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Vector1 Notes
Vector1 Notes
Vector1 Notes
Outline I
Vectors
Component Form
Vector Algebra Operations
Unit Vectors
Position Vectors
Midpoint of a Line Segment
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Outline II
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Bibliography
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The formula for the distance between two points in 2-D plane extends to points in
3-D space, Figure 3. Hence, the distance between P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) is
p
|P1 P2 | = (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 + (z2 z1 )2
(1)
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Vectors
Component Form
Eq. 1 can be used to write equation for a sphere in space, Figure 4. A point P(x, y, z)
lies on the sphere of radius a centered at P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) precisely when |P0 P| = a or
(x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 + (z z0 )2 = a2
DEFINITION:
The vector represented by the di
(2)
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by |AB|.
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Vectors
Vectors
Component Form
Two principal operations involving vectors are vector addition and scalar
multiplication.
DEFINITION:
A scalar is simply a real number. Scalars can be positive, negative, or zero and are
used to scale a vector by multiplication.
v = hv1 , v2 i
DEFINITION:
Let u = hu1 , u2 , u3 i and v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i be vectors with k a scalar
Addition
u + v = hu1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , u3 + v3 i
Scalar multiplication
v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i
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Vectors
Vectors
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= |k||u|
In engineering, forces, velocities and accelerations add vectorially, e.g. the force
acting on a particle subject to two gravitational forces is obtained by adding the
two force vectors.
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Vectors
Vectors
u+v =v+u
u v = hu1 v1 , u2 v2 , u3 v3 i
Note that (u v) + v = u, so adding
the vector (u v) to v gives u, see
Figure 10(a).
(u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
u+0=u
u + (u) = 0
0u = 0
1u = u
a(bu) = (ab)u
a(u + v) = au + av
(a + b)u = au + bu
When three or more space vectors lie in the same plane, we say they are coplanar
vectors. For example, the vectors u, v, and u + v are always coplanar.
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Vectors
Vectors
Unit Vectors
P1 P2 = (x2 x1 )i + (y2 y1 )j
+ (z2 z1 )k
v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i
OM = OP1 + 12 (P1 P2 )
+ v3 h0, 0, 1i
= v1 i + v2 j + v3 k
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= 12 (OP2 + OP1 )
y1 + y2
z1 + z2
x1 + x2
i+
j+
k
=
2
2
2
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Vectors
Hence
2OD + OC
OG =
3
and
OD =
a+b
2
Therefore
OG = 13 (a + b + c)
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Theorem 1:
Angle Between Two Vectors
The angle between two nonzero
vectors u = hu1 , u2 , u3 i and
v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i is given by
= cos1
u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3
|u||v|
Proof of Theorem 1:
Applying the law of cosines to the
triangle in Figure 17,
|w|2 = |u|2 + |v|2 2|u||v| cos
DEFINITION:
The dot product u v (u dot v) of
vectors u = hu1 , u2 , u3 i and
v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i is the scalar
we find that
2|u||v| cos = |u|2 + |v|2 |w|2
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uv
|u||v|
Therefore
2|u||v| cos = . . .
|u||v| cos = . . .
cos = . . .
Since 0 , we have
= cos1 . . .
|u|2 =
q
2
u21 + u22 + u23
= u21 + u22 + u33
|v|2 =
2
q
v21 + v22 + v23
= v21 + v22 + v33
and
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|w|2 = . . .
Hence,
u v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3
= cos1
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Orthogonal Vectors
The following dot product properties hold, if u, v, w are vectors and c is scalar:
uv=vu
Property 1
Property 2
Property 3
(u u) = |u|2
0u =0
DEFINITION:
Vectors u and v are orthogonal if u v = 0.
Property 4
Property 5
Proof of Property 1
u v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 = v1 u1 + v2 u2 + v3 u3
= vu
Proof of Property 3
u (v + w)
= hu1 , u2 , u3 i hv1 + w1 , v2 + w2 , v3 + w3 i
= u1 (v1 + w1 ) + u2 (v2 + w2 ) + u3 (v3 + w3 )
= u1 v1 + u1 w1 + u2 v2 + u2 w2 + u2 v3 + u3 w3
= (u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 ) + (u1 w1 + u2 w2 + u3 w3 )
= uv+uw
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v
|v|
uv
|v|
v
|v|
uv
|v|2
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|u||v| cos
|v|
uv
v
=
=u
|v|
|v|
|u| cos =
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Work
Examples
Example 1:
Find the angle in the triangle ABC
determined by the vertices A = (0, 0),
B = (3, 5), and C = (5, 2) (Figure 22).
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DEFINITION:
The work done by a constant force
F acting through a displacement
Example 2:
Find the angle between u = i 2j 2k
and v = 6i + 3j + 2k.
Example 3:
Find the vector projection of
u = 6i + 3j + 2k onto v = i 2j 2k,
and the scalar component of u in the
direction of v.
Example 4:
Determine if the following pairs of vector
are orthogonal:
(a) u = h3, 2i and v = h4, 6i,
(b) u = 3i 2j + k and v = 2j + 4k.
D = PQ is
W =FD
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P5:
P6:
DEFINITION:
The cross product u v (u cross
v) is the vector
u (v + w) = u v + u w
v u = (u v)
(v + w) u = v u + w u
0v =0
u (v w) = (u w)v (u v)w
u v = (|u||v| sin )n
i j = (j i) = k
j k = (k j) = i
k i = (i k) = j
ii=jj=kk=0
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Area of a Parallelogram
Suppose that
u = u1 i + u2 j + u3 k
v = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k
The distributive laws and the rules for multiplying i, j, and k tell us that
and
u v = (u1 i + u2 j + u3 k) (v1 i + v2 j + v3 k)
= u1 v1 i i + u1 v2 i j + u1 v3 i k
+ u2 v1 j i + u2 v2 j j + u2 v3 j k
+ u3 v1 k i + u3 v2 k j + u3 v3 k k
= (u2 v3 u3 v2 )i (u1 v3 u3 v1 )j (u1 v2 u2 v1 )k
The component terms in the last line are terms in the expansion of a determinant
and, hence, we could calculate the cross product as a determinant
u v = u1
v1
j
u2
v2
k
u3
v3
For ease in calculating the cross product using determinants, we usually write
vectors in the form v = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k rather than as ordered triples v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i.
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Torque
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Examples
u
u
u3
u3
(u v) w = 2
i 1
v2 v3
v1 v3
u
u
u3
w2 1
= w1 2
v2 v3
v1
u1 u2 u3
v2
v3
= v1
w1 w2 w3
j + u1
v1
u3
+ w3
v3
Example 1:
Find a vector perpendicular to the plane
of P(1, 1, 0), Q(2, 1, 1), and
R(1, 1, 2) (Figure 28).
u2
k w
v2
u1 u2
v1 v2
Example 3:
Find a unit vector perpendicular to the
plane of P(1, 1, 0), Q(2, 1, 1), and
R(1, 1, 2).
Example 4:
Find the volume of the box
(parallelepiped) determined by
u = i + 2j k, v = 2i + 3k, and
w = 7j 4k.
Hence
u1
(u v) w = v1
w1
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u2
v2
w2
u3
v3
w3
(3)
Example 2:
Find the area of the triangle with vertices
P(1, 1, 0), Q(2, 1, 1), and R(1, 1, 2)
(Figure 28).
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(x x0 )i + (y y0 )j + (z z0 )k = t(v1 i + v2 j + v3 k)
and re-written as
v = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k
P0 P
xi + yj + zk = (x0 i + y0 j + z0 k) + t(v1 i + v2 j + v3 k)
Vector equation for a line L through P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) parallel to v is
r(t) = r0 + tv,
P0 P = tv
for some scalar parameter t. The
value of t depends on the location of
the point P along the line, and the
domain of t is (, ).
< t <
Equating corresponding components of the two sides of Eq. (5) yields parametric
equations for a line L through P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) parallel to v
x = x0 + tv1 , y = y0 + tv2 , z = z0 + tv3 ,
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(5)
(4)
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< t <
(6)
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Example 1:
Find parametric equations for the line
through (2, 0, 4) parallel to
v = 2i + 4j 2k (Figure 30).
Example 3:
Parametrize the line segment joining the
points P(3, 2, 3) and Q(1, 1, 4)
(Figure 31).
Example 5:
Find the distance from the point
S(1, 1, 5) to the line
L : x = 1 + t, y = 3 t, z = 2t.
Figure 32: Distance from S to the line through
P parallel to v.
Example 2:
Find parametric equations for the line
through P(3, 2, 3) and Q(1, 1, 4).
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Example 4:
A helicopter is to fly directly from a
helipad at the origin in the direction of
the point (1, 1, 1) at a speed of 60 m/s.
What is the position of the helicopter after
10 s?
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PS v
d=
|v|
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(7)
Vector Equation:
Component Equation:
product n P0 P = 0.
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n P0 P = 0
Ax + By + Cz = D
Example 7:
Find an equation for the plane through A(0, 0, 1), B(2, 0, 0), and C(0, 3, 0).
n if and only if n P0 P = 0.
Example 6:
Find an equation for the plane through P0 (3, 0, 7) perpendicular to
n = 5i + 5j k.
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Lines of Intersection
Lines of Intersection
Just as lines are parallel if and only if they have the same direction, two planes are
parallel if and only if their normals are parallel, or
n1 = kn2
Example 10:
Find the point where the line
for some scalar k. Two planes that are not parallel intersect in a line.
Example 8:
Find a vector parallel to the line of
intersection of the planes
3x 6y 2z = 15 and 2x + y 2z = 5,
see Figure 34.
Example 9:
Find parametric equations for the line in
which the planes 3x 6y 2z = 15 and
2x + y 2z = 5 intersect.
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Sometimes we want to know where a line and a plane intersect. For example, if we
are looking at a flat plate and a line segment passes through it, we may be
interested in knowing what portion of the line segment is hidden from our view by
the plate. This application is used in computer graphics.
x=
8
+ 2t,
3
y = 2t,
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d = PS
|n|
z=1+t
Example 12:
Find the angle between the planes
3x 6y 2z = 15 and 2x + y 2z = 5.
Figure 35: The distance from S to the plane
Example 11:
Find the distance from S(1, 1, 3) to the
plane 3x + 2y + 6z = 6, see Figure 35.
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Cylinders
Cylinders
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Example 1:
Find an equation for the cylinder
made by the lines parallel to the
z-axis that pass through the parabola
y = x2 , z = 0 (Figure 38).
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Quadric Surfaces
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The curves in which the three coordinate planes cut the surface are ellipses. For
example,
x2
y2
+ 2 = 1 when z = 0.
2
a
b
The curve cut from the surface by the plane z = z0 , |z0 | < c, is the ellipse
x2
y2
+ 2
= 1 when z = 0.
a2 (1 z0 /c)2
b (1 z0 /c)2
If any two of the semiaxes a, b, and c are equal, the surface is an ellipsoid of
revolution. If all three are equal, the surface is a sphere.
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Bibliography
1
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