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DUCTILEIRONDATAFORDESIGNENGINEERS
TABLEOFCONTENTS

PREFACE

HomePage

I.FORWARD

SECTIONIII.ENGINEERINGDATA(part1)

II.INTRODUCTION
III.ENGINEERINGDATA
A.Introduction(p.1)
B.TensileProperties(p.1&2)
C.OtherMechanical(p.2)
D.PhysicalProperties(p.2)
E.References(p.2)

Introduction
TensileProperties
ModulusofElasticity
Poisson'sRation
ProportionalLimit
YieldStrength
TensileStrength
Elongation
RelationshipsbetweenTensileProperties
Hardness
TensilePropertiesvs.Hardness
EffectofGraphiteShape
EffectofNoduleCount
EffectofGraphiteVolume
EffectofCarbideContent
EffectofMatrix
LowTemperatureTensileProperties
HighTemperatureTensileProperties
EffectofTemperatureonDesignStresses
GrowthandOxidation
EffectofEnvironmentonTensileProperties
FatigueStrength
FatigueLimit
EffectofNoduleShapeandSize
EffectofMetalCleanliness
PART2TensilePropertiescont.

IV.AUSTEMPEREDDUCTILEIRON
V.ALLOYDUCTILEIRONS
A.Introduction
B.SiliconMolybdenumDuctileIrons
C.AusteniticDuctileIrons
D.References
VI.MACHINABILITY
VIIHEATTREATMENT
VIIIWELDING,BRAZINGAND
BONDING
A.Welding
B.Brazing
C.References
IXSURFACETREATMENTS
XDESIGNINGWITHDUCTILEIRON
XIORDERINGCASTINGS
XIISPECIFICATIONS
XIIISEARCH(Index)

Introduction

DuctileIronisnotasinglematerial,butafamilyofversatilecastironsexhibitingawiderangeofpropertieswhichareobtainedthroughmicrostruc
importantanddistinguishingmicrostructuralfeatureofallDuctileIronsisthepresenceofgraphitenoduleswhichactas"crackarresters"andgiv
toughnesssuperiortoallothercastirons,andequaltomanycastandforgedsteels.AsshowninFigure2.8,SectionII,thematrixinwhichtheg
playsasignificantroleindeterminingmechanicalproperties.

Matrixcontrol,obtainedinconventionalDuctileIroneither"ascast"throughacombinationofcompositionandprocesscontrol,orthroughheattr
optionofselectingthegradeofDuctileIronwhichprovidesthemostsuitablecombinationofproperties.Figure3.1illustratesthewiderangeofst
offeredbyconventionalDuctileIron.Thehighductilityferriticironsshownontheleftprovideelongationintherange1830percent,withtensiles
foundinlowcarbonsteel.PearliticDuctileIrons,shownontherightside,havetensilestrengthsexceeding120ksi(825MPa)butreducedductili
(ADI),discussedinSectionIV,offersevengreatermechanicalpropertiesandwearresistance,withASTMGradesprovidingtensilestrengthsex
SpecialAlloyDuctileIrons,describedinSectionV,canbeselectedtoprovidecreepandoxidationresistanceathightemperatures,resistanceto
resistance,specialmagneticproperties,orlowtemperaturetoughness.

Thenumerous,successfulusesofDuctileIronincriticalcomponentsinallsectorsofindustryhighlightitsversatilityandsuggestmanyadditiona
DuctileIronwithconfidence,thedesignengineermusthaveaccesstoengineeringdatadescribingthefollowingmechanicalproperties:elasticbe
hardness,fracturetoughnessandfatigueproperties.Physicalpropertiesthermalexpansion,thermalconductivity,heatcapacity,density,andm
propertiesarealsoofinterestinmanyapplications.ThisSectiondescribesthemechanicalandphysicalpropertiesofconventionalDuctileIrons
microstructure,andindicateshowcompositionandotherproductionparametersaffectpropertiesthroughtheirinfluenceonmicrostructure.
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TensileProperties

ThetensilepropertiesofconventionalDuctileIron,especiallytheyieldandtensilestrengthsandelongation,havetraditionallybeenthemostwide
determinantsofmechanicalbehaviour.MostoftheworldwidespecificationsforDuctileironsummarizedinSectionXIIdescribepropertiesofth
Ironprimarilybytheirrespectiveyieldandtensilestrengthsandelongation.Hardnessvalues,usuallyofferedasadditionalinformation,andimpa
certainferriticgrades,compoletemostspecifications.Althoughnotspecified,themodulusofelasticityandproportionallimitarealso
ageneralizedengineeringstressstraincurvedescribingthetensilepropertiesofductileengineeringmaterials.
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ModulusofElasticity

Figure3.2showsthat,atlowtensilestresses,thereisalinearorproportionalrelationshipbetweenstressandstrain.Thisrelationshipisknowna
thestraightlineiscalledtheModulusofElasticityorYoung'sModulus.AsshowninFigure3.3,theinitialstressstrainbehaviourofDuctileIronl
andGrayIron.Annealedornormalizedmildsteelsexhibitelasticbehaviouruntiltheyieldpoint,whereplasticdeformationoccurssuddenlyandw
flowstress.InGrayIron,thegraphiteflakesactasstressraisers,initiatingmicroplasticdeformationatflaketipsatverylowappliedstresses.Th
theslopeofthestressstraincurvetodecreasecontinuallyandasaresultGrayIrondoesnotexhibittrueelasticbehaviour.

DuctileIronexhibitsaproportionalorelasticstressstrainrelationshipsimilartothatofsteelbutwhichislimitedbythegradualonsetofplasticde
ElasticityforDuctileIron,measuredintension,variesfrom23.5to24.5x106psi(162170GPa).Incantilever,threepointbeamortorsiontesti
havebeenreported.TheDynamicElasticModulus(DEM),thehighfrequencylimitoftheModulusofElasticitymeasuredbytheresonant
23.5to27x106psi(162186GPa).
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Poisson'sRatio
Poisson'sRatio,theratiooflateralelasticstraintolongitudinalelasticstrainproducedduringatensiletest,showslittlevariationinDuctileIron.A
0.275.
ProportionalLimit

Theproportionallimit(alsocalledthelimitofproportionality)isthemaximumstressatwhichamaterialexhibitselasticbehaviour.Whenamateri
proportionality,andthestressisthenremoved,thestressstraincurvereturnstotheoriginnopermanentchangeindimensionoccurs.
proportionallimit,plasticstrainreducestheslopeofthestressstraincurve.Uponremovalofthestress,thestraindecreaseslinearly,followinga
elasticcurve.Atzerostress,thestraindoesnotreturntozero,exhibitingapermanentplasticstrain,orchangeindimensionofthespecimen(se

InDuctileIrons,whichexhibitagradualtransitionfromelastictoplasticbehaviour,theproportionallimitisdefinedasthestressrequiredtoprodu
behaviourof0.005%.Itismeasuredbytheoffsetmethodusedtomeasuretheyieldstrengthandmayalsobeestimatedfromtheyieldstrength.
to0.2%yieldstrengthistypically0.71forferriticgrades,decreasingto0.56forpearliticandtemperedmartensiticgrades.
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YieldStrength

Theyieldstrength,orproofstressisthestressatwhichamaterialbeginstoexhibitsignificantplasticdeformation.Thesharptransitionfromelas
exhibitedbyannealedandnormalizedsteels(Figure3.3)givesasimpleandunambiguousdefinitionofyieldstrength.ForDuctileIrontheoffsetm
yieldstrengthismeasuredataspecifieddeviationfromthelinearrelationshipbetweenstressandstrain.Thisdeviation,usually0.2%,isinclude
strengthorproofstressininternationalspecifications(seeSectionXII)andisoftenincorporatedintheyieldstrengthterminology,e.g."0.2%yie
DuctileIrontypicallyrangefrom40,000psi(275MPa)forferriticgradestoover90,000psi(620MPa)formartensiticgrades.
TensileStrength

Thetensilestrength,orultimatetensilestrength(UTS),isthemaximumloadintensionwhichamaterialwillwithstandpriortofracture.Itiscalcu
loadappliedduringthetensiletestbytheoriginalcrosssectionalareaofthesample.TensilestrengthsforconventionalDuctileIronsgenerallyra
forferriticgradestoover200,000psi(1380MPa)formartensiticgrades.
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Elongation

Elongationisdefinedasthepermanentincreaseinlength,expressedasapercentageofaspecifiedgagelengthmarkedinatensiletestbar,wh
testedtofailure.ElongationisusedwidelyastheprimaryindicationoftensileductilityandisincludedinmanyDuctileIronspecifications.
elongationinFigure3.2,elongationalsoincludesthelocalizeddeformationthatoccurspriortofracture.However,becausethelocalizeddeformat
partofthegagelength,itscontributiontothetotalelongationofacorrectlyproportionedbarisverysmall.BrittlematerialssuchasGrayIroncan
significantelongation,butferriticDuctileIronscanexhibitelongationofover25%.AustemperedDuctileIronsexhibitthebestcombinationofstre
SectionIV).
RelationshipsBetweenTensileProperties

ThestronginfluenceofgraphitemorphologyandmatrixstructureonthedifferenttensilepropertiesofDuctileIronproducessignificantcorrelation
Figure3.4illustratesthenonlinearleastsquarerelationshipsbetweentensileandyieldstrengthsandthedynamicelasticmodulus.

In1970SieferandOrths,inastatisticalstudyofthemechanicalpropertiesofalargenumberofDuctileIronsamples,identifiedarelationshipbe
elongationoftheform:
(tensilestrengthksi)2x(elongation%)1000=Q
whereQisaconstant.

AlargervalueofQindicatesacombinationofhigherstrengthandelongationand,therefore,highermaterialperformance.Crews(1974)definedQ
DuctileIron.BoththeQIandtheunderlyingrelationshipbetweenstrengthandelongationoffervaluableinsightsintothequalityofdifferentDuctile
feasibilityofobtainingvariouscombinationsofproperties.HighQIvalueshavebeenshowntoresultfromhighmodularity(highpercentageofsph
graphiteparticles),absenceofintercellulardegenerategraphite,highnodulecount,alowvolumefractionofcarbides,lowphosphoruscontent
internalporosity.Highqualitycastingswiththesecharacteristicscanbeproducedconsistentlybyacompetent,modernDuctileIronfoundry.
Backtotop

Figure3.5illustratesthetensilestrengthelongationrelationshipsfordifferentQIlevelsofDuctileIron.Eachcurveisan"isoquality"line
canbedisplacedbyanannealingornormalizingheattreatmentwhichchangesthematrixferrite:pearliteratiointhematrix.Forexample,using
Q99.5,threetestbarswithtensilestrength/elongationvaluesof70ksi/24.5%,100ksi/12%,and120ksi/8.3%areofequivalentquality,inspiteof
elongation.Quenchandtemperheattreatmentsproducesimilarcurves,butwithaslightdisplacementtohigherqualitywhencomparedtoanne
thesameiron

Thisisoqualityconceptcanassistinthearbitrationofironswhichareofsufficientqualitybutareoffgradebyvirtueoftheirpositionin
limits.Forexample,3differentirons,allwithaQIof70,couldhavestrengthelongationvaluesof64ksi/17.1%,70ksi/14.3%and78ksi/11.5%.
meetsthe654512graderequirement,theothertwoirons,onthebasisofidenticalQI,mightbejudgedequallyfitfortheintendedpurpose.

ThefollowingcomparisonofQIvaluesrevealsdeterminedbySieferandOrthswiththoseofrecentlyproducedcommercialDuctileIrons(seeFig
20yearsofprogressinDuctileIrontechnology.
SieferandOrths(1970)

Venugopalan&Alagarsamy(1990)

Q99.5 (metric)

=60,000

Qmax,(metric)

=64,500

Q99.5 (Imperial)

=120,000

Qmax,(Imperial)

=129,000

Q50 (metric)

=30,000

Q50 (metric)

=45,OOO

Q50 (Imperial)

=60,000

Q50 (Imperial)

=90,000

where:tensilestrength(metric)isexpressedinkp/MM2 ,
tensilestrength(Imperial)isexpressedinksi,
Q99.5 andQ50 indicatethequalitylevelsexceededby0.5%and
50%respectivelyofthesamplestested,and
Qmaxisthemaximumqualityexhibitedbyabatchof34samples

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AsmightbeexpectedfromtwodecadesofprogressinDuctileIronproductiontechnologyandprocesscontrol,themaximumQIincreasedby7.5
increasedby50%,indicatingasignificantimprovementinconsistencyofproperties.TheapplicationoftheQualityIndexconcepttoAustempere
superiorcombinationofstrengthandelongationsofferedbythismaterial,withASTMA89790Grades125/80/10and150/100/7havingminimum
respectively.

TheinverserelationshipbetweentensilestrengthandelongationisfollowedbyallDuctileIronspecifications(seeSectionXII),asshownin
A53680.ThevariousgradespecificationsshowninFigure3.6andtheirminimumpropertyboundariesaresuperimposedontheSieferandOrths
indicatetherelativequalitiesofironsrequiredtomeetthedifferentgrades.ExaminationofFigure3.5revealsseveralrelationshipsbetweentheA
QualityIndices.
TheGrade604018hasthehighestQI,64.8,withtheQIdecreasingtoavalueof29forGrade1209002.

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Thepropertiescorrespondingtoagradedesignatione.g.654512,definetheminimumQI50.7requiredtomeetthatgrade.Thepropert
defineQIlevelswhichincreaseuntiltheboundaryofthenextgradeisreached76.8fortheboundarywith805506and76forthe
ThemeanQualityIndexQ50forthedataofVenugopalanandAlagarsamy90issubstantiallyhigherthantheQualityIndicesrequiredto
ASTMA53680.

MachinedDuctileIronslagpothalf(subsequentlyaustemperedaciermachining).
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Hardness

ThehardnessofDuctileIronisusuallyandbestmeasuredbytheBrinelltest,inwhicha10mmdiameterhardenedsteelortungstencarbideball
theworkpiece.HardnessisexpressedasaBrinellIndentationDiameter(BID)oraBrinellHardnessNumber(BHN).Hardnessmayalsobe
theforceappliedtotheballis3oookg,thenormalvalueforferrousmaterials.ThesizeoftheBrinellindentation,anditsrelatedvolumeofplastic
tothescaleofthemicrostructureandasaresultanaveragehardnessisobtainedwhichexhibitsgoodreproducibilityforsimilarmicrostructures.

BrinellHardnessisincludedinmanyDuctileIronspecifications.BrinellHardnessshouldbeusedforproductioncontrolandasanauxiliaryprop
controlmachinability.Microhardnesstesting,usingeithertheKnooporVickersindenters,canbeusedtomeasurethehardnessoftheindividual
matrix.
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TensilePropertiesvs.Hardness

Figure3.7andFigure3.8illustratetherelationshipsbetweenBrinellHardness,tensilestrengthandelongationrespectively.Figure3.7indicates
hardnessof150BHNwillhavetensilestrengthsbetween40and50kp/MM2(5771ksi),whiletheequivalentrangeofstrengthcorrespondingtoa
be6687kp/MM2(94124ksi).Figure3.8revealsamorecomplexrelationshipbetweenBHNandelongation.Forahardnessof150BHN,90%of
elongationintherange1324%.At250BHNtheequivalentrangeis2.5to8.5%.Becauseofthemagnitudeofthesevariations,BrinellHardness
determinetensileproperties,especiallyelongation.

Microhardnessdatafortheindividualmicrostructuralcomponentscanbeusedtopredictthetensilepropertiesofascast,annealed,andnormaliz
Figure3.9,fromVenugopalanandAlagarsamy,comparesstrengthandelongationdatawiththefollowinglinearprogressioncurves:
tensilestrength(ksi)=0.10+0.36xCMMH
yieldstrength(ksi)=12+0.18xCMMH
elongation(%)=37.850.093xCMMH
CMMHiscompositematrixmicrohardness,andisdefinedas:
CMMH=((HFx%F)+(HPx%P))/100,
whereHFand%F,andHPand%Paretherespectivehardnessesandvolumefractionsofferriteandpearlite.
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EffectofGraphiteShape

AswouldbeexpectedfromthedramaticdifferencesinmechanicalpropertiesbetweenGrayandDuctileIrons,thatmodularityplaysasignificant
withintheDuctileIronfamily.Figure3.10illustratesthecorrelationbetweenmodularityandDynamicElasticModulus.Thisrelationshipnotonlye
influenceofmodularityonDEM,butalsoindicatesthatDEMvaluesobtainedbysonictestingcanbeusedtomeasuremodularity(graphite
relativelyconstant).

Nodularity,andthemorphologyofthenonsphericalparticlesproducedasmodularitydecreases,exertastronginfluenceontheyieldandtensile
Figure3.11showstherelationshipsbetweenstrengthandnodularityforferriticironsinwhichmodularityhasbeenchangedbytwomethods:
throughleadcontrol.Whennodularityisdecreasedbyreducingtheamountofresidualmagnesium(themostcommonspheroidizingagentusedi
nodulesbecomeelongated,butdonotbecomesharpor"spiky".Theresultisa10%decreaseinyieldstrengthanda15%decreaseintensilestr
reducedto30%.Smalladditionsofleadreducemodularitybyproducingintergranularnetworksof"spiky"orplatelikegraphitewhichresultindra
properties.

TheeffectofnodularityonpearliticDuctileIronscanbedeterminedinFigure3.12andFigure3.13bycomparingthetensileproperties,atconstan
nodularitiesof90,70and40%.TheseFiguresrevealtwoimportantfeatures.First,comparedtotheMgcontrolledlossofnodularityfor
pearliticironismuchmoresensitivetoreducednodularity.Second,atlowcarbidelevelstypicalofgoodqualityDuctileIron,thereisrelativelylitt
nodularitydecreasesto70%butasnodularitydeterioratesfurther,strengthdecreasesmorerapidly.

AlthoughnotshowninFigures3.11,3.12,3.13,theeffectofnodularityonelongationcanbeinferredbyconsideringtheinfluenceofnodularityon
yieldandtensilestrengths,whichisproportionaltoelongation.BothMgandPbcontrolledlossesinnodularityreducethedifferencebetweenthe
indicatingthatlossofnodularityresultsinreducedelongation.Thedramaticdecreaseintensilestrengthproducedbyleadcontrolindicatesthatt
intercellulargraphitecanseverelyembrittleDuctileIron.

Designerscanvirtuallyeliminatetheeffectofnodularityontensilepropertiesbyspecifyingthatthenodularityshouldexceed8085%andthatthe
flakegraphite.ThesecriteriacanbemeteasilybygoodproductionpracticeswhichensuregoodnodularitythroughMgcontrolandpreventflakeo
combinationofcontrollingflakeproducingelementsandeliminatingtheireffectsthroughtheuseofsmalladditionsofcerium.
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EffectofNoduleCount

NoduleCount,expressedasthenumberofgraphitenodules/MM2,alsoinfluencesthemechanicalpropertiesofDuctileIron,althoughnotasstron
shape.Generally,highnodulecountindicatesgoodmetallurgicalquality,butthereisanoptimumrangeofnodulecountforeachsectionsizeofc

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excessofthisrangemayresultinadegradationofproperties.Nodulecountpersedoesnotstronglyaffecttensileproperties,butithasthefollow
whichcansignificantlyinfluenceproperties,

NodulecountinfluencesthepearlitecontentofascastDuctileIron.Increasingthenodulecountdecreasesthepearlitecontent,decreasin
elongation.
Nodulecountaffectscarbidecontent.Increasingthenodulecountimprovestensilestrength,ductilityandmachinabilitybyreducingthevo
carbides,segregationcarbides,andcarbidesassociatedwith"inversechill".
Matrixhomogeneityisinfluencedbynodulecount.Increasingthenodulecountproducesafinerandmorehomogeneousmicrostructure.T
structurereducesthesegregationofharmfulelementswhichmightproduceintercellularcarbides,pearliteordegenerategraphite
Nodulecountaffectsgraphitesizeandshape.Increasingnodulecountresultsinadecreaseinnodulesizewhichimprovestensile,fatigue
Inoculationpracticesusedtoimprovenodulecountoftenmakethenodulesmorespherical.Thus,highnodulecountisgenerallyassociate
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EffectofGraphiteVolume

ThevolumefractionofgraphiteinDuctileIroncanalsoinfluencecertaintensileproperties.Figure3.14illustratestheeffectsofcarboncontent(a
castingdiameterontheDynamicElasticModulus(DEM)ofaDuctileIroncastingwithafullypearliticmatrix.Increasingthecarboncontent,whic
fractionofgraphite,decreasestheDEMforaconstantsectionsize.Castingsectionsizecaninfluenceboththevolumefractionandsizeofgrap
sizereducesthecoolingrateofthecasting,causingmorecarbontoprecipitateinthestablegraphitephase,insteadofthecarbidephasefavoure
lowercoolingratesofthelargerdiameterbarsalsoaffectgraphitenucleatingconditions,resultinginreducednodulecountbutincreasednodules
sizewithsectionsizeistheprimarycauseofthereducedDEM,butanincreaseintheformationofgraphiticcarbonduringsolidificationcouldals

Graphiteflotationcanproducevariationsingraphitevolumewithinlargercastingswhichcanbeharmfultomechanicalproperties.Graphiteflotati
ratesandhigh"carbonequivalent"(carbonequivalent=%carbon+1/3(%silicon))combinetoproducelargenodulesthatriseduringsolidificatio
thelargernodulesinthelowerpartofthecastingandanaccumulationattheuppersurface.Theincreasinglypronouncedcurvature,withincreasi
inFigure3.14isprobablyanindicationofgraphiteflotation.Intheselargerbars,graphiteflotationathighercarbonlevelsmayhavereducedtheg
thebarsfromwhichthe1/4inch(6mm)diametertestbarsweremachined.Theresultantreducedrateofincreaseofgraphitevolumewithincrea
inflattercurvesathighercarbonlevels.

Graphiteflotationcancauseaseriousdegradationofpropertiesneartheupper(cope)surfaceoflargeDuctileIroncastings.However,thispheno
reducingthecarbonequivalentasthecastingsectionsizeincreases.
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EffectofCarbideContent

CarbidecontenthasbothdirectandindirecteffectsonthepropertiesofDuctileIroncastings.Figure3.12andFigure3.13showthatincreasingth
brittlecarbideincreasestheyieldstrength,butreducesthetensilestrengthofDuctileIroncastings.Asdiscussedearlier,thisconvergenceofyie
producesadecreaseinelongationwithincreasingcarbidecontent.ThepresenceofcarbidesinaDuctileIronmatrixalsoincreasesthedynamic
significantlyreducesmachinability.Theformationofeutecticcarbideduringsolidificationaffectsthevolumefractionofgraphiteproducedbecaus
competeforthecarboncontainedintheliquidiron.Fifteenvolumepercentofcarbidewouldrequire1percentcarbon,reducingthecarbonavaila
approximatelyonethird.Theformationofcarbidethusincreasesthelikelihoodofinternalcastingporositybyreducingtheexpansioneffectsprod
graphiteduringsolidification.

Tominimizethedetrimentaleffectsonpropertiesandmachinability,maximumcarbidelevelsoflessthan5%arenormallyspecified.Theseleve
castbyreducingthelevelsofcarbideformingelementsthroughtheuseofhighpuritypigironinthefurnacechargeandbyincreasingthenodule
ofgoodinoculationpractices.Whenrequired,heattreatmentcanbeusedtoeliminatecarbides.
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EffectofMatrix

InDuctileIronswithconsistentmodularityandnodulecountandlowporosityandcarbidecontent,mechanicalpropertiesaredeterminedprimarily
theirhardness.ForthemostcommongradesofDuctileIron,thematrixconsistsofferriteand/orpearlite.FerriteisthepurestironphaseinDucti
hardness,buthighductilityandtoughnessandgoodmachinability.Pearliteisanintimatemixtureoflamellarcementiteinamatrixofferrite.Com
providesacombinationofhigherstrengthandhardnessandlowerductility.Themechanicalpropertiesofferritic/pearliticDuctileIronsare,therefo
ferritetopearliteinthematrix.Thisratioiscontrolledintheascastconditionbycontrollingthecompositionoftheiron,takingintoaccounttheco
alsobecontrolledbyanannealingheattreatmenttoproduceafullyferriticcasting,orbynormalizingtomaximizethepearlitecontent.Annealing
IronheattreatmentsarediscussedinSectionVII.

Figure3.15showsthecorrelationbetweentensileproperties,hardnessandpearlitecontentinascast1inch(25mm)keelblocks.Thepearlite
100percentbytheuseofdifferentcoppermanganeseandtinmanganesecombinations.Alloylevelsbeyondthoserequiredtoproduceafullype
todeterminetheireffectsonproperties.Theapparentvariationinpropertiesatthe100%pearlitelevelisthereforenotduetoscatterin
ofhigheralloycontents.Figure3.15revealstheremarkableconsistencyintherelationshipsbetweenmechanicalpropertiesandpearlitecontent
percent,regardlessofwhethertheywereproducedbyCuorSnadditions.

TheeffectsofCuandSndiverge,however,foralloylevelsapproachingandexceedingthoserequiredtoproduceafullypearliticmatrix.Addition
matrixintheCuMnalloyresultedinfurtherincreasesinbothyieldandtensilestrengths,probablyduetosolidsolutionstrengthening.Additionso
alloydidnotaffecttheyieldstrength,butresultedinadecreaseintensilestrengththathasbeenrelatedtotheformationofintercellular

Figure3.16,Figure3.17andFigure3.18providefurtherevidenceoftherelationshipsbetweentensilepropertiesandpearliteandferritecontentsi
ascast,fullyannealedandnormalizedconditionsrespectively.Thesedata,obtainedfromtesting1inch(25mm)keelblocksmadefrom
3.75%C,2.50%Siand0.23%Mn,alsoshowtheinfluenceofvaryinglevelsofCuandSnontensileproperties.Ascastproperties(Figure3.16
influenceofCuandSnlevelsonthepearlitecontentofthematrix.Yieldandtensilestrengthsincrease,andelongationdecreases,untilthematri
0.5%CufortheCuhardenedalloyandat0.06%SnfortheSnpearlitizedalloy.InagreementwithFigure3.15,additionsofCuandSnbeyondth
effectsonthetensilepropertiesofthetwoalloys,withtheSnalloybecomingweakerandlessductile.

Figure3.17showsthatthetensilepropertiesofanannealed,fullyferriticcastingarerelativelyconstant,andindependentofthequantitiesofeith
datafortheCualloyedmaterialsuggestaslightsolutionhardeningthatisnotproducedbySn.Ferritizationofthefullypearliticsamplescontainin
eliminatedtheembrittlingeffectseenintheascastcondition.(TheseSnlevelsareofacademicinterestonly,astheSncontentincommercialD
lessthan0.05%.)

BothhardnessandstrengthofthenormalizedkeelblocksincreasewithincreasingCuandSncontents(Figure3.18).IntheCualloyedmaterial,
solutionstrengthening,whiletheinitialincreaseproducedbySniscausedbytheeliminationofferriteringsaroundthegraphiteparticles,indicatin
basecompositionprovidedinsufficienthardenabilityforcompletepearlitization.
Theexceptionalascastpropertiesofthefullyferriticbasematerial66ksiUTS,45ksiYSand26%elongationforaQualityIndexof113:are
oftheheattreatedsamples,whichweretakenfromdifferentkeelblocks,rangedfrom90to113.
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LowTemperatureTensileProperties

DuctileIronsarestructurallystableatverylowtemperatures,butwhendesigningforlowtemperatureapplications,thedesignermusttakeintoco
effectoftemperatureonstrengthandelongation.FerriticgradesofDuctileIronaregenerallypreferredforlowtemperatureapplicationsbecauset
temperaturesissuperiortothatofpearliticgrades.Figure3.19illustratestheeffectofdecreasingtemperatureonthetensilepropertiesofanann
thetemperaturedecreases,boththeyieldandtensilestrengthsincrease,althoughtheyieldstrength,whichmoreaccuratelyreflectstheeffectof
risesmorerapidly.Theroomtemperatureelongationof25%ismaintainedtoverylowtemperatures,200oF(130oC),butastheyieldandtens
elongationdecreasesrapidlytolessthan2%at330oF(200oC).

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PearliticgradesofDuctileIronexhibitasignificantlydifferentresponsetodecreasingtemperature.Figure3.20showsthatasthetesttemperatur
increases,butthetensilestrengthandelongationdecreasecontinuously.Asaresultofthesteadydeteriorationintensilestrengthandelongation
pearliticDuctileIronsshouldbeusedwithcautionatlowtemperatures.
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HighTemperatureTensileProperties

DuctileIronsexhibitseveralpropertieswhichenablethemtoperformsuccessfullyinnumerouselevatedtemperatureapplications.Unalloyedgrad
moderatetemperaturesandexhibitsignificantlybetterresistancetogrowthandoxidationthanunalloyedGrayIron.AlloyDuctileIrons(see
resistancetodeformation,growthandoxidationathightemperatures.TheonlyhightemperatureapplicationsinwhichDuctileIrons,withtheexce
Resist,donotperformwellarethoseinvolvingseverethermalcycling.IntheseapplicationsthelowthermalconductivityofDuctileIron,combine
elasticity,canresultininternalstresseshighenoughtoproducecrackingandwarpage.However,thesuccessfuluseofDuctileIroninmillionsof
turbochargercasingsconfirmsthatinspecificthermalcyclingapplicationsDuctileIronprovidessuperiorperformance.

Figure3.21andFigure3.22showthattheshortterm,elevatedtemperaturetensilestrengthsofunalloyedferriticandpearliticDuctileIronsinitiall
aboutonethirdoftheirvaluesbetweenroomtemperatureand425oC(800oF).Abovethistemperaturethetensilestrengthsofbothgradesdecre
increasesintemperature.Thepearliticgradeexhibitssuperiorstrengthatalltemperatures,duetoacombinationofhigherambienttemperatures
temperatureonstrength.Figure3.21andFigure3.22alsodescribebothstressruptureandcreepbehaviourabove425oC(800oF).Thestressru
requiredtoproducerupturefailuresafter10,100and1000hours.Thecreepcurvesdefinethestressrequiredatagiventemperaturetoproducea
0.0001%/hforbothgrades.Aswiththetensileproperties,theshorttermstressrupturestrengthofthepearliticgradeisapproximatelytwicethat
thelongertermrupturestrengthandcreepstrengthofbothmaterialsarealmostidentical.Therelativelypoorlongertermruptureandcreepprope
comparedtoitsshortertermproperties,arepartlyduetogrowthfromgraphitizationandferritizationofthepearlitematrix.

Figure3.23isaLarsonMillerDiagramwhichrelatesthehightemperaturecreepandstressrupturepropertiesofunalloyedferriticDuctileIron
temperature.Forexample,asamplesubjectedtoastressof4ksiwouldbeexpectedtohavelivesof10,100and1000hourswhentestedattem
oC(1245,1160,and1100 oF).Figure3.23alsoshowsthatthecreepandstressrupturepropertiesofDuctileIroncanbeimprovedsubstantiallyby
andaddingmolybdenumandaluminium.TheeffectofalloyingelementsonthehightemperaturepropertiesofDuctileIronwillbepresentedingre
Backtotop
EffectofTemperatureonDesignStresses

WhendeterminingdesignstressesforaDuctileIroncomponent,thedesignermustbeawareofboththetemperaturerangeinwhichthecompone
effectoftemperatureontensileproperties.TheincreaseinyieldstrengthwithdecreasingtemperatureforbothferriticandpearliticDuctile
stressesmaybeusedatlowtemperatures.Becausemostlowtemperatureapplicationsalsoinvolveperformanceatroomtemperatures,theroom
mustbeusedinthecalculationofdesignstresses.However,theuseofayieldstrengthrelateddesignstressisacceptableforlowtemperature
appliedstressstatecanbesimulatedbyaquasistatic(lowstrainrate)test.Insuchcases,bothferriticandpearliticgradesmaymeetthedesign
involvesimpactloading,orifgoodnotchtoughnessisspecified,selectionshouldbelimitedtoferriticgrades.Forspeciallowtemperatureapplica
elongationandtoughness,annealedferriticgradesshouldbeused.

Fortemperaturesupto575oF(300oC),staticdesignstressescanbebasedontheroomtemperatureyieldstrength,asdescribedearlierinthis
above650oF(350oC),designstressesshouldberelatedtocreepdataforapplicationsinwhichdimensionalaccuracyiscriticalorstressrupture
toleratedbuttimetofailureiscritical.
Backtotop
GrowthandOxidation

ThemicrostructuralstabilityofunalloyedDuctileIronsatelevatedtemperaturesdependsprimarilyuponthematrixstructureandthetemperature.
stableuptoacriticaltemperatureofabout1350oF(730oC),whilepearliticgradesexhibitgrowththroughgraphitizationofthecarbidecomponento
above1000oF(540oC).Above1500oF(815oC)bothferriticandpearliticgradesofunalloyedDuctileIronexhibitsignificantgrowth,withpearliticg
tographitization.Growthdecreaseswithincreasingsectionsizeandcanberetardedbyincreasingthesiliconcontentandalloyingwithchromium
whichgrowsbybothgraphitizationandoxidation,exhibitshighergrowthratesthanDuctileIron.Table3.1comparestheoxidationofdifferentDuc
UnalloyedDuctileIronexhibitsonehalftheweightgainshownbyGrayIron.Increasesinsiliconcontentandadditionsofaluminiumand
oxidationofferriticDuctileIrontolevelsshownbythehigheralloy,austeniticgrades.
Table3.1

Analysis,Percent

Weight
Gain*
2

OxideDepth

TypeofIron

Silicon

Alloys

mg/cm

mils

mm

FerriticDuctile

2.8

119.9

18.6

0.47

FerriticDuctile

4.0

0.8Al

6.3

3.5

0.09

FerriticDuctile

4.2

1.9Mo0.6Al

22.8

5.8

0.15

FerriticDuctile

3.8

2.0Mo1.0Al

15.2

3.7

0.09

FerriticDuctile

4.0

2.0Mo0.9Al

6.2

2.7

0.07

AusteniticDuctile

2.5

22.5Ni0.4Cr

81.6

24.1

0.61

AusteniticDuctile

5.5

30.0Ni5.0Cr

7.2

1.5

0.04

AusteniticDuctile

2.2

35.0Ni2.5Cr

30.0

9.3

0.24

1.0Mo

GrayIron

2.0

0.14Cr

217.2

35.3

0.09

*Netgain,oxidationminusdecarburization.
Table3.1.OxidationbehaviousofferriticandausteniticDuctileIronsin
flowingairat1500oF(815oC)for500hours.
Backtotop
EffectofEnvironmentonTensileProperties

Likesomesteels,theambienttemperaturetensilepropertiesofcertaingradesofDuctileIroncanbereducedsignificantlybyprolongedexposure
Figure3.24summarizestheeffectsofexposurefor30daystoairsaturated,distilledwateronthetensilepropertiesofDuctileIronsampleswith
strengthwasnotaffectedbyexposureuntilhardnessexceeded275BHN,abovewhichitdecreasedrapidly,attainingalossofover40%atahar
strengthandelongationfollowedsimilartrends,butthelossofstrengthandductilitybeganatlowerhardnesslevels,175BHN,andincreasedmo
levelofreduction(40%)at430BHN.Figure3.24indicatesthatexposuretowaterfor30dayshasnosignificanteffectonthetensilepropertieso
quenchedandtemperedtoproducehardnesslevelsabove250BHNareembrittledtoadegreewhichincreaseswithhardness.Embrittlementma
phenomenonsimilartothatoccurringinhighstrengthsteels.
Backtotop
FatigueStrength

http://www.ductile.org/didata/Section3/3part1.htm#YieldStrength

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3/3/2016

DuctileIronDataSection3Part1

Afatiguefailureoccursinametalcomponentbytheinitiationandpropagationofacrackundercyclicloadingconditions.Fatiguefailuresplayas
designandmaterialsselectionforthefollowingreasons.

Fatigueisprobablytheprimarycauseof80%oftheservicefailuresoccurringinmachines.
Fatiguefailurescanoccuratstressamplitudesconsiderablybelowtheyieldstrength.
Stressconcentrationssuchasmaterialflawsorabruptchangesincomponentcrosssectionaremuchmoreharmfultomaterialperforman
thanundermonotonictensileloading.
Fatiguecrackscangrowslowlyandwithoutaneasilydetectablechangeincomponentdimensionorperformance.Uponreachingacritical
occurs.
Designstressesbasedonfatiguecriteriawillbelowerthanthosedeterminedusingmonotonictensiledesignvaluesandwillbereducedfu
causedbymaterialflawsorcomponentdesign.

ThefatiguebehaviourofamaterialisdefinedbyitsFatigueLifethenumberofstressorstraincyclesatwhichfailureoccurs.Thefatiguedataf
plottedonasemilogarithmicgraphofstressamplitudeversusthelogofthenumberofcyclestofailure.TheresultantSNcurvedefinesthe
amplitude(S)andthenumberofcyclestofailure(N)whenthemeanstressiszero.FatiguedataarealsoplottedonGoodmanDiagramstodefine
meanstresses.
Backtotop
FatigueLimit

Thefatiguestrengthofamaterialisnormallydefinedbyquotingitsfatiguelimit,alsocalledtheendurancelimit.Thefatiguelimitisthemagnitud
thefatiguelifeexceedsaspecifiednumberofcycles,usually106or107.Thefatiguestrengthofamaterialisrelatedtoitstensilestrengthbythe
fatiguelimittotensilestrength.Theeffectofstressraisersonthefatiguelimitisdefinedbythenotchsensitivityratio,alsoknownasthefatigue
notchsensitivityratioistheratioofunnotchedfatiguelimittonotchedfatiguelimit.ThefatiguelimitofaDuctileIroncomponentisinfluencedby
strength,thesize,shapeanddistributionofgraphitenodules,thevolumefractionsofinclusions,carbidesanddross,thequantityandlocationof
stressraisers,andtheconditionofthecomponentsurface.

Figure3.25illustratesSNcurvesfornotchedandunnotchedannealedferriticDuctileIronwithatensilestrengthof65.8ksi(454MPa).
limitsof17ksi(117MPa)and28ksi(193MPa)respectively,thismaterialhasnotchsensitivityfactorof1.65andanenduranceratioof.43.The
dependsuponthetensilestrengthandmatrix.Figure3.26showsthattheenduranceratiosofferriticandpearliticgradesaresimilar,decreasingf
strengthwithineachgrade.Fortemperedmartensitematrices,theenduranceratiodecreasesfrom0.5atatensilestrengthof60ksi(415
(1035MPa).
Backtotop
EffectofNoduleShapeandSize

Figure3.27showstheinfluenceofnodularityonthenotchedandunnotchedfatiguelimitsofpearliticDuctileIron.Thenotchedfatiguelimit
nodularity,whiletheunnotchedfatiguelimitincreasesrapidlywithnodularity,especiallyatveryhighnodularities.Theseresultsindicatethatnon
fatiguefailureinunnotchedDuctileIron,whileinvnotchedspecimens,thecrackinitiatesprematurelyinthenotch,overridinganyeffectofnodu

Thenetresultofthedifferenteffectsofmodularityonnotchedandunnotchedspecimensisthevariationoffatiguestrengthreductionfactor(notc
nodularityshowninFigure3.28,inwhichnotchsensitivityincreaseswithincreasingnodularity.Figure3.29illustratestheeffectofnodulesizeon
Ironswithdifferentmatrixhardness.Atalllevelsofhardness,fatiguestrengthincreasesasnodulesizedecreases,buttheeffectofnodulesize
hardnessincreases.
Backtotop
EffectofMetalCleanliness

Underbendingandtorsionalfatigueconditionsinwhichthecyclicstressesreachamaximumatthecomponentsurface,fatiguestrengthisreduc
inclusions,dross,andothersurfacedefectswhichactascrackinitiationsites.Figure3.30showsthatincreasingthevolumefractionofnonmeta
decreasesfatiguestrength.Theinfluenceofnonmetallicinclusionsonfatiguestrengthincreasesasmatrixhardnessincreases.Theincreasingu
withascastsurfacesplacesanincreasedimportanceontheeliminationofsurfacedefectsforapplicationsrequiringoptimumfatiguestrength.

Thereductionofdrossrelatedsurfacedefectsthroughtheuseoffiltersinthemoldfillingsystemcanresultina25percentincreaseinfatigueli
Theuseofgoodfoundrypractices,includingminimizingresidualMgcontent,carefuldeslaggingofladles,goodgatingandpouringpractices,the
systemandthereductionoftheeffectsofflakeformingelementsinboththemetalandmoldingmaterials,canresultinfatiguestrengthsforasca
percentofthoseobtainedoncomponentswithmachinedsurfaces.
Backtotop

7dd307163a05dc

http://www.ductile.org/didata/Section3/3part1.htm#YieldStrength

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