor of safety is too small, safety becomes
an issue.

Compressive strength
Compressive strength is expressed as a strength
class.
Uses the characteristic compressive cylinder
strength as basis of design calculations.
Compressive strength is tested using
cubes(100mm or 150mm).

Material: properties and design

strengths
The characteristic strengths or grades of
materials are as follows:
Concrete: fcu is the 28 day cube strength in
Newtons per square millimetre.
Reinforcement: fy is the yield or proof
stress in Newtons per square millimetre.

Hot rolled mild steel fy=250 N/mm2

High yield steel, hot rolled or cold worked
fy=460 N/mm2

Actual Stress-strain curves

Actual stress-strain For concrete cylinder under uniaxial

compression
fcu; characteristic cube strength

Modified Stress-strain curves

Design stress-strain for concrete in compression

Design compressive stress = 0.67 fcu/mc
= 0.45 fcu

 Why 0.67 fcu/m??

The characteristic strength has been derived from tests on cubes
The maximum compressive stress at failure has a value of 0.8 fcu
additional safety factor against compressive failure has been reduced to

0.67 fcu agrees to design methods using ultimate load

The resistance of sections to applied

stresses

The factor m takes account of

1. uncertainties in the strength of materials in the structure
2. uncertainties in the accuracy of the method used to predict the
behaviour of members
3. variations in member sizes and building dimensions

Stress-strain curves

Plastic region- small

increase in stress
produce large increases
in strain

Actual stress-strain for reinforcement

fy; characteristic strength of reinforcement

Modified Stress-strain curves (BS8110, Fig 2.2)

Design stress-strain for reinforcement

Design compressive stress = fy/ms

Stress-strain diagram for concrete

(fig 3.3, EC 2)
Characteristic
strength
Fcd=fck/c

0.0035

Idealised (characteristic and design) stress-strain

relationship for concrete in compression

Stress-strain diagram for steel

reinforcement (Fig 3.8, EC 2)

Fyd=fyk/s

Summary
Obtain characteristic values for actions
Apply appropriate partial safety factors
Possibly apply reductions as worst case for each
action will not occur together
Use actions to estimate stresses, forces,
moments etc. that must be resisted
Check resistance great than load effect
Repeat for each limit state

GENERAL PRINCIPLES
The concrete structures and the structural
concrete elements(plain, reinforced
(RC), prestressed) should meet the requirements
concerning:
the mechanical resistance and stability
serviceability
durability
fire resistance

Design for the limit states

Ultimate strength condition

Durability condition
Deflection condition
Cracking condition
Stability condition

Ultimate strength condition

The ultimate strength of structure or member should
allow an overload.
Thus, the structure should be designed by the
accepted ultimate load theory to carry the specified
overload.
This may be in flexure, compression, shear, torsion
or tension

Durability condition
The structure should be fit for its environment.
Can be achieved by specifying limits;

Nominal depth of cover to the reinforcement

Minimum cement content
Maximum water/cement ratio
Maximum allowable crack width

** limits on water/cement ratio and cement content will

automatically be assured by specifying the min grades
of concrete.

Deflection condition
Deflection of the structure under service load
condition should be within allowable limits.
This can be done by two methods;
Empirical method
Theoretical method

Cracking condition
The structure should not develop cracks of more
than the allowable width under service load
condition.

Stability condition
Lateral stability against accidental horizontal
loads (overall stability)
This condition is met by observing the empirical
rules given in codes for designing and detailing
the vertical and internal ties in the structure.

Design loads on a floor beam

5m

3m

3m

3m

 A composite floor consisting of a 150mm thick

reinforced concrete slab supported on steel
beams spanning 5m and spaced at 3m centres is
to be designed to carry an imposed load of 3.5
kNm-2.
Assuming that the unit mass of the steel beams
is 50 kNm-1, calculate the design loads on a
typical internal beam.

Unit weight of materials

Unit weight of RC
= 2400 x 10
= 24000 Nm-3
= 24 kN m-3
Hence, the self weight of beam, SW
Unit mass of beam = 50 kgm-1
Unit weight of beam = 50 x 10 = 500 Nm-1
= 0.5 kN m-1

Loading

Slab
Slab dead load (gk) = self weight
= 0.15 x 24 = 3.6 kNm-2
Slab imposed load (qk) = 3.5 kNm-2
Slab ultimate load = 1.4gk + 1.6qk
= 1.4 x 3.6 + 1.6 x 3.5
= 10.64 kN m-2

Beam
Beam dead load (gk) = self weight
= 0.5kN m-1
Slab ultimate load = 1.4gk
= 1.4 x 0.5
= 0.7 kN m-1

Design load
Each internal beam supports a uniformly
distributed load from a 3m width of slab plus
self-weight
therefore;

Design load on beam = slab load + self weight of

beam
= 10.64 x5 x 3 +0.7 x 5
= 163.1 kN

Design loads on floor beam

 The floor shown with an overall depth of 225mm

is to be designed to carry an imposed load of 3
kNm-2 plus floor finishes and ceiling loads of
1kNm-2. calculate the design loads acting on
beam B1-C1, B2-C2.
Assume that all column heights are 3m and that
the beam weights are 70 kN m-1.

Unit weight of materials

Unit weight of RC
= 2400 x 10
= 24000 Nm-3
= 24 kN m-3
Hence, the self weight of steel beam, SW
Unit mass of beam = 70 kgm-1
Unit weight of beam = 70 x 10 = 700 Nm-1
= 0.7 kN m-1

Loading

Slab
Slab dead load (gk) = self weight + finishes
= 0.225 x 24 + 1 = 6.4 kNm-2
Slab imposed load (qk) = 3.0 kNm-2
Slab ultimate load = 1.4gk + 1.6qk
= 1.4 x 6.4 + 1.6 x 3
= 13.76 kN m-2

Beam
Beam dead load (gk) = self weight
= 0.7kN m-1
Slab ultimate load = 1.4gk
= 1.4 x 0.7
= 0.98 kN m-1

Design loads
Beam B1-C1
Assuming that the slab is simply supported, beam B1-C1
supports a uniformly distributed load from a 1.5m width of
slab plus self-weight of beam. Hence,
design load on beam B1-C1 = slab load + self-weight of
beam
= 13.76 x 6 x1.5 + 0.98 x 6
= 123.84 +5.88 = 129.72kN

Since the beam is symmetrically loaded,

RB1 = RC1 = 129.72/2 = 64.68 kN

 Calculate for beam B2-C2 (253.56kN)

Calculate for beam B1-B3(265.5kN)