International Journal of Research in Advent Technology, Vol.

2, Issue 4, April 2014

E-ISSN: 2321-9637

Metallurgical Analysis of Cracks Encountered During

Induction Hardening of Crankshafts
Mohit Sharma 1, Jasjeet Singh Kohli2, Shalom Akhai3
1

UG Student, Department of Materials & Metallurgical Engineering, PEC University of Technology (Formerly
Punjab Engineering College), Chandigarh, India-160012
2
UG Student, Department of Materials & Metallurgical Engineering, PEC University of Technology (Formerly
Punjab Engineering College), Chandigarh, India-160012
3
Assistant Professor, Department of Materials & Metallurgical Engineering, PEC University of Technology
(Formerly Punjab Engineering College), Chandigarh, India-160012
Email: mohit.sharma1207@gmail.com1
ABSTRACT
In this case study, metallurgical analysis of defects encountered during Induction Hardening of crankshafts has been
done in detail. Major rejections occur during induction hardening due to cracking of the crankshafts after Induction
Hardening/Tempering. Hence, in order to find the root cause of failure & to study the different defects during induction
hardening process study was carried out, aim of the case study was to find out reasons behind the cracks, to study the
process of induction hardening and the defects encountered during the induction hardening process. A complete failure
analysis was done on rejected crankshafts which had developed defects during induction hardening. Different
parameters were taken into consideration and various tests were performed to find the reason behind the failure. In the
end some corrective actions and suggestions will be provided in order to improve the process and to counter the reasons
that cause cracking of crankshafts during induction hardening.
Index Terms- Induction Hardening; Surface Hardness; MPI; Case Depth; Austenite grain size; Stereoscopy; SEM.
1. INTRODUCTION
Induction Hardening process: Induction hardening is a
form of heat treatment in which a metal part is heated
by induction heating and then quenched [3]. The quenched
metal undergoes a martensitic transformation, increasing
the hardness and brittleness of the part. Induction hardening
is used to selectively harden areas of a part or assembly
without affecting the properties of the part as a whole. The
generated electric current in varying magnetic fields known
as EDDY CURRENT. These eddy currents generated are
responsible for the heating up of the work piece.
Induction heating is a non contact heating process which
utilizes the principle of electromagnetic induction to produce
heat inside the surface layer of a work-piece. By placing
a conductive material into a strong alternating magnetic
field, electrical current can be made to flow in the material
thereby creating heat due to the I2R losses in the material.
The current generated flows predominantly in the surface
layer, the depth of this layer being dictated by the frequency
of the alternating field, the surface power density,
the permeability of the material, the heat time and the
diameter of the bar or material thickness. By quenching this
heated layer in water, oil or a polymer based quench the
surface layer is altered to form a martensitic structure which
is harder than the base metal It is a widely used process for

the surface hardening of steel. The components are heated to

a temperature within or above the transformation range
followed by immediate quenching. The core of the
component remains unaffected by the treatment and its
physical properties are those of the bar from which it was
machined, whilst the hardness of the case can be within the
range 37/58 HRC. Carbon and alloy steels with an
equivalent carbon content in the range 0.40/0.45% are most
suitable for this process [1].
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Induction Hardening parameters
Frequency
Power consumption
Heating time
Voltage
Current

2.2 Defects during induction hardening

Different types of defects are encountered during induction
hardening, such as:

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Overheating and burning of steels: Occur due to
selection of wrong power and time settings. Dimension
of the job and the material and the final product should
be kept in mind while setting the power and time
parameters to avoid overheating and burning of steels.
Cracks/Quench Cracks: Very high cooling rate results
in cracks, low concentration of quenchant and high
severity can result in quench cracks.
Internal residual stresses: Due to expansion and
contraction during the process, stresses are generated in
the job that can harm it at later stages and under working
conditions.
Dimensional changes: It also occurs due to the
expansion and contraction of the material during the
heating and cooling of the job and during the formation
of martensite.
Soft spots: these spots of lower hardness can result due
to improper agitation of the quenchant and due to leftover
lubricants and other impurities on the surface of the job.
Proper cleaning of the job before hardening and proper
agitation of the bath are necessary to avoid soft spots.
Low hardness: improper temperature selection, quench
severity and hardening time result in lower hardness than
required. Geometry and material should be studied
properly in order to set the above said parameters to
achieve desired hardness level.
2.3 Quenching
Quenching is the rapid cooling of a work piece to obtain
certain material properties [3]. In metallurgy, it is most
commonly used to harden steel by introducing martensite, in
which case the steel must be rapidly cooled through its
eutectoid point, the temperature at which austenite becomes
unstable.
2.3.1 Types of quenchants
Quenchants: Selection of quenchant depends on many
factors, such as:
Cooling rate required
Hardness required
Material properties i.e. hardenability
A number of quenchants available today are:
Gases
Oil that may contain a variety of additives
Water
Aqueous polymer solutions
Water that may contain salt or caustic additives
Out of these mentioned quenchants, polymers are the most
widely used quenchant in industries.
Polymer quenchants consist of solutions of organic polymers in
water and contain corrosion inhibitors and other additives to
produce concentrates, which are further diluted to give ready-touse quenching solutions. The various types of polymer

quenchant have widely differing properties. Great flexibility of

quenching characteristics is possible through selection of the
type of polymer, polymer concentration, temperature of the bath
and degree of agitation.
Several different types of organic polymers
including:
PAG Polyalkylene glycol
ACR Sodium polyacrylate
PVP Polyvinyl pyrrolidone
PEO Polyethyloxazoline.

[17]

are used

2.3.2 Technical Advantages

1. Flexibility of quenching speed: By varying the
concentration, temperature and agitation of the polymer
solution, it is possible to achieve a range of cooling
rates, thus enabling the treatment of a wide variety of
materials and components.
2. Elimination of soft spots: By producing a uniform
polymer film around the component, the steam
pocketing and soft spot problems often associated with
water quenching after induction hardening can be
avoided.
3. Reduction of stresses and distortion: The uniform
film also reduces thermal gradients and residual stresses
associated with water quenching and can, therefore, give
substantial reduction in distortion during the solution
heat treatment of aluminum alloys.
4. Tolerance to water contamination: Large amounts of
water contamination can be tolerated before
concentration (and hence quenching speed) is influenced
significantly. This eliminates the soft spot, distortion
and cracking.
2.3.3 Production Advantages
1. Reduced cost: Depending upon the type of polymer
and the concentration required, the in-tank costs of
diluted polymer quenchants can be considerably lower
than those of quenching oils. Because polymer
solutions have significantly lower viscosities than
quenching oils, drag-out and hence replenishment
requirements are reduced.
2. Easier cleaning: Components may not require
cleaning before tempering. Residual films of polymers
will not char, as with oils, but will decompose fully at
high temperatures to form water vapor and oxides of
carbon. Components may be tempered directly after
quenching, thereby eliminating the need for costly
alkali cleaning or vapor degreasing operations.
3. Reduced temperature rise during quenching:
Polymer quenchant solution have almost twice the
specific heat capacity to that of quenching oils.
Therefore, for a given charge weight, the temperature
rise during quenching will be approximately halved.

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Most widely used polymer quenchant in the industry today
are based on PAG (Polyalkylene Glycol).
Commercial PAG based quenchants also contain a number
of additives such as corrosion inhibitors, defoamers and
bactericides to enhance performance in service.
2.3.4 Degradation Of Quenchant Polymers
Polymer quenchants may degrade by a number of potential
mechanisms [18]. Three of the most common degradation
processes are:
1. Biological degradation
2. Mechanodegradation
3. Thermal/oxidative degradation
Polymer degradation may be detected and quantified by a
direct analysis of the change in the size of the polymer by a
classical technique such as SEC (size exclusion
chromatography).
2.4 Magnetic Particle Inspection
The Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) method (Nondestructive type) is applicable for detecting surface and subsurface defects, which are not visible to naked eye.
The magnetic particle method is based on the PRINCIPLE
that Magnetic field lines when present in a ferromagnetic
material will be distorted by a change in material continuity,
such as a sharp dimensional change or a discontinuity [14]. If the
discontinuity is open to or close to the surface of a magnetized
material, flux lines will be distorted at the surface, a condition
termed as flux leakage. When fine magnetic particles are
distributed over the area of the discontinuity while the flux
leakage exists, they will be held in place and the accumulation
of particles will be visible under the proper lighting conditions.
2.5 The Spectral Analysis
Technique is based on the principle of EDS, i.e., Electron
Dispersive Spectroscopy, which is carried out using a SEM
(Scanning Electron Microscope). As high-energy electrons
produced with an SEM interact with the atoms within the top
few micrometers of a specimen surface, X-rays are generated
with an energy characteristic of the atom that produced
them. The intensity of such X-rays is proportional to the
mass fraction of that element in the specimen. In energydispersive spectroscopy, X-rays from the specimen are
detected by a solid-state spectrometer that converts them to
electrical pulses proportional to the characteristic X-ray
energies. If the X-ray intensity of each element is compared
to that of a standard of known composition and suitably
corrected for the effects of other elements present, then the
mass fraction of each element can be calculated.
Trace elements, defined as <1.0%, can be analyzed but with
lower precision compared with analyses of elements present
in greater concentration.
2.6 Microhardness Testing

Micro-indentation hardness test, hardness test using a

calibrated machine to force a diamond indenter of specific
geometry into the surface of the material being evaluated, in
which the test forces are 9.807 3 10-3 to 9.807 N (1 to 1000
gf) [11] and the indentation diagonal, or diagonals are
measured with a light microscope after load removal; for any
test, it is assumed that the indentation does not undergo
elastic recovery after force removal [12]. The test results are
normally in the KNOOP or VICKERS scales.
VICKER HARDNESS TESTER. In this test method, a
Vickers hardness number is determined based on the
formation of a relatively small indentation made in the test
surface of samples being evaluated. A Vickers indenter,
made from diamond of specific geometry (a square-based
pyramidal-shaped diamond indenter with face angles of
136), is pressed into the test specimen surface by an
accurately controlled applied force using test machines
specifically designed for such work.
The Vickers Hardness No. (VHN) is measured with the help
of the following formula,
VHN = 1854.4 * (P/d2)
Where,
P= load in gf
d= mean diagonal length of indentation in microns
2.7 Metallographic Evaluation (Micro structural Analysis)
Contrast Enhancement and Etching - A polished specimen
frequently will not exhibit its microstructure, because light is
uniformly reflected [13] [6]. The eye cannot discern small
differences in reflectivity; therefore, image contrast must be
produced. Metallographic contrasting methods include
various electrochemical, optical, and physical etching
techniques. Commonly used chemical etchant is 3% Nital.
Light Microscopy Except inclusion, other characteristics
like grain size, decarburization etc are better viewed after
etching.
2.8 Austenite Grain Size Measurement
The sizes of the martensite plates are determined by the
austenite grain size and the continuous formation of
additional plates with decreasing temperature [4]. The first
plates form at the martensite start (Ms) temperature and
spanthe austenite grains; the longest dimension of these
plates is therefore equivalent to the austenitic grain size.
With decreasing temperature, more martensite plates form
between large plates, and they become finer as the austenite
is increasingly partitioned by more transformation.
According to this sequence of martensite formation, the finer
the austenite grain size, the finer is the array of martensite
plates.
The final austenite grain size, which controls the size of the
martensite plates and laths, is smaller, and therefore the
microstructure is more refined.

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A study of the factors that control the resistance to brittle
fracture in these steels indicated the importance of the prior
austenite grain size [10].
Large grain size indicates high heating temperature or
overheating. And overheating leads to higher temperature
gradient when the job is quenched and thus may lead to
cracking of the job due to high temperature gradient.
To measure the austenite grain size, the steps followed were:
Carburizing of the sample at 950 C
Oxidation of grain boundaries
Roughly polish the sample
Study microstructure under the microscope and
measurement of the grain size by comparison method.
2.9 Crack Opening and Stereography
Optical stereomicroscopy is routinely used in failure analysis
photography to examine and characterize fracture surface
features [5]. The primary techniques for stereomicroscopy
photography is film photography, instant film photography,
digital photography, and, in some applications, videography.
In Stereography images upto a magnification of 50X are
studied.
Optical metallography is used in failure analysis
photography to characterize the macro- and microstructure
of a failed component.
Optical metallography has historically used monochromatic
lighting and black-and-white photography. However, color
photography is advantageous for showing heating effects,
corrosion product, and microstructural features with color. In
stereography, the magnified images are studied and the
above said features can be studied in detail
2.10 SEM Analysis
THE SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM) is
one of the most versatile instruments for investigating the
microstructure of metallic materials. Compared to the optical
microscope, it expands the resolution range by more than
one order of magnitude to approximately 10 nm in routine
instruments, with ultimate values below 3 nm. Useful
magnification thus extends beyond 10,000 up to 100,000,
closing the gap between the optical and the transmission
electron microscope. Compared to optical microscopy, the
depth of focus, ranging from 1 m at 10,000 to 2 mm (0.08
in.) at 10, is larger by more than two orders of magnitude.
Scanning electron microscopy is used in failure analysis
photography for the examination of surfaces, including
fracture surfaces, and the recording of fracture features.
Scanning electron microscopy is used in failure analysis
photography for the examination of fracture surfaces and
other surface features and the recording of features present,
as well as high magnification recording of the
microstructure.
The scanning electron microscope is a higher-magnification
extension of the optical stereomicroscope as well as the

optical metallograph. Scanning electron microscope images

are monochromatic and, as such, do not benefit by color
photography. The primary techniques of photography
associated with scanning electron microscopy are digital
photography and instant film photography. X-ray imaging
spectroscopy associated with scanning electron microscopy
typically uses digital photography for the recording of x-ray
images and maps. Videographic cameras may also be used to
record entire scanning electron microscopy examination
sessions
3. METHODOLOGY
Steps Involved in the Metallurgical Investigation [5] [20]
1. Chemical Composition Analysis
2. Induction Hardening Process Details
3. Magnetic Particle Inspection
4. Surface Hardness
5. Effective Case Depth measurement
6. Austenite Grain size measurement
7. Polymer quenchant analysis
8. Stereoscopy
9. SEM Analysis
3.1 Chemical Composition
Material of crankshaft manufactured:
Grade: SAE 1548
Material: micro alloyed steel
Material Composition:
ELEMENT

PERCENTAGE

ACTUAL

Carbon

0.44 0.50

0.45

Manganese

1.10 1.40

1.16

Silicon

0.20 0.35

0.25

Phosphorous

0.025

0.014

Sulphur

0.20 - 0.005

0.011

Chromium

0.10 0.20

0.14

Nickel

0.10 Max.

0.040

Molybdenum

0.060 Max.

0.010

Aluminium

0.02 0.04

0.024

Copper

0.080 Max.

0.020

Table 1: comparison of the actual composition of the crankshaft material to

the standard material

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Remarks: The composition was found to be appropriate and
according to the specification of the customer. Therefore, no
chemical composition is accurate.
Location

Inductor

POT

KW

V (v)

Pin
J1
OJ
J4,7

B234/3
B232/3
B233/3
B233/3

88/80
90
90
90

175/135
185
185
185

700/640
720
720
720

3.2 Induction Hardening Process Details

Machine make: IEI
Capacity: 225 KW
Frequency: 10 KHz (medium frequency)
Freq
Quench
Quench
I (amp)
Time (s)
(KHz)
Delay
time
600/580
10.5/10
17
0.5 s
20 s
640
10
17
0.5 s
20 s
640
10
17
0.5 s
20 s
640
10
18
0.5 s
20 s

Table 2 : Process Parameters of the induction hardening machine used for the process

Remarks: The parameters were cross checked with the actual parameters that were being used on the induction
hardening machine and were found to be appropriate. Therefore, process parameters are not the problem.
3.3 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)
MPI machine: Company: Vinze. Current Type: DC.
Current applied: 1600 Amp max.
Magnetic solution: Ferro flux (0.3gm/cc) + kerosene

3.4 Surface Hardness

Specification: 45 50 HRC Min.
Location

Pin1

Pin2

Pin3

Pin4

Pin5

Pin 6

Avg

Cracked
sample

49.9

49.6

49.8

49.5

50

49.9

49.7

Un Cracked
sample

49.3

49.8

49.5

49.7

49.9

49.8

49 .6

Table 3: Surface hardness comparison of pins of cracked and uncracked shafts

Remarks: No variation observed in surface hardness of

cracked & un-cracked crankshaft.
Core Hardness:

Photo1: Arrow indicating Circular Open crack at Pin 2 Side Face

Specification

212 - 277 HBW

Cracked sample

229 269

Un Cracked sample

231 269

Table 4: core hardness of cracked and uncracked samples

Remarks: No variation observed in core hardness of

cracked & un-cracked crankshaft
3.5 Effective Case Depth Measurement
Microhardness Company: Clemex
Load Range: 1gm to 2000gm: Load used: 500gm
Dwell Time: 13 seconds: Transverse distance: 0.5mm

Photo2: Arrow indicating Circular Open crack at Pin 5 Side Face

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Photo 3: Visual case depth measurement by etching the cut sample and
measuring by vernier calipers

Cracked sample
Location

Diameter

Spec. in mm

2.03 min

Fillet GE

Un Cracked sample
Fillet FE

1.27 min

Diameter

Fillet GE

2.03 min

Fillet FE

1.27 min

Top

4.26

3.17

3.12

4.52

3.46

3.32

Bottom

4.60

3.32

3.28

4.71

3.58

3.45

Pin 5
Table 4: Case depth measurements of cracked and uncracked samples at different positions.

Remarks: No variation observed in effective case depth of cracked & un-cracked crankshaft.
3.6 Austenite Grain Size Measurement [15]

Photo 5: Austenite grain size of the un-cracked sample. ASTM Grain

size: 7 8 checked as per ASTM E-112 method of comparison

Note: The above photos were taken at higher

magnification (500X) to check the size of the individual
grain.
Remarks: No variation observed austenite grain size of
cracked & un-cracked crankshaft

Photo 4: Austenite grain size of the cracked sample. ASTM Grain size:
7 8 checked as per ASTM E-112 method of comparison

3.7 Analysis of Polymer Quenchant

Name: Polydur AL
Company: Houghton
Concentration: 14%
Quench flow rate: 3.0 kg/cm2
Bath Temperature: 34-360C

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Figure 1: Cooling curve of Ideal Quench Bath with 9% Polymer

concentration.

Figure 2: Cooling curve of Quench Bath with 12% polymer

concentration (Quench cracks occurred with this bath).

The table given above table shows the actual quench bath
parameters at 12% concentration. The cooling rate at 300
C is 70.710C/sec. 300 C is taken as reference temperature
as martensite begins to form at this temperature. But, the
ideal cooling rate at this concentration and at 300 C
should be between 40-50 C/sec. This shows that the
actual cooling rate is higher than the ideal cooling rate.
The reason behind this could be bacterial degradation of
polymer quenchant and contamination.

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3.8 Stereography (after crack opening)

The crack was opened and cleaned ultrasonically to
prepare it for stereographic analysis.
Microscope: Ziess
Maximum magnification: 50 X
Magnification used: 10X and 25X
Sample after crack opening was done. The two surfaces
seen were cleaned ultrasonically to view them under the
microscope

Photo 7: Sample under stereoscope after crack opening at 10X

Photo 6: Sample after crack opening ready for stereography

Photo 8: Stereoscope image at 25X, oxidation of inner surface can be
seen after crack opening.

Remarks: Stereoscopic study reveals the details of the

nature of crack origin point & magnifies fracture surface.

3.9 SEM Analysis

Company: ZEISS
Maximum Magnification: 1000000X
Magnification Range Used: 500-3500X
3500X
Electron Beam Source: LaB6
SEM Results:
The sample after stereoscopy was analyzed under the
SEM. The crack surface was cleaned ultrasonically and
dried and then analyzed under the SEM at various
magnifications. The images taken from the SEM are as
shown below:
Photo 10: SEM images of fracture
fractu surface at 500X

Photo 9: SEM images of fracture surface at 150 X

magnification showing crack initiation point.

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Inclusions, as the SEM images dont show presence of
any such inclusions.
CRACK ANALYSIS: Type of crack: QUENCH
CRACK
This is indicated by the stereography and the SEM &
EDS analysis. The nature of crack observed in the
crankshaft is similar to quench crack & also presence
of FeO/ Fe2O3 layer on the fracture surface .

Photo 11: SEM images of fracture surface at 500 X showing

Intergranular cracks in the sample.

Figure 3: EDS analysis results showing presence of C, O, Fe, S, Mn in

the tested sample.

EDS Analysis Remarks: EDS analysis confirms

presence of FeO/ Fe2O3 layer on the fracture surface..
SEM & EDS analysis shows the following:
1. Intergranular cracks
2. Brittle fracture
3. Crack extend from surface to the center
4. Presence of FeO/ Fe2O3 layer.
These types of characteristics are shown typically by
QUENCH CRACKS. Therefore, it can be concluded
that the crack is generated during quenching of
Induction hardening process. The presence of FeO/
Fe2O3 layer on the fracture surface developed during
tempering also confirms cracking occurred during
induction hardening.
4. RESULTS
All the above said tests were carried out and the data is
collected and analyzed. The conclusions that were
reached:
Reasons behind cracks that can be eliminated:
Overheating, as ASTM grain size of both the samples
is same.

Reason behind the cracking during Induction

Hardening:
Comparison of actual quench bath parameters to ideal
bath parameters: The comparison shows that the actual
bath parameter i.e. the cooling rate, deviate a lot from
the ideal parameters. This indicates that there is a
problem related to the bath parameters. The only
reason that can be behind the abnormal behavior of the
bath is: degradation of the polymer which could be due
to bacterial attack or contamination of the bath. The
degradation results in increase in quench severity and
hence an increase in cooling rate, this leads to quench
cracks during induction hardening of the crankshafts.
5. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
Based on the analysis of the above mentioned tests and
data, and the conclusion drawn by them, some
solutions can be suggested to improve the process and
to reduce the cracks encountered during the induction
hardening. Some of them are:
1. Periodic quenchant analysis: As the performance
of the polymer quenchant is dependent on the condition
of the polymer and potential contamination, it is
important that periodic maintenance be performed.
Some of the tests performed include: refractive index,
viscosity, separation temperature, conductance,
corrosion inhibitor concentration and, if needed, foam
tests. In some cases, cooling curve analyses are
performed.
2. The quenchant must be kept clean and free from
contamination. Solid contamination not only produces
non-uniform vapour blanket at the hot metal interface
but it also plugs quench holes.
3. Increase the polymer concentration from 12% to
14% to compensate the effect of polymer degradation.
Further improvements in the process can be made by
altering some other parameters and factors such as
changing the polymer quenchant, addition of additives
change in quench pressure etc.
REFERENCES:
[1] ASM Handbook Volume 1 - Properties and
Selection
[2] Irons Steels and High Performance Alloys

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[3] ASM Handbook Volume 4 Heat Treating
[4] ASM Handbook Volume 9 Metallography
[5] ASM Handbook Volume 11 - Failure Analysis
ASTM STANDARDS
[6] E3 - Preparation of Metallographic Samples
[7]
E7-Standard
Terminology
Relating
to
Metallography
[8] E 10 Brinell hardness of Metallic Materials
[9] E 18 Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell
Superficial [] Hardness of Metallic Materials
[10] E112 Determining Average Grain Size
[11] E384 Micro indentation Hardness method
[12] E407 Micro-etching Metals and Alloys
[13] E807 Metallographic Laboratory Evaluation
[14] E1444 - Standard Practice for Magnetic Particle
Testing
[15] E112 Determining Average Grain Size
[16] E384 Micro indentation Hardness method
[17] Totten G.E.; Polymer quenchants for induction
heat treating applications: the basics.
[18] Dow Corning; Degradation of polymers in
nature; HERA
[19] Totten G.E. & Webster G.M.; Importance of
quench bath maintenance.
[20] C. Kendall Clarke & Don Halimunanda; Failure
analysis of induction hardened automotive axles;
ASM International, May 2008.

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