SLM 506

SLM 506: Integrated Soil Management (2 Units)
Module 1 Problem soils: different types of problem soils, their characteristic and management.
Unit 1: Acid soils
Unit 2: Salt affected soils
Unit 3: Wetland soils
Unit 4: Polluted soils
Unit 5: Eroded lands
Unit 6: Organic soils
Unit 7: Soil organic carbon sequestration
Unit 8: Soil nutrient dynamics.
UNIT 1 Acid soils

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main component
3.1 Characteristics of acid soils
3.2 Process of soil acidification
3.3 Acid soil infertility factors
3.4 Classification of soil acidity
3.4.1 Titratable acidity or total acidity
3.4.2 Exchangeable acidity
3.5 Measurement of soil acidity
3.5.1 Colorimetric method
3.5.2 Electrometric method
3.6 Management of soil acidity
3.6.1 Lime requirement
3.6.2 Functions of lime
3.6.3 Types of liming materials
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor marked assignment
7.0 Reference/further reading
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1.1 Introduction
Acid soils broadly refer to soils with pH less than 7. The Soil pH is the negative logarithm of the
hydrogen ion activity; it measures the hydrogen ion activity in the soil solution. Because this
concentration is usually very small it is represented as the negative logarithm. The pH values are
represented as plain numbers from 0 to 14, which are derived from negative logarithm of the
hydrogen ion activity. Thus if the H+ concentration in a soil solution is 10-5, the pH is 5. A soil pH
of 7 represents neutral, while pH below 7 is acidic and above 7 is basic. Most crops grow best in
soils with slightly acid pH (5.5 - 6.5). Within this pH range, nearly all plant nutrients are
available in optimal amounts. Calcium, Mg, and K are deficient in acid soils. In very acid soils,
Al, Fe, and Mn may be available in toxic quantities because of their increased solubility. Acid
soils are common in humid regions.
2.0 Objectives
Understand the concept of soil acidity
Understand the characteristics of acid soils
Explain the importance of soil acidity to crop production
Understand how acid soils can be reclaimed and managed
3.0 Main component

3.1 Characteristics of acid soils
Nutrient availability. The pH of a soil impacts on the plants growing on it. The low pH which
characterizes acid soils is associated with high concentration of H+, which could have toxic effect
of the crops growing on it. The low pH of acid soils also affects the solubility and availability of
nutrients to plants. At low pH, phosphorus is fixed by Fe and Al as strengite and verisite. These
forms of phosphorus are not available to the plant. Hence P availability is a problem to plants
growing on acid soils.
Chemical and biological processes. Soil chemical and biological reactions can only take place
at specific soil pH. In acid soils biological processes such as nitrogen fixation seizes. When the
pH of soil pH drops below 4.5, the biological process of nitrification is inhibited. This leads to
the accumulation of nitrite in the soil, which greatly affects the health of plants in such
environment.
Figure 1 pH range of different soil types

(http://www.stthomas.edu/geography/faculty/kelley/physgeog/soils/soil%20intro/chemicalproperties.html)
The soil pH also affects the rate of decomposition of soil minerals and organic matter. In acid
soils, the sufficient amount of hydrogen ions promotes the weathering of minerals, as the process
of hydrolysis is at maximum. The solubility of alumina and silica is also significantly affected at
low soil pH. At pH <4 alumina is considered to be more soluble than silica. On the other hand,
between pH 5.0 and 9.0 alumina is insoluble while silica becomes increasingly soluble. Such a
condition may lead to differential leaching of silica and consequent formation of kaolinite,
gibbsite and bauxite (Ollier, 1975).
Figure 2 Distribution of acid soils in the world. Areas of predominance are highlighted in
colour. [Source: von Uexkell(1995)].
The pH of a soil also determines the fate of contaminants (organic and inorganic) in the soil
environment through its effect on the degradation, solubility and precipitation. In acid soils, the
solubility of contaminants is generally enhanced, likewise the uptake of contaminants by plants.
3.2 Process of soil acidification
A variety of processes contribute H+ to the soil system which is responsible for the acidity of the
soil. These processes occur naturally, however specific human activities impacts on them. Acidic
soils results from natural processes which include precipitation, evapotranspiration, and leaching.
When rainfall exceeds evapotranspiration from the soil surface, soluble salts, minerals and bases
are gradually removed from the soil system. This impacts a weak to moderately acidic feature
unto the soil surface. Over time, the soils become increasingly acid, especially for soil in the
humid regions.
Acidic conditions could also arise from mine wastes rich in pyrite (FeS2) and other sulfide.
4SO4 2- + 8H+ + 2Fe(OH)3
2FeS2 + 7H2O + 71/2O2
Acidities of 2 or lower could result from these drainages upon exposure to the atmosphere, and
the sulfide oxidizes to H2SO4 and Fe(OH)3. The drainage of marine floodplains containing high
sulfide sediments could also result in extremely high acidities. The sulfide sediments oxidizes to
H2SO4 upon exposure to the atmosphere, these soils are usually referred to as acid sulfate soils.
Agricultural processes such as fertilization contributes substantial amount of soil acidity. The use
of ammonia fertilizers over long period of time lead to acidic soil conditions. The microbial
oxidation of ammonia produces two moles of H+, in the following reaction:
NH4+ + 2O2
NO3- + 2H+ + H2O
Another important agricultural process contributing to soil acidification is the dissolution of

phosphate fertilizers. This leads to the production of orthophosphoric acid- H3PO4.
Ca(H2PO4)2
Superphosphate
CaHPO4
H3PO4
o-phosphoric acid
This acid results in pH as low as 1.5 near the granules, although the acid is rapidly neutralized by
soils. Decomposing plant residue and organic waste could also produce significant amount of
soil acidity. The organic acids produced in these soils are partly responsible for the dissolution
and movement of Fe, Al, and Mn through the soil beneath many forest litters.
The mineralization of organic matter leads to the reaction of organic C, N, and S with the H+ in
water to produce more protons or H+, as indicated below:
Soil Organic C CO2 + H2O H+ + HCO3
Soil Organic N NH3 + 2CO2 H+ + H2O + NO3
Soil Organic S H2S + 2O2 2H+ + SO4
The removal of calcium from the soil could also lead to acidification of the soil. Calcium is the
predominant exchangeable base which helps in the neutralization of H+ in the soil. If the Ca is
removed from the soil either by leaching or crop removal, the soil is left with excess H+ which
would induce acidity.
A major culprit in soil acidification is the hydrolysis of aluminum. In most cases Al is present in
the soil in the bound form as AlOH. Due to extensive weathering, free Al is released into the soil
solution. This free Al rapidly and reversibly hydrolyzes in the soil solution. Hydrolysis is a
chemical reaction whereby a substance is split or decomposed by water. The free Al undergoes a
series of hydrolysis reactions which releases H+ or H3O+ into the soil solution. The hydrolysis of
Al leads to the formation of monomeric hydrolysis product ([Al(OH)(H 2O)5]2+, [Al(OH)2
(H2O)4]1+, [Al(OH)3 (H2O)3]0, and [Al(OH)4 (H2O)2]1) when the coordinated water is
deprotonated. This series of reactions are shown below:
[Al(H2O)6]3+ + H2O [Al(OH)(H2O)5]2+ + H3O+ . (1)

[Al(OH)(H2O)5]2+ + H2O [Al(OH)2 (H2O)4]1+ + H3O+ .. (2)
[Al(OH)2 (H2O)4]1+ + H2O [Al(OH)3 (H2O)3]0 + H3O+ .. (3)
[Al(OH)3 (H2O)3]0 + H2O [Al(OH)4 (H2O)2]1 + H3O+ . (4)
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The H3O+ or H+ is produced from this reactions result in a decrease in pH or increased acidity.
The magnitude of this pH decrease or soil acidity depends on the Al concentration in the
solution.
3.3 Acid soil infertility factors
Al Toxicity
Al toxicity, which is a common feature of acid soils, primarily affect root growth and leads to
stunted and shabby appearance of the seedling, and no lateral growth of roots. This is primarily
because Al affects cell division and cell elongation. All of these lead to restricted root growth and
limited water and nutrient absorption.
Figure 3 Damage to small grain roots caused by excess Al in the growing solution.
(http://www.spectrumanalytic.com/)
Mn Toxicity
This occurs in the pH range of 4.5 and 5.5. This is because at pH < 4.5, Mn uptake is inhibited by
H+. Manganese does not affect root growth therefore, toxicity symptoms are observed in the
leaves as necrotic surfaces and spotting.
Ca and Mg deficiency
Ca and Mg are deficient in acid soils. This is because H+ displaces both elements from the
exchange site into the soil solution from where they are leached out of the soil. This two-step
process accounts for the deficiency of Ca and Mg in acid soils.
Figure 4 Influence of pH on nutrient availability. (http://onpasture.com/)
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H+ toxicity
H+ effect is also observed in the roots. It reduces root growth and also thickens the root wall,
thereby reducing uptake of water and nutrients.
P availability
In acid soils, P availability is limited by Al and Fe through the process of P fixation. The end
products of this reaction are P compounds in the form of strengite (Fe(OH)2H2PO4) and Veriscite
(Al(OH)2H2PO4)
Mo Deficiency
Acid soils show Mo deficiency due to the reaction of Mo in the soil and also the inherent low
content of Mo in soils. Mo is also adsorbed by sesquioxides at low pH.
3. 4 Classification of soil acidity

The components of soil acidity can be classified as follows:
3.4.1 Titratable acidity or total acidity. This refers to the quantity of strong base required to
raise the pH of the soil to a predetermined level. The H + may be present as adsorbed H+ on the
surface of the colloidal complex, or as free H + on the soil solution. The nature of soil acidity is
determined by the degree of desorption of the adsorbed H+ into the soil solution. The adsorbed
H+ are also referred to as reserve or potential acidity, while the free H + in the soil solution are
referred to as active acidity. The active acidity is what is measured as soil pH. Both active and
potential acidity are also referred to as total acidity.
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3.4.2 Exchangeable acidity. This represents the amount of H+ that is exchanged by an

unbuffered neutral salt solution, such as 1M KCl or NaCl. It consists of a monomeric aluminium
and exchangeable hydrogen. The exchangeable hydrogen is only of concern in very acid soils,
because it is present in measurable levels only at pH below 4.
3.5 Measurement of soil acidity

The acidity of a soil is expressed as pH values below 7. The pH of soil is usually determined via
either of the following two methods:
1. Colorimetric method
2. Electrometric method
3.5.1 Colorimetric method
The colorimetric method is commonly used a quick test in the field. They are based on weak
acids or bases, which changes color upon dissociation. The dissociation of an indicator weak
acid, for example, gives:
HI
acid color
H+ +
Ialkaline color
The final color observed is a function of the relative concentration of the HI and I -, which varies
with pH according to the following equation
pH = pKHI + log [I-]/[HI] + log fIwhere pKHI is the negative logarithm of the dissociation constant of HI and fI- is the activity
coefficient of the indicator ion.
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Two solutions with the same H+ activity should give the same color upon dissociation of the
indicator, provided that their ionic strengths are the same. The final pH of the sample is arrived at
by matching the color produced to a standard color chart prepared for this purpose.
Table 1. Model of color chart
pH
0-2
3-4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Color
Red
Reddish orange
Orange
Yellow
Yellowish-green
Green
Blue-green
Blue
The colorimetric measurement is affected by temperature and nature and concentration of soluble
salts
3.5.2 Electrometric method
The measurement of soil pH is commonly done electrometrically through the use of a glass
electrode-calomel electrode system. The glass electrode consist of a very thin wall bulb filled
with dilute HCl into which dips a silver wire coated with silver chloride and connected to an
electrode head.
The glass electrode is the H+ sensing electrode which develops changing potential (voltage)
proportional to the logarithm of the changes in the activities of H +. The calomel electrode
containing dilute KCl has characteristic potential (voltage) relatively independent of the H +
activity. The observed voltage of the cell, E, is proportional to the H + activity of the solution on
suspension and is given by:
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pH=(E-E)F/2.303RT
where E is the observed voltage of the cell, R is the gas constant, T is the absolute temperature,
and F is the faraday constant.
Figure 4 Electrometric measurement of soil pH. (Source: Brady and Weill, 2008)
Before proceeding with any pH measurement the pH meter need to be standardized with a buffer
solution of known pH. Upon immersion of the electrodes into the soil suspension, the pH meter
indicates the pH of the suspension from the multitudes of potential generated when the two
electrodes are placed in the soil suspension. Currently, there is a proliferation of equipment for
determining soil pH. Combination electrodes which usually have an Ag-AgCl reference rather
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than the calomel reference electrodes are most often used (Fig. 4). Plastic-encased electrodes are
preferable for field use because they resist breakage.
3.6 Management of soil acidity
3.6.1 Lime requirement
Acidity can be neutralized by the application of lime. Liming involves the addition of chemical
compounds which reacts with the soil solution and reduces the H+ content, and the Al and Fe
contents of the soil. The quantity of lime required to neutralize soil acidity is referred to as the
lime requirement (LR) of the soil. It is usually expressed as CaCO 3 equivalent. The unit can be
meq/100g or Cmol (c) kg-1. The methods used in deriving the LR of soils include:
1. Soil base titration
2. Soil-lime incubation
3. Kamprath method (use of exchangeable aluminum as an index of LR)
3.6.2 Functions of lime
1. It Neutralizes soil acidity
2. It supplies Ca to the soil
3. It improves microbial activities. The activities of microbes which are limited in acid soils are
increased when the soil is limed by provision of optimum pH for the microorganisms.
4. It ensures efficient use of fertilizers. A more favourable pH results from liming; this improves
the plant nutrient uptake and use of fertilizer material added to the soil.
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3.6.3 Types of liming materials

1. CaCO3. This is the most widely used liming material. It is considered to have 100% liming
effect. Materials such as MgCO3 can also be used, as well as Dolomite (CaMgCaCO3).
2. Calcium oxide. This includes burnt lime, quick lime, stone lime, unslaked lime, and caustic
lime.
3. Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2). This includes slaked lime, hydrated lime or agricultural
hydrate.
4.0 Conclusion
Soil pH is the most important characteristic in determining the chemical environment of higher
plants and soil microbes. A lot of chemical and biological reactions in the soil are sensitive to soil
pH. A proper understanding of this sensitivity is important for proper soil management. The
process of soil formation results in soil acidification, but the process is magnified in humid
regions where the production of H+ is excessive. Natural acidification results from the production
of organic acids and the leaching away of non-acid cations that are displaced from the soil
exchange site by H+. Human activities have accelerated the process of soil acidification through
emissions from power plants and vehicles, and also from agricultural practices such as fertilizer
application. Aluminum is a major culprit in soil acidification. The hydrolysis of the cation
produces H+, likewise the toxicity of the cation is one of the major problems of acid soils. The
sum of the active, exchangeable, and residual pools of acidity gives the total acidity of a soil.
Soil fertility in acid soils, especially in humid regions where such soils are prevalent, lies on a
judicious use of lime to balance calcium and magnesium losses from the soil. Liming of the soil
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also provides a chemical and physical environment that encourages the growth of crop. In
addition to liming, gypsum and organic matter are other materials that can be used to ameliorate
acid soils. Knowing the importance of pH to crop production and how to maintain the soil at
optimum pH level is important for sustainable agriculture.
5.0 Summary
Soils with pH less than 7 are broadly referred to as acid soils. The growth of crops is
significantly impacted by the pH of the soil medium through its effects on soil chemical and
biological reactions taking place in the soil. The H+ that eventually leads to soil acidity is
contributed by a number of processes. Some of these processes occur naturally while others are
induced by human activities. The natural processes that result in acidic soils are precipitation,
evapotranspiration, and leaching. Acidic conditions could also arise from mine wastes rich in
pyrite (FeS2) and other sulfide. Human activities contributing to acidic soil reactions include
agricultural processes such as fertilization which contributes substantial amount of soil acidity;
and the dissolution of phosphate fertilizers. Other processes are the mineralization of organic
matter, and the removal of calcium from the soil. A major culprit in soil acidification is the
hydrolysis of aluminum. The hydrolysis reactions of free Al species releases H + or H3O+ into the
soil solution. This leads to the formation of monomeric hydrolysis product ([Al(OH)(H 2O)5]2+,
[Al(OH)2 (H2O)4]1+, [Al(OH)3 (H2O)3]0, and [Al(OH)4 (H2O)2]1) when the coordinated water is
deprotonated. Acid soils are a problem in crop production due to the infertility factors associated
with them. These factors include: Al Toxicity, Mn Toxicity, Ca and Mg deficiency, H + toxicity, P
availability, and Mo Deficiency. The components of soil acidity can be classified into Titratable
acidity or total acidity and Exchangeable acidity. The acidity of a soil is expressed as pH values
below 7. The pH of soil is usually determined either Colorimetrically or Electrometrically. The
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colorimetric measurement is affected by temperature and nature and concentration of soluble

salts. Soil acidity can be neutralized by the application of lime. Liming involves the addition of
chemical compounds which reacts with the soil solution and reduces the H + content, and the Al
and Fe contents of the soil. The quantity of lime required to neutralize soil acidity is referred to
as the lime requirement (LR) of the soil. The functions of lime in the soil include neutralization
of soil acidity, supply of Ca to the soil, improvement of microbial activities and it ensures
efficient use of fertilizers
What is soil pH?
Explain the concept of soil acidity?
Why is soil acidity a problem in crop production?
Highlight some important characteristics of acid soil.
How would you reclaim an acidic soil?
7.0 References/further reading

1. Brady, N.C. and Weil, R.R. (2008). The Nature and Property of soils (14 th edn). New Jersey:
Pretince Hall
2. Foth H.D. (1958) Fundamentals of soil science (8th edn). New York: John Wiley and Sons.
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3. Sparks, DL (2003). Environmental soil chemistry (2nd edn). San Diego: Academic Press.
4. Tan, K.H. (1998). Principles of soil chemistry (2nd edn). New York: Marcel Dekker Inc.
5. Thomas, GH. Soil pH and Soil Acidity. In: Sparks, et al (Eds) (1996). Methods in soil
Analysis. Part 3, Chemical Methods. Madison: American Society of Agronomy.
6. White R.E. (2006) Principles and Practice of Soil Science, the Soil as a Natural Resource (4th
Edn). Victoria: Blackwell Publishing.
UNIT 2 Salt affected soils

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
19
3.1 Causes of soil alkalinity

3.2 Characteristics of salt affected soils
3.3 Measurement of salinity and sodicity
3.4 Types of salt affected soils
3.4.1 Saline soils
3.4.2 Saline-sodic soils
3.4.3 Sodic soils
3.5 Reclamation and management of salt affected soils
3.5.1 Reclamation of saline soils
3.5.2 Reclamation of saline sodic soils
3.6 Management of reclaimed soils
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The term salinity in soil science is used to describe soils that have accumulated dissolved
inorganic solutes such as Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, K+, Cl-, SO42-, HCO3-, and CO3- in them. According to
the USDA soil taxonomy, such soils are classified as Aridisols. They occur in arid regions where
the average precipitation rate is less than 500mm annually. The largest areas where salt affected
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soils are distributed are Australia, Africa, Latin America, and the Near and Middle East.
Evaporation in these areas exceeds precipitation, and as water is lost to the atmosphere salts are
left in the soil. These salts accumulate over time and act as impediments to crop production. The
process that leads to this accumulation of salts is termed salinization. Depending on the type of
salt that accumulate, salt affected soils are classified as saline, sodic, and saline-sodic. Soil
salinity is also referred to as alkalinity however Alkaline and alkalinity are two terms that
shouldnt be confused with each other. While alkaline soils are simply those with pH above 7.0,
alkalinity refers to the concentration of OH-. Also, alkali soils do not imply alkaline soils. Alkali
soils are those soils with detrimental levels of sodium; they are now called sodic or saline-sodic
soils
2.0 Objectives
Understand the concept of soil salinity
Differentiate between the different types of salt affected soils.
Understand the characteristics of salt affected soils and how they impact on crop
production
Understand how salt affected soils can be reclaimed and managed
3.0 Main component

3.1 Causes of soil salinity
Salinity results when salts accumulate in soils due to evapotranspiration exceeding precipitation;
especially in regions where annual precipitation is less than 500mm. the pH of these soils is
usually in the range of 7 and above. The major source of salinity is Carbonate and bicarbonate.
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Due to the minimal leaching of ions in saline soils, the soil exchange site is predominated by
non-hydrolyzing cations, such as Ca2+, Mg2+, K+ and Na+, that are neutral in their reaction with
water and hence they do not contribute acid or hydroxyl to the soil solution. The dissolution of
calcite (CaCO3) leads to the formation of anions such as carbonate (CO32-) and bicarbonate
(HCO3-). These anions generate hydroxyl (OH -), in a series of linked equilibrium reactions (eq.
1-4), that raises the soil pH:
CaCO3
Calcite (s)
Ca2+
+
(Dissolved in water)
CO32-.. (1)
(dissolved in water)
CO32- + H2O
HCO3- + OH- (2)
HCO3- + H2O
H2CO3 + OH- . (3)
H2CO3
Carbonic acid
H2CO3 + CO2 (4)

(gas)
These series of reactions are controlled by the precipitation or dissolution of calcite and by the
production or loss of carbon dioxide. Thus, elevated CO 2 concentration in the soil due to
respiration of roots and microorganisms would drive the reaction series to the left; likewise, the
precipitation of CaCO3 would drive the reaction series to the left, thereby lowering the pH. The
level of pH attained from the series of reactions above could also be influenced by the cation
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associated with carbonate and bicarbonate. In the presence of sodium, sodium carbonate and
bicarbonate are formed, these minerals are more water soluble than calcium carbonate, hence
more hydroxyl ions would be generated and thus higher pH can be attained.
3.2 Characteristics of salt affected soils

Nutrient deficiency: this is a common problem in soils with high pH. Under low pH
micronutrients are available in high or even toxic concentration; however, micronutrient
deficiency is highly exhibited by alkaline soils. Plants growing in alkaline soils show deficiency
in micronutrients such as Zn, Cu, Fe, and Mn, especially in crops such as soya bean, sorghum,
bean, corn, and wheat. In order to meet the nutrient deficiency of plants growing in these soils,
chelates could be employed. Boron is also thought to form inner-sphere complexes with surfaces
of iron and aluminum oxides and silicate clays as soil pH increases. Deficiency of boron in
alkaline soils is also related to the high calcium concentration. Plants show a higher need for
boron when calcium level is high. Unlike boron, molybdenum availability could be high to toxic
level as soil pH increases.
Phosphorus is also another deficient nutrient in alkaline soils.
Phosphorus is held in insoluble forms by the abundant Ca 2+ and Mg2+ as calcium and magnesium
phosphates minerals. Phosphorus added to alkaline soils as fertilizers is also converted to the
insoluble calcium phosphate, thus rendering them unavailable to the plants.
Cation exchange capacity
The 2:1 type clay is most common in alkaline soils. The mineralogy of these clays and the high
pH levels of the soils make CEC of alkaline soils higher than that of acid soils with similar
texture. The 2:1 type clays possess high amounts of permanent charge while the high pH leads to
high variable charges on the soil colloids.
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Diagnostic horizon
Salt affected soils have high calcium carbonate concentration at some depth in the soil profile
(Fig 1). This calcic horizon is a major distinguishing feature of these soils. The carbonate layers
acts as impediments to root penetration for some crops. Where rainfall is very low or where
surface soil has been eroded, carbonate concentration are found at or near the soil surface (Fig
2b). Composite layers such as petrocalcic or duripan, as well as layers rich in gypsum could be
found in other alkaline soils
Figure 1 Soil with accumulated calcium carbonate in the B horizon (Btk) and the upper
part of the C horizon. This type of soil is common in arid and semi-arid regions. The
calcareous layer is responsible for the high pH of the soils, and it also limits the availability
of nutrients such as phosphorus, iron, manganese, and zinc. (Source: Brady and Weill,
2008)
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(a)
25
(b)
Figure 2 Accumulation of soluble salts in soils as observed in a potting medium (a) and in
irrigated fields (b). (Source: Brady and Weill, 2008)
Water supply
The supplies of water in salt affected soils differ with the region where they occur. Those salt
affected soils occurring in areas with low rainfall are mostly dry, except under conditions where
a high water table exists. Moisture availability in the upper soil horizon and the competition for
water among plants are two factors that define crop production in such areas.
3.3 Measurement of salinity and sodicity

Salinity could be measured as the total dissolved solid or as electrical conductivity; while
sodicity is characterized by exchangeable sodium percentage and sodium adsorption ratio. The
total dissolved solids (TDS) in water can be determined by heating the solution to dryness, and
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expressing the weighted residue in terms of milligram of solid residue per liter of water (mg/L).
The electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil solution is an indirect measure of the salt content.
The sodium status of soils can be characterized by exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) or
sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). The ESP identifies the extent of saturation of the exchange site
with sodium, while SAR shows the comparative concentrations of Na +, Ca2+, and Mg2+ in the soil
solution.
ESP = exchangeable sodium, cmolc/kg
X100
Cation exchange capacity, cmolc/kg
Severely deteriorated soils and soils with pH of 8.5 and above usually have ESP values greater
than 15.
SAR =
[Na+]
(0.5[Ca2+] + 0.5 [Mg2+])1/2
Where [Na+], [Ca2+], and [Mg2+] are concentrations of sodium, calcium, and magnesium in the
soil solution (in mmol charge per litre)
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Figure 3 Determination of salinity levels in the field through measurement of electrical

conductivity. (Source: Brady and Weill, 2008)
3.4 Types of salt affected soils

Based on the value of their EC, ESP (or SAR) and pH, soils with salt problem are classified into:
1. Saline
2. Saline-sodic
3. Sodic
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3.4.1 Saline soils

These soils are characterized by the accumulation of soluble salts, mainly chlorides and sulfates
of calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium. The saturated extract of these soils give EC
values greater than 4dS/m, ESP less than 15 (or SAR < 13), and pH that is usually less than 8.
The high concentration of soluble salts in these soils prevent dispersion of soil colloids, hence
plants growing on saline soils are constrained by poor infiltration, aggregate stability and
aeration. Evaporation of water from these soils can leave behind white salt crust on the soil
surface, hence the name white alkali, which was used to describe saline soils.
3.4.2 Saline-sodic soils

In contrast to saline soils which do not have problem of sodium, saline-sodic soils have high
concentration of neutral salts and sodium ions. Due to the detrimental levels of these ions,
saturated extract from these soils have EC > 4dS/m and ESP >15 or SAR >13. The excess levels
of salts and sodium acts as impediment to the growth of plants on saline-sodic soils. Saline-sodic
soils are intermediate between saline and sodic soils.
3.4.3 Sodic soils

Sodic soils are characterized by high levels of sodium on their exchange sites, while the levels of
neutral soluble salts are low. These soils usually exhibit EC values <4dS/m and ESP >15 or
SAR>13, and a pH > 8.5. The high pH value of these soils is due to the higher solubility of
sodium carbonate in comparison to calcium or magnesium carbonate. These soils are dispersed
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due to the effect of sodium saturated colloids that prevent colloidal surfaces. Hydraulic
conductivity and infiltration in these soils is usually very low due to the absence of large pores.
The larges pores are clogged by dispersed soil colloids when aggregates break up. This is
responsible for the characteristic puddled nature of most sodic soils. The poor physical and
hydraulic properties of these soils and the toxicities from high levels of Na +, OH-, and HCO3ions are the major impediments to the growth of plants on these soils. Sodic soils were
previously known as black alkali. This is due to the evaporation of water containing dispersed
organic matter which moved to the soil surface. This impacts a black coloration on the soil
surface.
Figure 4 Upper profile of a sodic soil found in the semiarid region of western Canada.
(Source: Brady and Weill, 2008)
3.5 Reclamation and management of salt affected soils
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3.5.1 Reclamation of saline soils

The process of restoring the chemical and physical properties of problem soils to that of a normal
soil conducive to high productivity is known as soil reclamation. The reclamation of saline soils
principally involves the leaching away of excess salts, this depends on the provision of effective
drainage and availability of good quality irrigation water. Where irrigation water is not available,
deep rooted plants may be used to lower the water table and reduce the upward movement of
salts. The amount of water required to wash away excess salt from the soil is known as the
leaching requirement (LR) and it depends on:
1. The characteristics of the crops to be grown
2. The irrigation water, and
3. The soil
Mathematically, the LR is expressed as the ratio of the salinity of the irrigation water (ECiw) to
the maximum acceptable salinity of the soil solution for the crop to be grown (ECdw, the EC of
the drainage water)
LR= ECiw
ECdw
3.5.2 Reclamation of saline sodic soils

The reclamation of saline-sodic and sodic soils is essentially the same. Since the removal of
soluble salts alone would result in the problem high Na + levels and pH, as in sodic soils;
reclamation of saline soils involves reducing the level of exchangeable Na + and then removing
excess soluble salts. Excess Na+ is most effectively removed by replacing with Ca 2+ or H+.
31
Calcium ion (Ca2+) can be supplied in the form of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O). The following
exchange reactions occur in the soil:
2NaHCO3 + CaSO4
CaCO3 + Na2SO4 + CO2
Na2CO3 + CaSO4
2Na+
Micelle
+ H2O. (1)
CaCO3 + Na2SO4 .. (2)

(insoluble) (leachable)
Ca2+
+ CaSO4
Micelle
+ Na2SO4 (3)
The soluble salt (Na2SO4) formed can be easily leached out of the soil, as in the case of saline
soils. In sodic soils, elemental sulfur and sulfuric acid could be used. The sulfur undergoes
biological oxidation to give sulfuric acid. This acid changes sodium bicarbonate to sodium
sulfate which is a less harmful and leachable product; the acids also lowers the soil pH. The
reaction is as follows:
2NaHCO3 + H2SO4
Na2CO3 + H2SO4
2Na+
Micelle
+ H2SO4
2CO2
CO2
+ 2H2O + 2Na2SO4
(leachable)
+ H2O + Na2SO4
(leachable)
2H+
Micelle
+ Na2SO4 (3)
(leachable)
3.6 Management of reclaimed soils

After the reclamation of a salt affected soil, standard practices must be adapted to ensure that the
soils remain productive. The EC, SAR and trace element composition of irrigation water must be
monitored. The number of times irrigation is done as well as the timing of irrigation episodes
must be tuned to balance up salt entering and leaving the soil. Chemical properties of the soil
linked with salinity- pH, EC, SAR, trace elements (B, Cl, Mo, Se), must also be properly
monitored. Proper crop and soil fertility management is also essential. Crop residue should be
32
incorporated into the soil to help maintain organic matter levels and good physical conditions of
the soil. Appropriate organic and inorganic sources should also be used to maintain high yields
and deficiencies in micronutrient and phosphorus.
4.0 Conclusion
Salinity is a common problem in soil of arid and semi-arid regions. These soils usually exhibit
pH values above 7 throughout their profile. Another distinguishing feature of these soils is the
presence of a calcic or gypsic horizon. Due to the high pH of these soils, deficiencies of
micronutrients such as iron and zinc, as well as macro nutrient such as phosphorus are common
occurrences. In some cases, boron, molybdenum and selenium may be present in very high levels
and accumulate in plant tissues. To effectively leach out soluble salts from salt affected soils,
sufficient drainage that can effectively carry away the leaching water is essential. Hence both
leaching and drainage are essential to any successful washing away of salts.
5.0 Summary
Salinity in soil science is used to describe soils that have accumulated dissolved inorganic solutes
such as Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, K+, Cl-, SO42-, HCO3-, and CO3- in them. These soils are classified as
Aridisols According to the USDA soil taxonomy. Salt affected soils are characterized by nutrient
deficiency, high pH and high cation exchange capacity, a calcic diagnostic horizon, and often low
available soil moisture. Salinity could be measured as the total dissolved solid or as electrical
conductivity; while sodicity is characterized by exchangeable sodium percentage and sodium
adsorption ratio. For severely deteriorated soils and soils with pH of 8.5 and above, ESP values
are usually greater than 15. On the basis of EC, ESP (or SAR) and pH values, soils with salt
problem are classified into saline, saline-sodic, and sodic. Saline soils are characterized by the
33
accumulation of soluble salts, mainly chlorides and sulfates of calcium, magnesium, potassium
and sodium. Saline soils have EC values greater than 4dS/m, ESP less than 15 (or SAR < 13),
and pH that is usually less than 8. Saline-sodic soils don not have problem of sodium, but have
high concentration of neutral salts and sodium ions. The saturated extract from these soils have
EC > 4dS/m and ESP >15 or SAR >13. Sodic soils are characterized by high levels of sodium on
their exchange sites, while the levels of neutral soluble salts are low. These soils usually exhibit
EC values <4dS/m and ESP >15 or SAR>13, and a pH > 8.5
The process of restoring the chemical and physical properties of problem soils to that of a normal
soil conducive to high productivity is known as soil reclamation. The reclamation of saline soils
principally involves the leaching away of excess salts, this depends on the provision of effective
drainage and availability of good quality irrigation water. The amount of water required to wash
away excess salt from the soil is known as the leaching requirement (LR) and it depends on the
the characteristics of the crops to be grown, the irrigation water, and the soil. After reclaiming a
salt soil, standard practices must be adapted to ensure that the soils remain productive. Such
practices include monitoring of the EC, SAR and trace element composition of irrigation water,
the number of times irrigation is done as well as the timing of irrigation episodes, monitoring of
soil chemical properties linked with salinity e.g pH, EC, SAR, trace elements (B, Cl, Mo, Se),
and proper crop and soil fertility management.

Explain the concept of salinity in soils.
What is the difference between alkaline and alkalinity?
34
Differentiate between the types of soil salinity.

What are the limitations of salinity in crop production?
How would you reclaim saline-sodic soils?
7.0 References/further readings

Pretince Hall
4. Tan, K.H. (1998). Principles of soil chemistry (2nd edn). New York: Marcel Dekker Inc.
5. Rhoades, J.D. Salinity: Electrical Conductivity and Total Dissolved Soilids. In: Sparks, et al
(Eds) (1996). Methods in soil Analysis. Part 3, Chemical Methods. Madison: American Society
of Agronomy
6. White R.E. (2006) Principles and Practice of Soil Science, the Soil as a Natural Resource (4th
edn). Victoria: Blackwell Publishing.
35
UNIT 3 Wetland soils

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Wetlands soils
3.2 Formation and classification of Hydric Soils!
3.3 Field indicators for hydric soils in the US
3.3.1 Indicator format
3.4 Hydric Soil Chemistry
3.5 Types of wetland soils
3.6 Management of wetland soils
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
36

1.0 Introduction
Soils of importance in agriculture are usually found under oxic condition. The processes
occurring in the soil system under oxic conditions favour the growth and development of crops.
However, some soils are found under submerged condition where anaerobic processes
predominate. Although such soils inherently limit crop production, with proper management they
could give rise to soils rich in organic matter, and which would sufficiently support the growth of
crops, especially vegetable. The soils found under this submerged conditions are referred to as
wetland soils. The chemistry of wetland soils is anoxic, and this has significantly affected the
morphology of the soil. Field indicators are used during soil description and classification to
group wetland soils into their various types. The majority of wetland soils are found in boreal
biome. Bogs are the most dominant type of wetlands. Peats and peatlands are common in very
cold areas where continuous permafrost is maintained. To efficiently manage wetlands, it is
imperative to understand the properties and reactions occurring in wetland soils.
2.0 Objectives
Define wetlands and explain related concepts and regulations
Explain the characteristics and chemical processes taking place in wetland soils
Describe techniques for identifying wetland soils using field indicators and monitoring
equipment
37
Explain management of wetland soils
3.0 Main component

3.1 Wetland soils
Wetland soils is a general term for any soil found in a wetland. However, in 1979 Cowardin et
al. introducd the term hydric soil to describe wetland soils. Hence wetland soils and hydric
soils are used interchangeably. Since then, hydric soil has been redefined for jurisdictional
purposes by the USDAs National Technical Committee for Hydric Soils. They defined wetland
soils as: soils that are formed under conditions of saturation, flooding, or ponding long
enough during the growing season to develop anaerobic conditions in the upper part (Hurt et al.,
1998).
This definition connotes three fundamental attributes of wetland soils:
The land periodically supports hydrophytes predominantly
The substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil
The substrate is non-soil and is saturated with water or is covered by water some time during
the growing season of each year.
38
(a)
(b)
(c)
39
Figure 1. Small (a), Medium (b) and Large (c) Wetlands

(Source: http://courses.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc570/student_projects/571_web_page/main.htm)
3.1.1 Other definitions of Wetlands
According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife, wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and
aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by
shallow water. Similar to the above definition, this definition also embodies three attributes:
at least periodically, the land supports hydrophytes;
the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil;
the substrate is nonsoil and is saturated with water or covered by shallow water at some
time during the growing season of each year
The U.S.A.C.E. (United States Army Corps of Engineers) defined wetlands as those areas that
are saturated or inundated by surface or groundwater at a frequency and duration sufficient to
support, and under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically
adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs,
and similar areas (USACE, 1987).
3.2 Formation and classification of Hydric Soils.
The Formation of hydric soils is influenced by interactions of soil-forming factors, but the
overriding factor is water. Hydric soils are soil that formed under conditions of saturation,
flooding or ponding long enough during the growing season to develop anaerobic conditions in
the upper part. A hydric soil is one that is normally associated with wetlands and hydrophytic
vegetation. In other words, the definition of hydric soils follows a close observation of the
40
connection between the vegetation in classic wetlands and the soils that help support it. This
involves characteristics such as wetness or saturation during the growing season of plants, and
anaerobic conditions in the root zone of plants. Some other soil properties are also related to
hydrophytic vegetation, and these are the length of time that a soil must be saturated, the location
of the water table relative to the soil surface and plant roots, and the period of the year that
represents the growing season of the plants common to the area.
During the process of soil classification, one of the major ways of identifying soils in the field is
by their morphologic characteristics. Hence, wetland soils are also mostly identified by soil
colors. These colours are related to the duration of saturation and reducing conditions in the soil.
The Hydrophytic vegetation present is used as an indication of the anaerobic condition in the
soil. Other important indices for classifying wetlands are the reducing conditions and the length
of time a soil remains saturated during the plants active growing season.
3.3 Field indicators for hydric soils in the US
Field indicators are soil morphological features used to identify hydric soils. These indicators
have been extensively used in the US. The features result from soil genesis in the presence of
Anaerobic Conditions. They are used for on-site verification. The field indicators for hydric
include:
Organic soils (histosols) (Fig 2)
Histic Epipedons
Sulfidic material
Aquic moisture regime
Reducing soil conditions
Soils colors
41
Gleyed soils (gray colors)
Soils with bright mottles and/or low matrix chroma (dullness or neutral color)
(Fig 2)
Iron and Manganese concretions. The presence of or absence of these indicators are used
as criteria for identifying hydric soils.
Figure 2 Field indicators (colour (left) and reducing condition (right)) for identifying
hydric soils.
(http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/n_resource/wetlands/wetlands5_soils.htm)
Other field indicators applied specifically to sandy soils alone are:
High organic matter in surface horizon
Streaking of subsurface horizons by organic matter
Organic pans
Hydric soil indicators have three major divisions, in terms of application:

1. All Soils: These are generic indicators. They could be used regardless of soil texture. They
are mostly surface layer of organic material.
42
2. Sandy Soils: Sandy indicators are used in sandy layers

3. Loamy Soils. loamy indicators are used in loamy layers
(a)
43
(b)
Figure 3 Differences between a hydric (a) and non-hydrc (b) soil profiles.
(http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/n_resource/wetlands/wetlands5_soils.htm)
44
3.3.1 Indicator format

The indicator is in the form of a 5 categorical system, as follows:
1. Alpha Numeric Listing. This indicates the general feature of the soil classified. It is normally
designated with the letters A, S or F; where A=any, S=sandy, F= loamy & clayey.
2. Short Name: The alpha numerical listing is followed by a short name. The short name does
not necessarily have any technical meaning. They were made up to assist people remember
the soils.
3. Applicable Land Resource Region (LRR): the Applicable land resource region and suggested
land resource regions for testing are described under this category.
4. Description of the Indicator: the indicator criteria that have to be met for the wetland to be
classified as a certain type are described under this category.
5. User Notes: finally, user notes are made. This is always intended to be added at the local /
regional level. It may list information such as landforms, soil series, etc. where certain
indicators are found
A typical example of hydric soil description using the indicator format for All Soils is A1,
Histosol (Fig. 4). The A1 indicates the first indicator for All Soils; Histosol, is the short name;
the indicator is for use in all LRRs. User Notes: In a Histosol, the upper 80cm is mostly
composed of soil organic materials. Depending on the clay content, the organic carbon content of
the organic material 18percent or more. These material could be saric, hemic, and fibirc. Hence,
it is classified as a Histosol; and user notes are added. Using these generic indicators (All soils)
hydric soils have been classified into 10 groups denoted as A1 to A10. A short name for the soil
usually follows the numeric listing.
45
Figure 4 Indicator A1 (Histosol or Histel). This soil has more than 30 inches of organic
material, starting at the surface. (Source: USDA/NRCS)
46
Sandy soils
Most sandy indicators are based upon OM accumulation, but color can be an effective indicator
in some sandy soils. If a Layer less than 25 cm deep is loamy fine sand or coarser, and the
Control Section is less than 15 cm deep, then the Indicator for such soils include:
1. Organic surface layers
2. Differential translocation
streaking of organic matter
Fe stripped matrix
Similar to the all soils the indicator format for sandy soils is S: the alpha numeric listing,
which if followed by the short name. Sandy hydric soils are described with indicators from S1 to
S9. Typical examples include sandy hydric soils with high organic matter surface which are
differentiated into the following groups:
S1, Sandy Mucky Mineral
S2, 2.5 cm Mucky Peat or Peat
S3, 5 cm Mucky Peat or Peat
47
Figure 5. Indicator S4 (Sandy Gleyed Matrix). The gleyed matrix begins at the surface of
the soil. (Source: USDA/NRCS).
Loamy soils
The indicators for loamy hydric soils are mostly based upon the reduction/oxidation of Fe. If any
layer in the upper 25cm is loamy very fine sand or finer, and the control section is within a depth
of 25-30cm, then such soils are described using the indicator system for loamy hydric soils. The
alpha numeric listing for loamy soils is an F, followed by the short name, and then maybe, user
notes. A typical example is F3, Depleted Matrix (Fig 6). This describes a layer at least 15 cm
48
thick with a depleted matrix that has 60% or more chroma 2 or less starting within 25 cm of the
surface.
Figure 6 Indicator F3 (Depleted Matrix). This soil has value of 4 or less and chroma of 2 or
less and redox concentrations starting at a depth of 8 cm. Since the depleted matrix starts
within a depth of 15 cm, the minimum thickness requirement is only 5 cm.
(Source: USDA/NRCS).
49
3.4 Hydric Soil Chemistry

The chemistry of reactions in hydric soils is predominantly anaerobic. Normally, soil microbes
obtain energy by oxidizing carbon compounds through the process of respiration. In this reaction
they require chemical elements to act as terminal electron acceptors. Under aerobic condition,
oxygen is the primary electron acceptor, forming water as the respiratory by-product. Under
saturated or near saturated condition, the oxygen dissolved in soil water is rapidly consumed.
Some soil anaerobes that are facultative and obligate in nature begin to utilize oxidized forms of
nitrogen, manganese, iron, sulfur, and carbon as terminal electron acceptors. In strongly reduced
soils, the reduced forms of these elements predominate (i.e. N 2, Mn2+, Fe2+, S2-, CH4). The soil
indicators used in identifying hydric soils are directly and indirectly formed by the anaerobic
consumption of organic matter. The reactions involved can be explained as follows:
Carbon
Organic matter decomposition in hydric soils is less efficient than under aerobic soil condition.
This leads to the accumulation of more organic matter than in well drained soils. Rapid
decomposition results upon drainage of these soils.
Iron
The reduced state of hydric soils leads to the large amounts of reduced iron (Fe 2+) which are
typically gray to blue-green. This is termed gleyed. The blue-green pigmentation of iron in
hydric soils contrast the oxidized form (Fe3+), whereby iron pigmentation ranges from orange to
dark red.
50
Sulfur
Some hydic soils are characterized by the presence of sulfide (S 2-). This occurs under extremely
reduced conditions, where sulfate ions (SO 42-) are reduced to sulfide (S 2-). The sulfide produced
may combine with hydrogen to form a pungent hydrogen sulfide gas. This is a common feature
in swamps.
Redox
The features impacting colours to the soil are mainly due to organic matter, iron and manganese.
Reduction makes iron and manganese mobile in the environment, this results in the diffusion of
the reduced ions towards the oxidized zones of the soil. As this progresses, it result in mottles in
a gray, low-chroma matrix.
The rates of these chemical transformations are affected by the redox potential, rates of
biological activity, and the basic mineralogical composition of the soil.
3.5 Types of wetland soils
Although field indicators are used to identify the morphological properties of wetland/hydric
soils, wetland soils are still grouped into taxonomic classes such as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Tidal Marshes
Fens
Bogs
Pocosins
Wet meadows (Prairie potholes, Vernal pools , Playa lakes)
Swamps (Forested swamps, Bottomland hardwoods, Shrubs, mangroves)
Tidal Marsh
These soils are developed in salt marshes. They are characterized by accumulated mud and roots
and organic material from the decay and breakup of salt-marsh plants. Soils in coastal fresh
51
marshes are generally alluvial, hence tidal marshes have fine texture, rich in organic materials
and nutrients.
Figure 7 Tidal Marsh

(Source: http://pages.vassar.edu/casperkill/wooded-wetland/)
Bogs
They are characterized by poor drainage and are usually waterlogged. Peat depth in bogs varies
from 2 to 12m, due to the slow decomposition rate. A cool climate is a majoe requirement fo the
formation of bogs. Bogs may be up to 98% water. Water is held within the dead moss (e.g.
sphagnum) fragments. The soil profile of bogs consists of two layers: The upper, which is a very
thin layer, known as the acrotelm; it is only some 30cm deep. It usually consists of upright stems
of the present mosses (water moves rapidly through this layer). The second layer is a much
thicker bulk of peat which is found below, this is known as the catotelm. It forms where
individual plant stems have collapsed under the weight of mosses above them to produce an
52
amorphous, chocolate-colored mass of moss fragments water moves more slowly through this
layer. Bogs are ombrotrophic- water supply is from the mineral-poor rainwater
Figure 8 Bogs
(http://dimidia.com/2012/04/16/peat-bogs-one-of-natures-important-carbon-sinks/).
Fen
Fens are of Glacial origins. The hydrology of these soils is waterlogged, mostly groundwater,
and some surface water. They have Mineratrophic water- usually high in calcium, other ions
from mineral-rich groundwater. In contrast to bogs, they have some drainage. The pH of these
soils is slightly alkaline or neutral (pH of 7 to 8). The soils are made of peat, which result from
the decomposition of large amount plant material. Technically, these soils are known as muck.
The average peat depth is up to 2m. Wet meadows are similar, except that they dont have
organic soil, and do not have year-round water
53
Figure 9 Fen
Pocosin
Like bogs, Pocosins have lots of sphagnum moss and nutrient-poor acidic soil and water. They
also get most of their moisture from precipitation. They are usually organic in nature, and partly
or completely enclosed by a sandy rim. The slow decay of dead vegetation contributes to the
deep peat and acidic soils of these areas. Picosins naturally have low nutrient levels.
54
Figure 10. Pocosin

(Source: http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/aphid/hyalo.htm)
Vernal Pool
Vernal pools are Ancient soils with an impermeable layer such as a hardpan, claypan, or volcanic
basalt. Hardpans and claypans are mostly impervious to the downward percolation of rainwater.
The restrictive soil layers are duripans or claypans, and the bedrock types are volcanic mud or
lavaflows
Figure 11 Vernal Pool

(Source: http://www3.villanova.edu/conferences/biogeomon/trips.html/)
Forested Swamp
Forested swamps occur in a wide variety of situations ranging from broad, flat floodplains to
isolated basins (Meandering river channels, Natural levees adjacent to rivers). The texture of
these soils ranges from mucks and clays to silts and sands. Organic levels may reach up to 36%
55
Compared to content of upland soils (0.4-1.5%). Peat deposition is characteristic of slow

decomposition rates, and the thickness decreases toward shallow end of swamp
Figure 12 Forested swamp

(Source: http://www.natureconservancy.ca/assets/images/temp/on/24135.jpg
3.6 Management of wetland soils

The Organic soils in wetlands are adversely affected by conventional cultivation practices as well
as management practices in forested wetlands, such as drainage and harvesting of forested
wetlands. Rapid rates of decomposition of organic matter results from the disturbance of wetland
vegetation and organic soils in the wetlands. Silvicultureal practices such as site preparation for
timber harvesting and regeneration can affect organic matter decomposition rate. This results
from alteration in soil temperature or moisture, or by increasing substrate availability to
microorganisms. Tree harvesting in wetlands also increases soil temperature, which increases the
rate of organic matter decomposition. The growing trees around wetlands decreases organic
56
matter accumulation, due to the lesser amount of biomass added to the soil compared to grasses
and other organic matter sources. Trees also use more water during their growth, this results in
increased depth to the water table. Thus, the organic matter content of wetlands can be prolonged
by burning of the trees. This would allow for maintenance of high enough water table that would
slow down the rate of biological oxidation of the organic matter.
4.0 Conclusion
The various definitions of wetlands are describes the physical attributes of wetlands and they are
used chiefly to identify wetlands for regulatory purposes. However, wetlands are more than
physical places where water is present and certain plants grow. Wetlands perform a variety of
unique physical, chemical and biological functions which are difficult to define or identify for
regulatory purposes. These unique functions are essential to the health of the environment and
valuable to society. The ecosystem of wetland is highly influenced terrestrial and aquatic
systems, because wetlands exist between them. Wetlands are characterized by the presence of
water on the soil surface or within the root zone of the plant. The depth of water is usually within
18 inches of the soil surface. This water impacts on wetlands unique properties that differentiate
it from upland soil. The plants that survive on wetlands are those that are adapted to aquatic
environment permanently or for extended period of time (hydrophytes). The kind of plant that
grows in wetland is also a function of soil type, amount of organic matter, depth to which water
table rise, climate, and the season and duration high water. Hence, the kind of plants that grow in
wetland and the degree of surface flooding or soil saturation are considered when classifying a
wetland type. Therefore, any of the definitions of wetlands may suffice for the purposes of
protection and enhancement of wetland functions.
57
5.1 Summary
The soils found under submerged conditions are referred to as wetland soils. The term hydric
soil is used to describe wetland soils. Hence both terms are used interchangeably. Three
fundamentals attributes are defined in most definitions of wetlands and hydric soils. These are:
The land periodically supports hydrophytes predominantly
The substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil
The substrate is non-soil and is saturated with water or is covered by water some time during
the growing season of each year.
The overriding factor in hydric soil formation is water. Hydric soils are formed under conditions
of saturation, flooding or ponding long enough during the growing season to develop anaerobic
conditions in the upper part. Hydric soils are identified in the field through the aid of field
indicators. These are soil morphological features that result from soil genesis in the presence of
Anaerobic Conditions. They are used for on-site verification. The field indicators for hydric
include: Organic soils (histosols), Histic Epipedons , Sulfidic material, Aquic moisture regime,
Reducing soil conditions, and Soils colors. The indicator is in the form of a 5 categorical system.
The chemistry of reactions in hydric soils is predominantly anaerobic, and the soil indicators
used in identifying hydric soils are directly and indirectly formed by the anaerobic consumption
of organic matter. The reactions involved can be explained by the anaerobic transformations of
carbon, iron, sulfur, and also redox reactions. Wetland soils are grouped into taxonomic classes
such as tidal Marshes, fens, bogs, pocosins , Wet meadows (Prairie potholes, Vernal pools , Playa
lakes), and swamps (Forested swamps, Bottomland hardwoods, Shrubs, mangroves). Bogs are
58
the most dominant type of wetlands. Peats and peatlands are common in very cold areas where
continuous permafrost is maintained.
To efficiently manage wetlands, it is imperative to
understand the properties and reactions occurring in wetland soils. The Organic soils in wetlands
are adversely affected by conventional cultivation practices as well as management practices in
forested wetlands, such as drainage and harvesting of forested wetlands Thus, the organic matter
content of wetlands can be prolonged by burning of the trees. This would allow for maintenance
of high enough water table that would slow down the rate of biological oxidation of the organic
matter.
1. Define wetland soils
2. What are those properties that qualify a soil as a wetland soil?
3. Differentiate between hydric soils and wetland soils?
4. What are the conditions under which hydric soil form?
5. Mention the types of wetlands identified.
6. What are the indices used in identifying wetlands?
7. Explain the chemistry of wetland soils.
8. How can wetland soils be managed?
1. Hurt, G. W., P. M. Whited, and R. F. Pringle (1998). Field Indicators of Hydric Soils in the
United States. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. Fort Worth, TX.
2. Mazhitova, G. (2006). Boreal Forest, Soils of the. In: Rattan Lal (Ed.) Encyclopedia of soil
science (2nd edn)
3. Richardson, J.L. and Vepraskas, M.J. (2001). Wetland Soils, Genesis, Hydrology, Landscapes,
and Classification. Boca Raton: CRC Press Ltd.
59
4. United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2010.

Field Indicators of Hydric Soils in the United States, Version 7.0. L.M. Vasilas, G.W. Hurt, and
C.V. Noble (eds.). USDA, NRCS, in cooperation with the National Technical Committee for
Hydric Soils.
UNIT 4 Organic soils
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Organic soils and organic soil material
3.2 Classification of organic soils
3.3 Types of organic soil components
3.4 Management of organic soils
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
There are two major categories of soils, organic soils and mineral soils. They both differ because
they form from different kinds of materials. Organic soils form from plant debris. These soils are
found in wetlands because plant debris decomposes less rapidly in very wet settings. Organic
soils are very black, porous, and light in weight, and are often referred to as peats or mucks.
Mineral soils, on the other hand form from rocks or material transported by wind, water,
landslide, or ice. Consequently, mineral soil materials consist of different amounts of sand, silt,
60
and clay, and constitute the majority of the soils in the world. They occur both within and outside
of wetlands.
Distinguishing between organic and mineral soils is important, because the two categories are
described and classified differently. In practice, mineral and organic soils are separated on the
basis of organic carbon levels.
2.0 Objectives
Define and explain organic soils and related concepts

Differentiate between organic soils and mineral soils
Differentiate between the different types of organic soils and organic soil components
Explain management of organic soils
3.0 Main content

3.1 Types of organic soils
Many terms have been used to describe organic soils. The term peat has been used for many
years as a general term to describe the soils with various amounts of undecomposed plant
remains. In earlier description of organic soils, emphasis was placed on the botanical source of
the plant remains, thus several types of peats such as limnic peats, telmatic peats, terrestic peats,
etc. were recognized. Since then, specific terms have been defined for organic soils and organic
material. The majority of the terms depend on the degree of decomposition of the organic matter.
In Alaska and other northern areas of North America, as well as areas in Europe with large
expanses of organic materials, peat is still used today as a general textural term indicating high
fiber content. The term peatland is generally used to describe the expansive areas where peats
occur.
61
Figure 1 Peatland (http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2009/08/bogosphere/)

Peatlands occur over a range of climatic conditions and they form in depressions, slopes, and
raised bogs. Peatlands are often divided into bogs, fens, mires, and swamps. These divisions
represent particular landscapes or ecosystems and are often described with the general term
peat-accumulating wetlands. Bogs are areas of peat that are of acid pH. They are formed
primarily from shrub or moss vegetation (Fig. 2). Bogs are usually characterized by high tannin
content. Fens are areas of organic materials dominated by sedge and grass-like plant (Fig. 3).
They contain considerable bases. Swamps have variable amount of tannin. They are formed
under woody vegetation (Fig. 4). Mires refer to those ecosystems in which waterlogged peat has
accumulated, usually in raised areas (Fig. 5). Mires could also include all wetland ecosystems in
which peat accumulates.
62
Figure 2 Bogs (Source: http://richard-seaman.com/USA/States/Illinois/VoloBog/)
63
Figure 3 Fen (Source: http://crobertswbms.blogspot.com/2010/06/june-232010-sciencehappens-in.html)
64
Figure 4 Swamp (Source: http://overlyhonestmethods.blogspot.com/)
65
Figure 5 Mire (Source: http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/1354933)

3.2 Organic soil material
In describing a soil profile, the layer dominated by organic material is designated as O horizon.
The composition of O horizons varies, and can be distinguished from one another by subhorizon
symbols. The subhorizon symbols indicate the degree of organic matter decomposition, and it
can be investigated in the field by estimating the rubbed and the unrubbed fiber content of the
soil material. The subhorizon symbols are:
1. a: sapric
2. e: hemic
3. i: fibric
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Sapric material (from the Greek sapros, meaning rotten). This represents the most highly
decomposed organic material. It has a rubbed fiber content that is less than one sixth of the soil
volume. In general, the fiber content is less than one third of the volume before rubbing. In sapric
material, the individual organic fibers cannot be identified. Sapric soil materials have the lowest
content of plant fibers, hence their bulk density is expected to be higher and the water content
lower (on a dry weight basis at saturation) than those of hemic or fibric soil materials. Sapric soil
materials are common features in many Histosols that have been drained and cultivated. They are
identified as black or very dark gray in color. They usually have bulk density greater than 0.2 g
cm3, and the maximum water content when saturated that is less than 450% on an oven-dry basis
(Soil Survey Staff 1998).
Horizons formed from such highly decomposed organic materials have designations such as Oa1,
Oa2, etc. The Oa indicates that the organic materials are highly decomposed.
Hemic material (Gr. Hemi , half). Hemic materials are of intermediate degree in organic matter
decomposition. The rubbed fiber content of these materials is one sixth to two fifths by volume
of the soil. The Fiber content of hemic materials can range from one third to two thirds of the soil
volume in unrubbed samples. Hemic materials have colors that range from dark grayish-brown to
dark reddish-brown, and bulk density between 0.07 and 0.18 g cm 3. Hemic materials have
maximum water content when saturated that commonly ranges from 450 to 850% or more.
Organic layers of hemic materials are designated Oe, in profile description. The Oe indicates that
the organic material is of intermediate decomposition.
Fibric soil material (L. fibra , fiber). These are slightly decomposed organic soil materials. The
fiber content of this material after rubbing is two fifths to three fourths or more fibers by volume.
The level of decomposition is slight to the extent that even after being rubbed 10 times or more,
67
individual fibers could still be seen, and it should be possible to determine the botanic origin of
the plant remains that make up the soil (Fig 6). In profile descriptions, the presence of this
material in a horizon is designated by the symbol Oi. This indicates that the organic material is of
slight decomposition.
Figure 6. Fibric organic material containing recognizable roots and rhizomes of marsh
grasses
(Source: http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/8205/8402672/Figures/figure_html/figure312.htm)
Fibric soil materials are common features of raised bogs of the boreal forest zones.
Characteristics of Fibric soil materials include very low bulk densities (<0.1 g cm3), saturated
water content that ranges from about 850 to > 3000% of the weight of the oven-dry material
(Soil Survey Staff 1998). Fibric soil materials are commonly brown, light yellowish-brown, dark
brown, or reddish-brown in colour. Leaf litter found on the soil surface is considered a fibric
material.
3.3 Classification of organic soils
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Organic soils were classified as Intrazonal by the classification system of Sibirtsev (in 1895), this
considered organic soils to be those soils with more or less well-developed soil characteristics
that reflected the result of some local factor of soil development. In the Marbuts system of soil
classification developed in 1935, organic soils were placed in the classes Peat and Swamp.
These classes were both under Pedalfers (acidic, iron- and aluminum-accumulating soils) and
Pedocals (high base soils). In the classification system of 1938, organic soils were classified as
Intrazonal soils at the Order level and as Hydromorphic soils at the suborder level. The
terminology and importance of organic soils were greatly changed in the 1st Approximation to
Soil Taxonomy proposed in 1951. At the order level, soils that had more than 30% organic
matter in peat or G (gleyed) horizon were called Fronobods (Order level). In the current US soil
taxonomy system, which is the most widely used in the world, 12 soil orders are currently
recognized. Orders are the broadest grouping of soils, based on the presence of selected soil
properties. Organic soils are classified into the order Histosols (Fig.). These are soils with
35% organic matter content. They have a histic horizon. The upper 80cm is organic or the whole
material, if it rests directly on rock. They do not have permfrost within 100m of soil surface,
distinguishing it from gelisol. Histosols are extensive in the US and Europe.
Orders are
subdivided into numerous Suborders. The Suborders for Histosols are Folists, Fibrists, Hemists,
and Saprists.
69
Figure 6. Histosol. These soil types are common in climates regions but also occur in
temperate and tropical wetlands. (Source: Harl Eswaran/ USDA NRCS)
Folists are organic soils that are not permanently wet. These are never saturated with water
except for a few days following heavy rains. The other Suborders (Fibrists, Hemists, and
Saprists) represent organic soils that are permanently wet under natural conditions and are
defined on the degree of decomposition.
Fibrists are Histosols that have the least decomposed organic matter (fibric material).
Hemists are histosols that have organic matter that is intermediately decomposed (hemic
material).
70
Saprists are histosols with organic matter that is the most decomposed (sapric material).
In defining the Great Groups for Histosols, the factors considered include the presence of
sphagnum moss or humilluvic materials, soil temperature regime, or a sulfuric horizon. Each
Great Group is composed by a number of Subgroups. These subgroups are differentiated by the
thickness of the organic layers, fiber content of the organic materials, depth to mineral soil or
bedrock, etc.
Gelisols are related to organic soils except that permafrost forms in the sub-horizons of these
soils (Fig. ). An important suborder within the gelisol order is Histels. Histels include soils that
contain large amounts of organic carbon that accumulates under anaerobic conditions and cold
climates. Histels have permafrost within 100 cm of the soil surface, or gelic materials (materials
that show evidence of frost churning or ice segregation) within 100 cm of the soil surface and
permafrost within 200 cm of the soil surface. Histels also contain 80% or more by volume of
organic materials from the soil surface to a depth of 50 cm, or to a dense or bedrock layer, if less
than 50 cm.
71
Figure 7. Gelisol. These soil types have permafrost underlying the top soil. They are
common in arctic climate. (Source: John Kelley/ USDA NRCS)
All other soils that lack the thick organic surface layer of Histosols or Histels are considered
mineral soils even though the soils may have a surface layer with very high organic matter
content. The histic epipedon was defined for mineral soils with thin organic surface layer. The
main difference between an organic soil (Histosol) and a mineral soil that has a histic epipedon is
the thickness of the organic materials. In Histosols, the organic layers must be at least 40 cm
thick within the upper 80 cm of soil. Shallow soils (< 50 cm) that are found over limestone or
gravel must have organic layers that constitute at least two thirds of the depth of the soil.
Therefore, if a soil has organic material that does not meet the required thickness for a Histosol,
the soil can have a histic epipedon, and hence it is a mineral soil. The histic epipedon is defined
72
as a layer that is saturated or reduced for some part of the year, or is artificially drained. The
presence of the histic epipedon is considered in the classification of soils into orders such as
Spodosol e.g. the mineral soil Histic Alaquod is a mineral soil in the Spodosol Order, with a
histic epipedon.
A histic epipedon is 20 to 40 cm thick, and requires 12 to 18% organic C, depending upon the
clay content of the soil. This is the same amount of organic C as required for Histosols. Histic
epipedons can have thickness of up to 20-40cm thick, in soils with 75% or more sphagnum
fibres. Hence, based on the current interpretation of histic epipedon, organic soils (Histosols)
cannot have a histic epipedon because organic soil materials cannot be thicker than 40cm and
still meet the requirements of a histic epipedon. However, the histic epipedon can be found in
other soil orders of the US classification system.
3.4 Types of organic soil components

The major component of organic soil is the soil organic matter (SOM). SOM is a complex
mixture of substances that are the result of continual transformation of organic residues of plant
and animal origin added to the soil. The organic fraction of soils is a representation of organic
residues undergoing decomposition, metabolic products of microorganisms using organic
residues as a source of energy, or products of re-synthesis in the form of bacterial cells. Humic
substances form the major component of SOM. The processes that lead to the formation of
humic substances are the chemical and biological degradation of plant and animal residues and
the synthetic activities of microorganisms. Humic substances comprise about 85 to 90% of soil
humus. Humic substances is the colored substances formed by secondary synthesis reactions
73
or its fractions obtained on the basis of solubility characteristics. It is composed of three major
groups: humic acids, fulvic acids, and humin.
3.5 Problems and Management of organic soils
Soil organic matter, which is the major component of organic soil, is subjected to
degradation/decomposition. The rate of this decomposition depends on the cultural practice(s)
adopted on the land. Hence the objective of all management practices, with regard to organic
soils, is to maintain the organic matter content to levels that would ensure sustainable and
productive use of land. These practices may have long-term negative effects on organic soils.
The removal of the litter layer from the soil surface and the decay of logs reduce the elevation of
the soil surface. The site preparation practice known as bedding, which is used to create elevated
planting bed result in increased organic matter decomposition as a result of drier site conditions
and increased aerobic decomposition. Increased organic matter decomposition also result
following clear-cutting in bottomland hardwoods. Although all aforementioned are highlight
those practices that enhance organic matter decomposition, the major problem associated with
organic soils is subsidence, i.e. a drop in land elevation due to organic matter decomposition
(Fig. 8). Factors that play significant role in this phenomenon are: biological oxidation, depth to
the water table, leaching of soluble organic materials, characteristics of the organic material,
compaction, burning, wind erosion, and water erosion. Two stages are involved in the subsidence
of organic soils: primary and secondary. Primary subsidence is mostly a result of drainage. It
involves the loss of buoyant force and compaction of organic soil; it occurs relatively fast (4 to
10 years). Secondary subsidence is a much slower process. It includes processes such as
biological oxidation, wind and water erosion, and leaching of organic materials.
74
Figure 8. Soil subsidence due to organic matter decomposition as a result of drainage on

organic soil.
(Source: http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/8205/8402672/Figures/figure_html/
figure3-13.htm)
Subsidence could lower organic matter levels of some soils to levels that they no longer have a
thick enough organic layer to classify as a Histosol. Another factor that can increase or decrease
subsidence is burning. Deliberate and accidental fires accounted for a major loss of organic
matter from soils, which consequently increase subsidence. However, burning has been used in
some cases as a management technique to reduce subsidence of organic soils. Because trees
75
growing in wetlands could decrease in the accumulation of organic matter, since the trees add
relative less biomass, burning the trees in wetlands may prolong the life of the organic soils.
Periods of severe drought may be followed by extremely hot fires. These fires can burn deeply
into organic soils layers and destroy the forest stand. As the surface of organic soils dries up and
decomposes, wind erosion occurs. The loose, powdery surface that results is easily removed by
wind. Under a windstorm, this type of erosion could be a very serious problem. Management
practices such as constructing and maintaining shrub windbreaks can reduce wind erosion. Also,
maintaining a cover on the soil surface at all times can reduce wind erosion.
Water erosion does not constiutute a major cause o organic matter loss because very minimal
runoff occurs in the low-lying, relatively flat areas in which organic soils are typically located.
Through proper management techniques, the subsidence of Histosols can be reduced.
The first step in managing organic soils involves protection from development of subsidence;
this is then followed by an active management program to counteract the effects of the lowering
of the water tables. Biological oxidation and subsidence can be reduced by maintaining a high
water table.
4.0 Conclusion
The high organic matter content of histosols endows on them unique properties, both in their
natural state of water saturation and when artificially drained. These unique properties include
the dark brown to black colour, very low bulk densites, very high water holding capacity, and
high cation exchange capacity. Also the rates of nitrification in these soils are high even though
they exhibit high C/N ratios. Although the area covered by histosols is less than 1% of the
worlds area, histosols hold over 20% of the global soil carbon, and thus play an important role
76
in the global carbon cycle. When histosols are artificially drained, they serve as important soils
for vegetable production and floriculture. However, the oxidation of organic matter in histosols is
also sped-up upon drainage.
This eventually leads to the destruction of histosols and the
increased release of CO2 to the atmosphere. Histosols can be preserved by maintaining water
table as near to the surface as possible, but agriculture on them is not sustainable except for
production under water logged condition.
5.0 Summary
Soils can be classified into two major categories of soils: organic soils and mineral soils. Both of
them differ in the materials from which they form. During soil classification mineral and organic
soils are separated on the basis of organic carbon levels. Organic soils have been described by
various terms, most notably which is Peat. The term peatland is generally used to describe the
expansive areas where peats occur. Peatlands are often divided into bogs, fens, mires, and
swamps. These divisions represent particular landscapes or ecosystems and are often described
with the general term peat-accumulating wetlands. In describing a soil profile, the layer
dominated by organic material is designated as O horizon, and other subhorizon symbols are
used to indicate the degree of organic matter decomposition. The subhorizon symbols are: a
(sapric), e (hemic), and I (fibric). Sapric material represents the most highly decomposed organic
material; hemic materials are of intermediate degree in organic matter decomposition; Fibric
materials are slightly decomposed organic soil materials. According to the USDA soil taxonomy
system, Organic soils are classified into the order Histosols. These are soils with 35% organic
matter content. They have a histic horizon. The upper 80cm is organic or the whole material, if it
rests directly on rock. They are distinguished from gelisols by the absence of permfrost within
77
100m of soil surface. Histosols are further divided into the following suborders: Folists, Fibrists,
Hemists, and Saprists. The major component of organic soil is the soil organic matter (SOM).
SOM is a complex mixture of substances that are the result of continual transformation of
organic residues of plant and animal origin added to the soil. Soil organic matter is subjected to
degradation/decomposition. The rate of this decomposition depends on the cultural practice(s)
adopted on the land. Hence the objective of all organic soil management practices is to maintain
the organic matter content to levels that would ensure sustainable and productive use of land.
The major problem associated with organic soils is subsidence. This is defined as a drop in
land elevation due to organic matter decomposition. Factors that play significant role in this
problem are: biological oxidation, depth to the water table, leaching of soluble organic materials,
characteristics of the organic material, compaction, burning, wind erosion, and water erosion.
Subsidence could lower organic matter levels of some soils to levels they no longer have a thick
enough organic layer to classify as a Histosol. The first step in managing organic soils involves
protection from development of subsidence; this is then followed by an active management
program to counteract the effects of the lowering of the water tables.

1. Differentiate between organic and mineral soils
2. Differentiate between the following terms: Bog, Fen, Swamp and Mire
3. Explain the characteristics of the different subhorizon symbols used in differentiating layers
of organic materials.
4. Classify organic soils into order and suborders according to the USDA taxonomy system.
5. What are the distinguishing properties of histosols?
78
6. How does histosols differ from gelisol?

7. What are the factors considered in defining the great group of histosols?
8. What is the difference between an organic soil and a mineral soil with histic epipedon?
9. What do you understand by the term subsidence, what are the factors enhancing subsidence
in organic soils?
10. How can organic soils be managed?

Pretince Hall
2. Richardson, J.L. and Vepraskas, M.J. (2001). Wetland Soils, Genesis, Hydrology, Landscapes,
and Classification. Boca Raton: CRC Press Ltd.
3. Soil Survey Staff. (1994). Keys to Soil Taxonomy, (6th edn). USDASCS, U.S. Govt. Printing
Office. Washington, DC.
4. Soil Survey Staff (2010). Keys to soil taxonomy (11th edn). United States Department of
Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service.
79
UNIT 5 Eroded Lands

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Soil Erosion
3.2 Effects of accelerated soil erosion/characteristics of eroded soils
3.2.1 On-site damages
3.2.2 Off site damages
3.3 Soil loss tolerance.
3.4 Mechanics of water erosion
3.4.1 Types of water erosion
3.4.2 Management of eroded soils due to water erosion
3.4.3 Support practices
3.5 Mechanics of Wind erosion
3.5.1 Control of wind erosion.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
80
1.0 Introduction
Human land use has resulted in the degradation of the earths vegetated land. Such degraded
soils are low in their productive potential and their capability to sustain the burgeoning
population. Overgrazing of land, indiscriminate felling of trees and inappropriate agricultural
practices are major culprits in the degradation of lands. The consequent washing away of soil by
wind and water (soil erosion) constitute the most destructive effect on the land. Over 80% of soil
degradation stems from soil erosion (the washing away of soil by wind or water). The increasing
demand to double food production has made the threat of soil erosion more ominous.
Overpopulation has led to the intensified cultivation of fertile lands, clearing and burning of
forests, overgrazing of rangelands and overexploiting of timber resources, all these activities
contribute to the removal of the protective vegetative covering thereby making the underlying
soil more susceptible to the destructive effect of soil erosion. Erosion is very damaging to soil
fertility because the reactive and nutrient-rich surface soil is removed- predominantly the fine
and light fractions clay and organic matter leaving behind the more inert sand and gravel.
The fine and light fractions remain in suspension longer (in air or water) and so are carried
further. The suspended material is eventually deposited in lakes, reservoirs or marine estuaries
where it may cause water quality problems. Greater environmental and economic damage may
be suffered in areas where eroded materials are deposited compared to the areas where the
materials are removed. Erosion is a process that transforms soil into sediment. This could occur
naturally or it could be induced by human activities. When soils are eroded naturally it is termed
geological erosion. This process wears down hills and mountains, and subsequently fills in
valleys, lakes and bays in a subsequent deposition process. Soil erosion could also be accelerated
by human activities (accelerated erosion). This is usually the result of human disruption of the
81
soil or vegetation through activities such as grazing, cutting down of forest, tearing up land for
construction of roads and buildings
2.0 Objectives
Understand the concept of soil erosion

Understand the importance of soil erosion and the limitations of eroded soil
Understand the mechanics of soil erosion
Understand management practices applicable on eroded soils
3.0 Main content

3.1 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is the washing away of soil by the action of air or water. Erosion occurs naturally,
this is responsible for the wearing down of hills and mountains and the subsequent deposition of
the eroded sediments in valleys, lakes and bays. This type of erosion, that is free from the
influence of human activities, is termed geological erosion (Fig 1). It is a natural leveling process
that gave rise to landforms such as canyons, river valleys, deltas, plains etc. the time period of
this process is slow enough to allow the formation of new soil is formed from the parent material
before the old soil is lost from the surface. Soil profiles are indicators of the influence of this
kind of erosion in soil formation. Rainfall and the type of material comprising the parent material
(regolith) would affect the rate of geological erosion. When the soil or natural vegetation is
disturbed by human activities such as grazing live stock, cutting down of forest for agricultural
use, or tearing up land for construction purposes, the rate of soil loss is enhanced. The type of
erosion that results after such human activities is termed accelerated erosion (Fig 2). The effect
of accelerated erosion is over 10 times more destructive than geological erosion, especially in
areas with sloppy lands and high rainfall.
82
Figure 1. Geologic erosion in action

(Source: http://www.indianetzone.com/41/types_soil_erosion_india.htm)
83
Figure 2. Human induced accelerated erosion on cropland.

(Source: http://gsoil.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/kwaad3.jpg)
Under accelerated erosion soil is lost at a faster rate than new soil can form by weathering and
decomposition. Accelerated erosion also results in heterogeneous soils on a landscape. The effect
of accelerated erosion is more obvious on croplands, building and highway construction sites,
and on other lands where practices such as such as grazing and cutting down of forest is
predominant. These effects could manifest either on-site or off-site.
84
3.2 Effects of accelerated soil erosion/characteristics of eroded soils

3.2.1 On-site damages
On-site, erosion leads to the loss of soil. Eroded soils are usually of less productivity because the
soil material eroded is more valuable than that left behind (Fig 3a,b). In eroded soils, the fine and
reactive part of the soil such as organic matter and clay colloids are washed away, and the
coarser fractions, which comprises mostly of quartz, and which is less reactive are left behind.
The original top soil washed away is often higher in organic matter and nitrogen than the soil left
behind. Also, the soil left behind in eroded lands have low water holding capacity, cation
exchange capacity, less biological activity, and a reduced capacity to supply nutrients for plant
growth; hence the growth of plants on such soils is adversely impaired.
Figure 3a. On-site damage from water erosion. Note the infertile plinthite exposed after the
fertile surface soil have been washed away.
(Source: http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/irrigation-soil-erosion.jpg )
85
Figure 3b. On-site damage from water erosion.

(Source: http://www.soil-net.com/legacy/schools/soil_erosion.htm)
Plant disease organisms are also spread along with the movement of soil during erosion. This
could result in transfer of pathogen from soil to plant or the spread of disease from one part of
the field to another. Erosion in the field also leads to the deterioration of soil structure, this often
leaves dense crust on the soil surface. This results in lower infiltration and higher runoff,
especially after a heavy rainfall. Erosion may also wash away newly planted seedlings, uproot
trees, and burry small plants with deposited sediments. Where wind is the driver of erosion, the
blowing of soil particles (sandblasting), may damage fruits and foliage, leading to yield loss (Fig
4). Severely eroded lands are characterized by gullies. These make the use of farm implements
such as tractors impossible (Fig 5).
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Figure 4. Fruit damage by sandblasting. (Source: Brady and Weil, 2008)
Figure 5. Severely eroded soils are paved with gullies which make mechanized agriculture
difficult.
(Source: http://www.infonet-biovision.org/res/res/files/1362.400x400.jpeg)
87
3.2.2 Off site damages

The off-site damages caused by erosion are from the sediment and nutrients moved during the
process (Fig 6). These materials are finally deposited in water bodies where they result in
widespread pollution. Eutrophication is caused by excessive nitrogen and phosphorus; toxic
metals and organic compounds are also deposited in water bodies. Sediments carried by erosion
into water bodies cause turbidity. High turbidity prevents sunlight from penetrating the water,
thereby leading to reduced photosynthesis by submerged aquatic vegetation.
Figure 6. Offsite effect of problem soils (Source: Brady and Weil, 2008)
3.3 Soil loss tolerance.
Soil loss through erosion cannot be prevented, however, studies over the year has shown that
some level of loss can be tolerated. Tentative soil-loss tolerance limits (T value) have been
88
developed. This represents the maximum amount of soil that can be lost annually by the
combination of water and wind erosion on a particular soil without degrading that soils
productivity. Currently, these values are based on judgment of informed soil scientist and not on
research data. T values for soils in the United States range from 5 to 10 Mg/ha. This final value is
dependent on factors such as: soil depth, organic matter content, and the use of water control
practices.
3.4 Mechanics of water erosion

Soil erosion caused by water takes place in three stages:
1. Detachment: soil particles are initially detached from the soil mass by the high energy
raindrop. Detachment is more severe on relatively smooth soil surfaces. In places where
water is concentrated into channels, the turbulent action of the water detaches soil
particles. In cold regions, freezing and thawing action also contributes to soil detachment.
The detachment of soil particles by raindrop is due to the explosive force with which the
falling drop hits the soil. The high kinetic energy of the raindrop is transferred to the soil
particles. This actions normally results in three detrimental effects:
i.
Detachment of soil
ii.
Destruction of granulation. The force exerted by the raindrop may beat the
granules into pieces, which upon drying may develop into a hard crust on
the soil surface, which will prevent the emergence of seedling and will
iii.
encourage runoff from subsequent rainfall.

Limited transportation of soil. The detachment of soil particles by rainfall
is associated with splashing of the particles; this could cause appreciable
transportation of soil.
89
2. Transportation: the detached soil particles are transported downhill by floating, rolling,
dragging, and splashing. Depending on the slope of the land or direction of wind, the
splashing of soil particles may be greater in one direction, resulting in considerable net
horizontal movement of the soil
3. Deposition: the transported particles are finally deposited at some lower elevation in the
landscape. Soil particles may be deposited at distances, kilometers from where they were
eroded. The delivery ratio is an index for the amount of eroded material deposited. This is
usually arrived at by dividing the amount of soil delivered to a stream by the amount
eroded.
3.4.1 Types of water erosion
Water erosion is majorly classified into three general types:
1. Sheet
2. Rill
3. Gully
Sheet erosion is characterized by a fairly removal of splashed soil, but tiny column of soil often
remain where pebbles intercept the rainfall. Rill erosion occurs in tiny channels termed rills
when sheet flow is concentrated into rills. Rill erosion is common on bare lands. Interrill erosion
describes the type of rill erosion occurring between irregularly spaced rills. Gully erosion in the
result of a more concentrated rushing water that cuts deeper into the soil. This action deepens and
coalesce rill into larger channels termed gullies. When gullies occur on croplands, it makes the
use of tractors impracticable.
90
Figure 7. Land degradation from gully erosion. (Source: Brady and Weil, 2008)
3.4.2 Management of soil erosion due to water
Soil erosion resulting from the adverse effect of water can be managed using different types of
vegetative cover and cropping systems. The best soil protection is often provided by undisturbed
forest and dense grass. The next in effectiveness are forage crops, because of their relatively
dense cover. Intermediate level of soil protection could also be offered by small grains such as
wheat and oats, these crops offer considerable obstruction to surface wash. When residues of
crops are allowed to cover the soil surface after harvest, they also provide some level of
protection to the soil against erosion.
91
Figure 8. Undisturbed forest floor provides protection against erosion.

Cover crops can provide soil protection during the time of a year between the growing season for
annual crops. Soil erosion can also be reduced through the practice of mulching. Small increases
in surface cover, as mulch, results in large decreases in soil erosion. Erosion can also be
controlled by regulating grazing in order to maintain a dense vegetative cover on range and
pasture land. By including close-growing hay crops in rotation with row crops on arable lands,
erosion and runoff can be controlled. Conservation tillage systems which advocate leaving most
of the plant residue on the surface can greatly reduce erosion hazards.
3.4.3 Support practices
92
On lands with steep slopes erosion control can also be achieved by management of vegetative
cover, residue, and tillage, but these practices must be augmented by support practices. Support
practices involve the construction of physical structures or performance of other steps aimed at
guiding and slowing the flow of runoff water. Support practices comprise of activities such as
tillage on the contour, contour strip-cropping, terrace systems, and grassed water ways.
Figure 9. Contour planting of vegetative barriers to control soil loss.

3.5 Mechanics of Wind erosion
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Wind erosion also takes place via three stages/processes:

1. Detachment
2. Transportation
3. Deposition
Tiny grains of soil are detached from granules or clods by moving air. These rapidly moving
grains dislodge other particles from soil clods and aggregates. The dislodged particles are
transported by wind in any of the following three ways: saltation, soil creep, or suspension.
Saltation is the movement of soil particles by a series of short bounces along the ground surface.
It is first and most important mode of particle transportation in wind erosion. Soil creep is the
rolling and sliding along the surface of the larger soil particles. This process is encouraged by
saltation.
Figure. Mechanics of wind erosion. (Source: Brady and Weill, 2008)

When the bouncing particles carried by saltation strikes the large aggregate, the movement of the
aggregate along the surface is sped up. Suspension involves the movement of dust particles of
fine-sand size or smaller, parallel to the ground surface and upward. Particles carried by
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suspension are eventually returned to the earth when the wind subsides and/or when precipitation
washes them down.
3.5.1 Control of wind erosion.
Soil moisture soil moisture increases the cohesiveness of the soil mass, hence a higher wind
speed would be required to detach soil particles from a wet soil. By moistening the soil surface
when high winds are predicted, the rate of soil loss by wind can be minimized.
Tillage conservation tillage practices that involve keeping the soil surface rough and maintain
some vegetative cover can help reduce devastation to soil by wind. The use of stubble mulch has
proven to be effective in this case. The proper timing of tillage operations would also determine
the effect of tillage on wind erosion. When tillage operations are done when sufficient soil
moisture exist, large soil clods form which greatly reduces soil erosion. However, tillage on dry
lands only produces fine, dusty surfaces that aggravates soil erosion problem.
Barriers Wind velocities can be reduced over short distances through the use of barriers such as
shelter belts. These barriers also serve in trapping drifting soil. Devices used in controlling the
blowing of sand include windbreaks and tenacious grasses, pickett fences, burlap screens, etc.
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Figure 10. Narrow strips of Rye planted as miniature windbreaks to protect watermelon
from wind erosion. (Source: Brady and Weil, 2008)
4.0 Conclusion
Erosion is a major environmental problem in todays world. The activities of man have
accelerated this menace. Eroded soils are less in productivity due to the washing away of the
finer and more reactive soil fractions. This results in severe impediment to crop growth and
animal production. Off-site, erosion also leads to pollution of bodies of water. Eroded soils are
mostly difficult to recover, however the process can be mitigated by proper control mechanisms.
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The use of cover crops and adopting of the various forms of conservation tillage practices has
been effective in controlling soil erosion.
5.0 Summary
Anthropogenic activities such as overgrazing of land, indiscriminate felling of trees and
inappropriate agricultural practices have contributed to widescale degregation of lands. These
activities usually precede the washing away of soil by wind and water (soil erosion). Over 80%
of soil degradation results from soil erosion. The effect of erosion on soil fertility is very
damaging because the reactive and nutrient-rich surface soil is removed, leaving behind the more
inert sand and gravel fractions. Erosion occur naturally and is also induced human activities. The
term geologic erosion is used to describe erosion occurring naturally while the soil that result
from human activities is termed accelerated erosion. The effect of accelerated erosion is more
destructive than geological erosion, especially in areas with sloppy lands and high rainfall.
Eroded soils are usually of less productivity because the soil material eroded is more valuable
than that left behind. In eroded soils, the fine and reactive part of the soil such as organic matter
and clay colloids are washed away, and the coarser fractions, which comprises mostly of quartz,
and which is less reactive are left behind. Eroded soils are also low in water holding capacity,
cation exchange capacity, biological activity, and capacity to supply nutrients for plant growth.
These properties impact adversely on the growth of plants on such. Soil loss through erosion
cannot be prevented, however, studies over the year has shown that some level of loss can be
tolerated. Tentative soil-loss tolerance limits (T value) have been developed to quantify the level
of soil loss that can be tolerated. The mechanics of soil erosion are basically through three stages:
detachment, transportation, and deposition. These stages are similar for both water and wind
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erosion. Water erosion can divided into sheet, rill, and gully erosion. Erosion due to water is
managed using different types of vegetative cover and cropping systems. The best soil protection
is often provided by undisturbed forest and dense grass followed by forage crops, while small
grains such as wheat and oats offer intermediate level of soil protection. Erosion can also be
greatly reduced through conservation tillage systems which advocate leaving most of the plant
residue on the soil surface. On lands with steep slopes support practices such as tillage on the
contour and terrace systems can be used to augment management of vegetative cover. Wind
erosion control can be achieved by manipulating the soil moisture and tillage

What do you understand by the concept of soil erosion?
What are the characteristics of eroded soil that make them less productive for crop production?
Explain the mechanisms of wind and water erosion
How would you control erosion due to water and wind?
Explain the impact of vegetative cover in limiting soil erosion.
Define the following terms: saltation, soil creep, and suspension.
Pretince Hall
98
UNIT 6 Polluted soils

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Significance of soil pollution and characteristics of polluted lands
3.2 Soils polluted with organic compounds
3.2.1 Kinds of organic soil pollutants
3.2.2 Behavior of organic chemicals in soils
3.2.3 Remediation of soils polluted with organic chemicals
3.3 Soils Polluted with inorganic substances
3.3.1 Sources and accumulation of heavy metals
3.3.2 Reactions of inorganic pollutant in soils
3.3.3 Prevention and elimination of inorganic chemical pollution
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
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1.0 Introduction
Advancement of human civilization has led to the emission of insidious substances into the
environment. The soil is usually the final destination of these substances. Some of the emitted
substances are naturally cycled by the complex soil system, while others remain non-degradable.
These non-degradable materials constitute at most times, a menace in the environment; polluting
soils and water bodies. In the long-run the health of humans and animals are also severely
impacted upon. When the soil is rendered unfit for plant growth by exogeneous substances
introduced into the soil system, the soil is said to be polluted. In its broad meaning, soil pollution
includes salinization and urbanazitaion, however in this unit emphasis is on the chemical
pollutants that have been introduced into the soil through anthropogenic activities such as
mining, disposal of radioactive waste, drilling and refining of oils, etc. The substances that
constitutes soil pollutants can be broadly classified into organic and inorganic. Organic pollutants
are mainly industrial organics and pesticides while inorganic pollutants are majorly in the form
of heavy metals, although inorganics such as nitrate and phosphates are also of importance.
These pollutants undergo an array of biogeochemical processes in the soil environment that can
adversely affect the growth of crop and the productivity of the soil.
2.0 Objectives
Understand the concept of soil pollution

Understand how soil pollution affect crop growth and land productivity
Understand and differentiate between the various types of soil pollutants
Understand the importance of soil pollution to soil health and productivity
Understand the various management practices applicable to remediating polluted soils.
3.0 Main content

3.1 Significance of soil pollution and characteristics of polluted lands
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Nutrient availability
Polluted soils are of concern due to their negative impact on crop growth and development, as
well as the mobility of the leaching of pollutants into ground water. Inorganic pollutants in the
soil in the form of metals influence nutrient availability, especially in soils where the bulk of the
cation exchange capacity is supplied by organic matter. Organic matter has a high affinity for
heavy metals hence where heavy metals are the major soil pollutants, essential plant nutrient
elements are displaced from the soil exchange site by the heavy metals. The essential nutrient
elements are eventually leached out of the soil system. The heavy metals which now saturate the
soil exchange site are toxic to plant and adversely affect crop production on such soils. Crops
that survive on polluted soils have developed special adaptive mechanism to either exclude or
sequester the metals in their tissue.
Microbial activity
The activity of soil microbes and other soil fauna are very low in polluted soils. The presences of
certain nematodes types are used in some cases to check soil health. This species of nematodes
have developed special adaptive mechanism to survive in the polluted soil. Pollutants affect soil
life due to its destructive effect on enzymatic activity. This makes it difficult for the soil
organism to detoxify the toxins, thereby resulting in toxin accumulation in the organism. When
the toxic substances taken up by organisms exceed the maximum tolerance limit, the survival of
the organism compromised.
Ground water pollution
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Pollutants in the soil are usually associated with the various soil fractions (Fig 1). These fractions
differ in the mobility within the soil. Fractions such as organic matter are highly mobile and also
have high affinity for inorganic pollutants such as heavy metals. Pollutants held unto this fraction
could be leached out of the soil into underground water where it causes groundwater pollution.
Figure 1. Associations of the exogeneous chemical compounds with the various soil solid
fractions.
(Source: http://basoooma.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/soil-pollution.gif)
Toxicity
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Decomposition of organic matter in sewage sludge applied to the soil leads to the production of
nitrogeneous substances that are harmful to plants and trees. Plant may also show symptoms of
metal toxicity due to release of various heavy toxic metals from the decomposition of sewage
water. Plants affected by toxicity usually show premature defoliation and yellowing. Toxicity
could also result from ash used for landfilling. Excess fertilizer and other agricultural chemicals
harm crops. Ammonium fertilizers creates acidities that harms crops while excessive potash
application result in decrease in carotene and ascorbic acid in plantations
Soil Properties
Soil pollution affects a number of soil characteristics. The organic and inorganic chemicals in
industrial waste deposited on soil (Fig. 2) make soil more acidic or alkaline. This change in soil
reaction har,ms crop growth. Likewise, industrial sewage contains radioactive materials which
affects the metabolism of plants and also plant characteristics nutrient demand.
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Figure 3. Waste deposition on land

(Source: http://basoooma.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/landfill01.jpg).
3.2 Soils polluted with organic compounds
3.2.1 Kinds of organic soil pollutants
Industrial organics: this include petroleum products (e.g. benzene, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons [PAHs]), solvents used in the manufacturing processes (e.g. trichloroethene
[TCE]), and military explosives such as trinitrotoluene (TNT). Polychlorinated biphenyls are
widely spread and very troublesome. Lands located near chemical manufacturing plants or oil
spillage facilities are usually intensely contaminated with organic pollutants. Old gas stations
with rusty underground storage tanks are also potential sources of soil and groundwater
pollution.
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Figure 4. Polluted land and water.

(Source: http://basoooma.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/c033c6755808fc195e01448180eagrande.jpg)
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Figure 5. Land Polluted by organic substance (oil).

(http://www.newswise.com/images/uploads/2010/06/9/oil.JPG)
Pesticides: pesticide is a general term that includes specific chemicals such as insecticides,
fungicides, herbicides, rodenticides, nematocides. Insecticides, fungicides and herbicides are
more likely to contaminate soils since they are used in the largest quantities and on agricultural
soils.
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3.2.2 Behavior of organic chemicals in soils

Within the soil environments, organic pollutants may vaporize into the atmosphere without any
chemical change, they may be adsorbed by the soil, they may move downward through the soil
in the solution and lost by leaching, they may undergo chemical reaction on the soil surface, they
may be broken down by soil microorganism, they may wash into streams and rivers in surface
runoff, and they may be taken up by plants or soil animals and move up the food chain. Only
those behaviors pertaining to the soils reaction and plant uptake would be discussed further.
1. Adsorption. The characteristics of the soil and the chemicals determine the extent of
adsorption of organic chemicals adsorbed to the soil. Soil organic matter, clays colloids
and oxide fractions in the soil possesses high surface area which provides enormous and
strongly adsorbing surface for the contaminants. When functional groups such as OH,
-NH2, -NHR, -CONH2, -COOR, and -+NR3 are present on the organic chemicals,
adsorption unto humus is encouraged. Herbicides such as diquat and paraquat have
positively charged groups that are strongly adsorbed by silicate clays.
2. Microbial metabolism: in the soil, microbes degrade organic chemicals such as pesticides,
biochemically. Polar groups such as OH, -COO, and NH2, found on pesticide
molecules provide point of attack for microorganisms.
3. Plant absorption: absorption of pesticide is common in higher plants. This is especially
true for systemic insecticides and herbicides that must be taken up in order to perform
their function. Within the plants, these chemicals may remain intact or be degraded.
3.2.3 Remediation of soils polluted with organic chemicals
By properly modifying the agroecosystems, the vast areas of land polluted with organic
chemicals can regain their function and diversity through natural attenuation over a period of
time. However in areas where accidental spills of toxic organic waste have occurred, the acute
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contamination present may impair plant growth. The most widely used remediation techniques
for organic contaminants are the physical/chemically based treatment of the soil. This could be
done either in place (in situ) or by moving the soil to a treatment site (ex situ). In ex situ
treatments, the soil is excavated to treatment bins where it may be incinerated. The hightemperature chemical decomposition which the soil is subjected to will drive off volatile
chemical present and also destroy other pollutants. The soil could also be subjected to vacuum
extraction which involves pushing or pulling air or water through the soil to remove the water
soluble and volatile chemicals. After treatment, the soil is either replaced on the site or deposited
in landfill.
In situ treatment does not involve activities such as excavation and disposal of the polluted soil.
The soil is treated in place. It is achieved either by removing the pollutant from the soil
(decontamination) or by tying up the pollutant in the soil matrix (stabilization). In situ
decontamination involves techniques such as water flushing, vacuum extraction and leaching.
Surfactants such as organo clays have been used to stabilize soil contaminants. The organoclays
are positively charged and can replace other cations on the soil clays through exchange reactions.
The organoclays attract non polar organic compounds thereby immobilizing them until they can
be degraded.
3.3 Soils Polluted with inorganic substances
The annual toxicity of inorganic substances released into the environment exceeds that of
organic. The inorganic pollutant that are most important in the soil are in the form of metals such
as mercury, cadmium, lead, arsenic, nickel, lead, and fluorine. Other metals of moderate concern
are boron, copper, manganese, and zinc. These metals are generally referred to by the term
Heavy metals.
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3.3.1 Sources and accumulation of heavy metals

Sources of heavy metals that end up as pollutants in the soil include burning of fossil fuels,
smelting, mining, and other numerous processing techniques. The rate at which some of these
contaminants are been released into the environment are being increased due to increasing
demand or continuous use of products in which they are found as impurity, while the release of
others, like lead, are declining, due to changes in gasoline formulation.
The final destination of these toxic elements is the soil, where they enter into the food chain:
soilplantanimalhuman. When these elements become part of the food chain they
accumulate in animal and human tissue (bioaccumulation), and may reach toxic concentration.
3.3.2 Reactions of inorganic pollutant in soils
Heavy metals (pollutants) are associated with the soil solids in five major ways:
1. Soluble or exchangeable form: these are available for plant uptake
2. Bound to the soil organic matter: copper and chromium are mostly found in this form.
These forms of heavy metals are not easily available to plants but may be released over
time; however, they are highly mobile fractions that could easily contaminate ground
water.
3. Carbonates: this fraction is important in calcareous soil. The major soil process
controlling the availibilty of metals held as carbonates is pH. As the soil reaction
becomes more acidic, the rate of release of contaminants from this fraction is also
increased. Hence polluted calcareous soils can be managed by manipulating the soil pH.
4. Oxides and of iron and manganese; both carbonates and oxide fractions are less available
to plants than the exchangeable and organically bound fractions, but they are highly
mobile if the soil reaction becomes more acidic.
5. Residual fractions; this consists of the sulfides and other very insoluble fractions such as
the silicate clays, that are less available to plants than the other four forms.
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The reaction of heavy metals emitted to the soil is such that the downward movement is highly
restricted until the exchange site of the soil surface is saturated. Hence the mobility of most
heavy metals applied to the soil, as well as plant uptake of the metals is limited. The metals are
also not easily leached to contaminate ground water except under acidic pH and high organic
matter content.
3.3.3 Prevention and elimination of inorganic chemical pollution

Soils polluted by inorganic substances can be remediated via three methods:
1. elimination or drastic reduction of toxins applied to the soil
2. immobilization of the toxins by means of soil management, to prevent translocation into
food and water supplies
3. removal of toxins by means of chemical, physical, and biological remediation. This is
recommended under severe contamination.
Elimination/reduction in toxin application.
This requires action aimed at regulating the amount of chemicals deposited unto soils from
industrial operations and from vehicular exhaust. Environmental protection agencies must set
limits to the amount of toxins permissible in industrial and automobile exhaust. Also, agricultural
activities such as pesticide and fertilizer application, irrigation water and soil waste must be
judiciously used to regulate heavy metal (toxin) accumulation in the soil and build up in the food
chain.
Immobilization of toxins
Careful soil and crop management can help break the soil-plant-animal (human) cycle through
which toxins in the soil exert its disastrous effect. This focuses on making the soil a sink for the
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chemicals. Through careful management, the contaminants are tied up in the soil and plant
uptake is limited. The ways through which this can be achieved include liming. Since most
metals are made less mobile and less available in near neutral and alkaline pH, liming of acid
soils reduces metal mobility. Another way of achieving this goal is by draining of wet soils. Wet
soils are characterized by reduced conditions and the reduced form of most toxic elements are
generally mobile, hence returning a wet soil to an oxidized condition through drainage would
change the toxic metal forms into an oxidized state which is generally less mobile. Heavy
phosphate application could also result in immobilization of toxic elements. The toxic elements
are precipitated in the form of highly insoluble phosphates. Plants that concentrate heavy metal
in below shoot parts (roots) could also be used carefully to stabilize metal contaminants in the
rhizosphere. Root exudates, especially mucilage, are very important biochemical in
immobilization of toxins in the soil.
Removal of toxins from the soil
Several techniques have been developed to remove inorganic toxins from the soil through a
variety of physical, chemical, and biological remediation processes. Removal of heavy metal is
only a viable option where there is severe pollution and where the risk to human life is high,
otherwise it is very expensive and uneconomical. Physical techniques for removing heavy metal
are mainly through excavation. This can be achieved through approaches such as landfarming,
composting, pile bioventing, soil flushing, and bioreactors. Chemical methods used in removing
contaminants from the soil include electrokinetics, chrome flushing, and cation displacement.
Biological strategies or processes for degrading or transforming contaminants in the soil through
the use of microorganisms, plants or both are referred to as bioremediation. Bioremediation
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techniques that involve the removal of the metal from the soil include phytoextraction and
phytovolatilization.
4.0 Conclusion
Soils are a valuable resource that should be protected from exogenous substances that would
pollute them. However, because soils have the ability to absorb, bind, and breakdown added
materials they serve as avenues for disposal of materials that may result in pollution. These
pollutants as well as the product of their breakdown could have toxic effect on plants, animals,
and human. Therefore, for proper utilization and management of the soil both as a means of
waste disposal, for sustainable production of crops, as well as remediation of polluted soils a
thorough understanding of the various reactions of pollutant in the soil system is fundamental.
5.0 Summary
Exogeneous substances introduced into the soil system constitute the major cause of soil
pollution. Soil pollutants are classified into organic and inorganic. Organic pollutants are mainly
industrial organics and pesticides while inorganic pollutants are majorly in the form of heavy
metals. These pollutants undergo an array of biogeochemical processes in the soil environment
that can adversely affect the growth of crop and the productivity of the soil. Within the soil
environments, organic pollutants may vaporize into the atmosphere without any chemical
change, they may be adsorbed by the soil, they may move downward through the soil in the
solution and lost by leaching, they may undergo chemical reaction on the soil surface, they may
be broken down by soil microorganism, they may wash into streams and rivers in surface runoff,
and they may be taken up by plants or soil animals and move up the food chain. By properly
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modifying the agroecosystems, the vast areas of land polluted with organic chemicals can regain
their function and diversity through natural attenuation over a period of time. However in areas
where accidental spills of toxic organic waste have occurred, the acute contamination present
may impair plant growth. The most widely used remediation techniques for organic contaminants
are the physical/chemically based treatment of the soil. This could be done either in place (in
situ) or by moving the soil to a treatment site (ex situ). Inorganic pollutants, especially in the
form of metals are associated with the soil solids in five major ways: soluble or exchangeable
form, bound to the soil organic matter, carbonates, oxides of iron and manganese, and as residual
fractions. Soils polluted by inorganic substances can be remediated via three methods:
1. elimination or drastic reduction of toxins applied to the soil
2. immobilization of the toxins by means of soil management, and
3. removal of toxins by means of chemical, physical, and biological remediation.

1. What do you understand by the term soil pollution?
2. Mention the types of substances that can pollute land.
3. Explain the importance of soil pollution to soil health and crop production.
4. Explain two way by which polluted soils can be remediated.
5. Differentiate between in-situ and ex-situ techniques for remediating polluted soils.

Pretince Hall
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UNIT 7 Soil carbon sequestration

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Definition of terms
3.2 Nature of organic materials added to the soil
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3.2.1 Plant residues

3.2.1.1 Residue decomposition
3.2.1.2 Residue composition
3.2.2 Microorganisms
3.2.3 Biosolids and animal manure
3.3 Soil organic matter (SOM)
3.3.1 Beneficial properties of soil organic mater
3.3.1.1 Biological properties
3.3.1.2 Chemical properties
3.3.1.3 Physical properties
3.3.2 Formation of soil organic matter
3.3.3 Decomposition of SOM
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide from the onset of the industrial revolution has raised
serious concern about the impact of potential climate change. The major sources of this elevated
CO2 levels are:
1. fossil fuel combustion
2. agricultural activities including deforestation with its associated processes such as
biomass burning when converting natural ecosystems to agricultural lands with
subsequent cultivation; and
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3. industrial manufacturing of cement, ammonia-N fertilizers, and lime.

Agricultural soils and severely eroded soils have lost an estimated organic carbon level up to
50% and 80% of their original content, respectively (Lal, 2001). Carbon sequestration is one of
the ways to reduce the elevated carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere. Through the process of
photosynthesis, and subsequent dissolution, atmospheric carbon dioxide can be removed and
stored in the soil as organic matter or secondary carbonates. Soil organic carbon sequestration is
therefore the conversion of plant and microbial carbon into the soil organic matter. Cultural
practices such as no-till or conservation tillage have shown positive results in increasing soil
organic matter levels. The emphasis in carbon sequestration is on organic forms, this is because
sequestration of carbon in inorganic forms is limited by the formation of secondary carbonates
and the subsequent leaching into ground water. Soils have a high potential to accumulate a
substantial amount of carbon. With adequate management practices, the soil organic carbon can
be increased tremendously.
2.0 Objectives
Understand the concept of carbon sequestration and related terms

Understand soil organic matter, its formation, and beneficial properties to soil
Understand management practices that can be used to enhance soil carbon sequestration
3.0 Main content

3.1 Definition of terms
Decomposition: the chemical breakdown of compounds into simpler compounds, often through
the action of microbial metabolism
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Mineralization: conversion of an organic form of an element into inorganic form as a result of

microbial decomposition
Respiration:
3.2 Nature of organic materials added to the soil
The nature of the residue added to the soil is very important in understanding carbon
transformations in the soil. The kinds, amounts, and composition of these materials would
influence decomposition and subsequent sequestration. Majorly, organic materials added to the
soil are in the form of plant residues, microbial cells, and biosolids and animal manure.
3.2.1 Plant residues
Plant residues that decompose in agricultural soils are mainly from crop plants. They consist
primarily of leaf, stem, and root tissues which are left over after harvest. Over time, these
residues decomposes and become fully incorporated into the soil, however, the roots are more
readily decomposed due to their location in the soil. The plant a material serves as substrates for
the microbial population that carry out the decomposition. In natural ecosystems, residues added
to the soil are derived mainly from prairie and forest vegetation
3.2.1.1 Residue decomposition
The decomposition of residue begins and progresses in a manner defined by the cultural
practice(s) employed on the field. Where conventional tillage operations are practiced, stalks and
straws are incorporated into the soil by activities such as ploughing and disking. This improves
the contact of the residues with moisture and microbes, thus the process of decomposition is
hastened. Minimum and no-till operations leaves residue on the surface, the decay process in this
case is similar to that for natural ecosystems. Decomposition is normally initiated at the interface
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between the residue litter and the moist soil, and it progresses from beneath the litter layer.
During the decay process, some of the litter may be transported by the soil fauna beneath the soil
surface. There active decay process occurs and the organic material is mixed with the upper
mineral horizon. The rate of decay is influenced by variation in factors such as temperature,
moisture, nutrient supply, and pH. These factors are more influential in the topsoil than in the
bulk soil.
3.2.1.2 Residue composition
Residues do not decompose in whole unit, hence their composition affect the decay process. The
various units of organic compounds comprising plant residues are selectively attacked by soil
microbes. The range of soil microbes produces specific suites of degradative enzymes that are
active on insoluble polymers. Plant residues added to the soil are composed of complex polymers
such as cellulose and lignin. The general process involved in decomposition of residue may
occur under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. The anaerobic pathway is more important for most
soils. The decay of residue progresses through the interrelated activities of many different
microorganisms. The simple substrates are readily assimilated while complex substrates such as
carbohydrate polymers may require microbes in succession to break them down into simpler
substrates. As decay progresses, the more resistant components tend to accumulate. Also, the
microbial modification of decomposing plant constituent and microbial synthesis results in the
formation of reactive aromatic compounds. These reactive aromatics enter into condensation
reactions to form more resistant polymeric materials. This results in a pool of complex
carboneceos material that is highly resistant to decomposition and constitutes the soil organic
matter (SOM). This process is known as humification, and it occurs concomitantly with
microbial decay of residues.
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3.2.2 Microorganisms
The dead soil microbes also constitute an important substrate for living microorganisms. Fungal
and bacterial cell walls contain subunits which can be degraded. Fungal cell walls are composed
of cellulose, chitin, and chitosan; while bacterial cell wall are composed of N-acetuglucosamine
and N-acetylmuramic acid in peptoglycans, along with other polysaccahrides.
3.2.3 Biosolids and animal manure
Waste materials applied to the soil are important substrates for living microorganisms in the soil.
Application of biosolids and animal manure has increased in the last two decades. The reduction
in the ocean dumping and incineration of biosolid, due to environmental concern, has made land
application more important for disposal and recycling of nutrient. Manures and biosolids contain
organic compounds similar to those in plant residue, thus their decomposition follow the same
pattern.
3.3 Soil organic matter (SOM)

Soil organic matter is the nonliving organic fraction of the soil exclusive of undecayed macroanimal and plant residues. It consists of humic and non-humic substances. Humic substances are
the series of black substances of relatively high molecular weight formed by secondary synthesis
reactions. The major fractions of the humic substances are humic acid, fulvic acid, and humin.
The humic acid is dark brown to black organic material that can be extracted from soil by various
reagents and that is precipitated by acidification to pH 1 or 2. Fulvic acid is the yellow material
that remains in solution after removal of humic acid by acidification. The fraction of soil organic
matter that cannot be extracted from the soil with dilute alkali is the humin. Non-humic
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substances are the unaltered remains of animals, microbes, and plants. It contains compounds
such as amino acids, carbohydrates, fats, waxes, resins, organic acids, etc.
3.3.1 Beneficial properties of soil organic mater
The presence of soil organic matter impacts many desirable properties to the soil. Although the
amount of soil organic matter, by volume, may not exceed 5% of the total soil, it exerts a large
influence on soil biological, chemical, and physical properties. In lieu of the importance of soil
organic matter to the soil, soil management systems such as no-tillage, crop rotation, and manure
addition, which maintain or augment the soil organic matter should be embraced. The beneficial
properties impacted to the soil by organic matter can be grouped as follows:
3.3.1.1 Biological properties
1. it provides a slowly available carbon and energy source to support a large, diverse, and
metabolically active microbial community
2. it is a source of certain compounds that may exert plant growth-promoting effect
3.3.1.2 Chemical properties

1. it increases the cation exchange capacity of the soil, often SOM accounts for 20% to 80%
of the CEC of the soil
2. it provides a slow release supply of organically bound nutrients such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, and sulfur
3. it enhances chelation and thus bioavailability of trace elements to plants
4. it accelerates mineral weathering and aids in solubilization of plant nutrients from
otherwise insoluble minerals
5. it has a high adsorptive capacity of organic compounds and thus reduces the
bioavailability compounds foreign to biological systems (xenobiotics)
3.3.1.3 Physical properties
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1.
2.
3.
4.
it contributes to increasing soil structure and aggregation

in decreases bulk density and thus increases percentage pore size
in increases soil water holding capacity
it increases heat absorption due to the dark
3.3.2 Formation of soil organic matter

Several theories have been used to explain humus formation. They include the Plant alteration
theory (Waksmans Lignin-Protein Theory), Reducing Sugar theory (Browning reaction), LigninDerived Quinone Theory (Flaig), Microbial Synthesis Theory (Martin and Haider; Kononova).
Currently, the state of research on SOM formation involves the formation of polyphenols. The
substrates for the formation of humus are plant, animal, and microbial residues. The residues
undergo biological alteration and additional compounds are synthesized by the microbes. Some
of these compounds undergo polymerization or condensation through chemical reactions or
enzymatic reactions. The ability of phenolic compounds to undergo enzymatic or autooxidative
polymerization reactions is highly important in the formation of humus. Alternative theories such
as the plant alteration theory is more applicable to poorly drained soil where peat is formed;
3.3.3 Decomposition of SOM
Decomposition of organic matter proceeds both under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Humus
is a relatively stable material with a decomposition rate of 2% to 5%. This rate of decomposition
can be increased by increasing soil temperature. The prevalent climatic condition in the tropics
favour rapid SOM decomposition. This results in nitrogen deficiency when the SOM is depleted.
Decomposition under aerobic condition is faster than under anaerobic condition. This is due to
the adequate soil aeration, under aerobic condtion, which favours oxidative decomposition and
results in faster decomposition. Others factors that would increase the rate of decomposition
under aerobic condition include:
121
adequate available nitrogen

cultivation or mechanical mixing of soil. This operation exposes new surfaces of organic
matter to microbial oxidation
Under anaerobic conditions, decomposition is greatly reduced. This leads to the accumulation of
organic residues in layers, which represents various successions of vegetation types. The layers
are also characterized by various degrees of decomposition. This leads to the formation of
organic soils, or histosols. When histosols are drained, especially for vegetable production, rapid
decomposition of the organic matters ensues. This normally results in a drop in land elevation, a
phenomenon known as subsidence.
4.0 Conclusion
The role of soil ic carbon sequestration is well illustrated by the carbon cycle. The soil is the
chief storage for carbon, as more carbon is stored in soil than in the atmosphere and aboveground biomass combined. Carbon is stored in the soil in the form of organic compounds
originally created through photosynthesis in which plants convert atmospheric carbon dioxide
(CO2) into plant matter made of organic carbon compounds, such as carbohydrates, proteins,
oils, and fibers. When plants and animals die and their redidues are left on the soil, these organic
compounds enter the soil system. The process of decomposition follows, soil organisms begin
consuming the organic matter, extracting energy and nutrients and releasing water, heat, and CO2
back to the atmosphere. Cultivation enhances the process of decomposition, this is because the
soil is better aerated, thereby triggering increased biological activity, and therefore rapid
decomposition, loss of soil organic matter, and release of CO2 into the atmosphere. The bulk of
soil carbon losses occur in the first several years after cultivation begins. The goal of carbon
122
sequestration is to reverse carbon loss by increasing the amount of carbon stored in the soil. A
major means of achieving this is by reducing tillage. This can increase the extent of carbon
sequestration and the amount of organic matter retained in the soil.
5.0 Summary
In order to mitigate the menace of climate change, the elevated CO2 level of the atmosphere
needs to be reduced. Carbon sequestration is one of the ways to achieve this. Through the
process of photosynthesis, and subsequent dissolution, atmospheric carbon dioxide can be
removed and stored in the soil as organic matter or secondary carbonates. The organic materials
added to the soil are in the form of plant residues, microbial cells, and biosolids and animal
manure. The nature of the residue added to the soil is very important in understanding carbon
transformations in the soil. The kinds, amounts, and composition of these materials would
influence decomposition and subsequent sequestration.
The non-living organic fraction of the soil is the soil organic matter. This fraction is excludes the
undecayed macro-animal and plant residues. Soil orgnanic matter consists of humic and nonhumic substances. Humic substances are the series of black substances of relatively high
molecular weight formed by secondary synthesis reactions. The major fractions of the humic
substances are humic acid, fulvic acid, and humin. The presence of soil organic matter impacts
many desirable properties to the soil. Although the amount of soil organic matter, by volume,
may not exceed 5% of the total soil, it exerts a large influence on soil biological, chemical, and
physical properties. The theorties used to explain soil organic matter formation include the Plant
alteration theory (Waksmans Lignin-Protein Theory), Reducing Sugar theory (Browning
reaction), Lignin-Derived Quinone Theory (Flaig), Microbial Synthesis Theory (Martin and
123
Haider; Kononova). Currently research postulates that soil organic matter formation involves the
formation of polyphenols. The substrates for the formation of humus are plant, animal, and
microbial residues. Decomposition of organic matter takes place both under aerobic and
anaerobic conditions. Humus is a relatively stable material with a decomposition rate of 2% to
5%. This rate of decomposition can be increased by increasing soil temperature. Others factors
that would increase the rate of decomposition under aerobic condition include: adequate soil
aeration, adequate available nitrogen, and cultivation or mechanical mixing of soil.

1. Explain the following terms: decomposition, mineralization, and sequestration
2. Explain the nature of organic materials added to the soil
3. What are the beneficial properties of soil organic matter?
4. Explain the formation of soil organic matter
References/further readings
Pretince Hall
3. Sylvia et al. (eds) (2005). Principles and Application of soil microbiology (2 nd edn). New
Jersey: Pretince Hall.
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UNIT 8 Soil Nutrient Dynamics

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Essential nutrient elements
3.2 Nutrient availability
3.2.1 Forms of nutrient elements in the soil
3.4 Dynamics of soil nutrient transformation
3.5 Nutrient cycling in agro ecosystem
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
125
1.0 Introduction
Water and nutrients are two of the most important limiting factor to crop growth and production.
Within the soil system, nutrients undergo a number of interrelated reactions which determine
their availability to plants, leachability to the ground water, as well as their loss to the
atmosphere. The various transformations which nutrient elements undergo in the soil system is
described by the concept of soil nutrient dynamics. A thorough understanding of this concept and
related ones is essential for better fertilization and a profitable agricultural production.
2.0 Objectives
Understand the concept of essentiality of nutrient and the criteria for essentiality
Understand the concept of nutrient availability and related concepts
Understand the dynamics of nutrient transformation in the soil
Understand how nutrients are cycled in agro-ecosystems.
3.0 Main content

126
3.1 Essential nutrient element

Nutrients are chemical compounds required by living organisms for catabolic or anabolic
reactions. Mineral nutrients have specific and essential functions in plant metabolism. Although
over 60 elements have been identified in plant material, the presence of an element in a plant
does not mean that such element is essential for plant life. Through many years of research,
certain chemical elements have been established to be essential for normal plant growth. These
chemical elements are referred to as essential mineral element (or mineral nutrient). This term
was proposed by Stout and Arnon (1939). The following criteria must be met for an element to
be considered essential:
1. the absence of the element makes it impossible for a given plant to complete its life cycle
2. the function of the element cannot be replaced by another element
3. the element must be directly involved in plant metabolism.
According to these criteria, if an element only functions as a replacement for another element
(e.g. Na for K) or it alleviates the toxic effect of another (e.g. Si for Mn toxicity) it cannot be
considered essential for plant growth.
Eighteen elements have been established as essential through research. Plants show deficiency
symptoms characteristic of each element when they are in short supply. Techniques for
demonstrating essentiality of nutrients include growing the plant in a nutrient solution containing
all nutrients except the nutrient element in question. The essential elements for crop growth
include N, C, O, H, S, P, Mg, Ca, K, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B, Mo, Cl, Ni, and Co. Those essential
elements required in relatively small amounts are called micronutrients, or minor or trace
elements; while those required in large amounts are called major or macro nutrients.
3.2 Nutrient availability
3.2.1 Forms of nutrient in the soil
127
The form in which a nutrient element exists influences its availability. Nutrient elements exist in
two forms in the soil:
1. Insoluble or complex forms. This represents the reserve status of the elements in the soil.
It is also regarded as the quantity factor. Nutrient elements in this form can be organic or
inorganic, and they are generally regarded as being less active in the soil.
2. Simple or more soluble forms. Nutrient elements are readily available to plants in this
form. It is regarded as the intensity factor.
The insoluble form of nutrient elements could be converted to the soluble form, but sometimes
the reverse process could occur. In the soil system, the maintenance of intensity factor of
nutrients for adequate nutrition of plants depends on the ability of the labile nutrients (quantity
factor) to replace soil solution elements taken up by plants. The ratio of quantity to intensity
factor expresses the relative ability of soil reserve to buffer changes in the soil solution, and it is
termed the capacity factor. The larger the capacity factor the greater the ability of the soil to
buffer soil solution elements. Hence, the productivity of a soil depends not only on the total
amount of elements in the soil (quantity and intensity), but also on the ease with which transfer
from the complex to the simple and available form can be done (capacity factor). The capacity
factor therefore determines a buffer power for a particular metal. The relationship between
capacity and intensity factors for each particular metal is heavily dependent on pH. Also, factors
such as decomposition rate of organic matter and rate of mineralization of soil minerals will
influence capacity factor of a soil
Complex forms of nutrient elements
Elements like N, P, and S exist in complex forms in organic matter or inorganic form in the soil.
Nutrients held in complex forms are released into the simple forms which are taken up by plants
or microorganisms after decomposition of soil organic matter. The availability of these nutrients
128
depends on the rate of mineralization and decomposition. Elements such as K, Ca, Mg, and some
of the micronutrients exist in the soil in the inorganic complex forms. The degree of availability
of the elements in this form depends on the mineralization processes that take place in the soil.
Generally,
the
order
of
mineral
release
from
simple
to
complex
form
is
Ca>Mg>K>micronutrients.
Simple available forms

Plants and microorganisms take nutrients from the soil in simple available forms. The nutrients
in these forms are subjected to leaching. Nutrients in complex forms undergo various processes
of simplification before they are converted to available forms. The productive capacity of a soil
depends not only on the total amount of nutrient elements in the soil but also on the ease with
which transfer is made from complex to simple forms. Common examples of transfer from
complex to simple forms in the soil system include:
1. Nitrogen
Organic N
NH4+
NO2- salts
NH4+ salts
NO2- salts
NO3-
Plants take up N in the form of NO32. Phosphorus

Ca3(PO4)2
Ca(H2PO4)2 + 2 Ca(HCO3)2
3. Potassium
129
2KAlSi3O4
H4Al2Si2O9 + K2CO3 + 4SiO4
Fate of simple forms of elements in the soil

The simple forms of elements in the soil are subjected to any of the following processes:
1. taken up by plants
2. lost from the soil through drainage
3. immobilized by microorganisms
4. held my negatively charged soil colloids
5. strongly held in un-exchangeable forms (fixed) by oxides
3.3 Dynamics of soil nutrient transformations
The interrelationships among the various fractions of nutrient elements in the soil are complex;
however, understanding the dynamics of nutrient element transformation in soils will provide the
basis for sound management of soil and fertilizer to ensure adequate nutrient availability to
plants. Nutrient elements undergo an array of reactions that determines or influences their
availability to plants. In this section, those reactions particular to the most limiting nutrient
elements would be considered.
3.3.1 Nitrogen
The larger part of N in the soil is in the complex organic form. The amount of NH 4+ and NO3available to plants depends largely on the amounts applied as N fertilizers and mineralized from
organic soil N. The amounts released from organic N, and to some extent, those existing in the
soil after the addition of NH4+ or NO3- depends on many factor affecting N mineralization,
immobilization, and losses from the soil. Nitrogen cycle in the soil plant- atmosphere system
130
involves the transformation of N between inorganic and organic forms through the process of
mineralization.
Mineralization
The process by which organic N is converted to inorganic N (NH 4+ and NO3-) is known as
mineralization. This involves two reactions: ammonification and nitrification. Soil mineral N is
produced from the decomposition of soil organic matter; hence the availability of N would
depend on the organic matter status of the soil. The rate at which ammonification proceeds is
affected by:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Climatic factors
Soil temperature
Moisture
Wetting of a dry soil
Soil texture
C/N ratio
The ammonium produced from this process is subjected to several processes which may include
any of the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
It may be converted to NO2- and NO3- by the process of nitrification

It may be absorbed directly by plants
It may be utilized by heterotrophic organisms in further decomposing organic C residues
It may be fixed in biological unavailable form in the lattice of certain expanding type clay
minerals like illite, montmorillonite, vermiculite, etc

5. It may be slowly released into the atmosphere as N2
Ammonium Fixation
Clay minerals (illite, vermiculits, etc) are known to fix NH4+. Vermiculite has the greatest
capacity to do this followed by the fine grained micas and some smectites. These minerals have
negative charges in their internal surfaces which attract positively charged cations. The cations
131
that satisfy these charges move freely into and out of the crystal lattice. The fixed NH4 + can be
replaced by cations that expand the lattice (e.g. Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and H++ but not by those that
contract it (e.g. K+). Ammonium has the right size to fit between these crystal units and thus it
gets fixed as a rigid part of the crystal, thereby preventing the normal expansion of the lattice. In
this form, the NH4+ is not subjected to oxidation, although it becomes available with time. The
fixation of NH4+ is high in the subsoil than in the top soil because of the higher clay content in
the subsoil.
Nitrification
Nitrification is the process by which the NH 4+ released during mineralization of organic N is
converted to NO3-. Nitrification is a two step process in which NH 4+ is converted first into NO2and then to NO3-.
2NH4+ 3O2
2NO2- + 2H2O + 4H+
The 2nd stage involves the oxidation of nitrite to nitrate by autotrophic bacteria- Nitrobacter.
2NO2- + O2
2NO3- + Energy
The conversion of NO2- to NO3- proceeds rapidly and only traces of NO2- are normally found in
the soil solution. Nitrate ion (NO 2-) can be toxic to plants when in higher concentration. The
source of NH4+ can be from mineralization of organic N or from N fertilizers containing or
forming NH4+. The reaction rates associated with nitrification in most well drained soils are NO 2to NO3- > NH4+ to NO3-. As a result, NO2- generally does not accumulate in soils. The activities of
nitrifying bacteria are affected by a number of factors. These factors consequently affect
nitrification and the amounts of nitrite produced. These factors are:
1. Supply of ammonium ion
2. Population of nitrifying organisms
132
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Soil pH
Soil aeration
Soil moisture
Soil temperature
C:N ratio
Available nutrients
Under ideal conditions, nitrification moves rapidly and supply rate may far exceed the need for
the plant, but there is never such an ideal condition.
Fate of NO3- produced during nitrification

The NO3- resulting from the process of nitrification and those added to the soil in fertilizer could
react or undergo any of the four different processes:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Uptake by microorganisms
Uptake by plants
Loss in drainage/leaching
Denitrification (loss in gaseous forms)
3.3.2 Phosphorus
A complex interrelationship exists between the various forms of P in soils. Plant absorption of P
decreases the soil solution P concentration. This decrease is buffered by both inorganic and
organic P fractions in the soil. P is resupplied to the soil solution by the congruent dissolution of
primary and secondary P minerals which resupply H 2PO4-/HPO42-. Decrease in solution P can
also be buffered by desorption of adsorbed P from surfaces of clay colloids. Plant residues
containing P are also digested by soil microorganisms to produce organic P compounds. These
organic P compounds can be further mineralized through microbial activity to supply P in simple
available forms. The concentration of P in the soil solution is increased by the application of
water soluble fertilizer P which readily dissolves. Also, the increase in solution P can be buffered
133
by the inorganic and organic P fractions. The amount of solution P is decreased by processes
such as P uptake by roots and P adsorption on mineral surfaces and precipitation as secondary P
mineral. The solution P immobilized by soil microbes as microbial P, eventually becomes
available as readily mineralizable compounds and organic P compounds more resistant to
microbial degradation. These interrelationships among the various P fractions are complex; but a
thorough understanding the dynamics of P transformation in soils will provide the basis for
sound management of soil and fertilizer P to ensure adequate P availability to plants.
The problem of P in soil fertility is three fold:
the P level of soils is low

the P compounds found in soils are mostly unavailable for plant uptake because they are
insoluble;
when soluble P is added to the soil they are fixed or immobilized by hydrous oxides of Fe
and Al.
The concentration of available P in solution is generally low, but some P can be made available
through transformation or decomposition of organic residue by microbes. This process is known
as mineralization. Plants absorb P as H2PO4- and HPO42-, which are present in the soil solution.
The amount of each form present depends on the soil solution pH. At pH 7.2 there are
approximately equal amounts of H2PO4- and HPO42-. Below pH 7.2, H2PO4- is the major form in
soil solution, whereas HPO42- is the predominant form above pH 7.2. Plant uptake of HPO 42- is
much slower than H2PO4-.
Mineralization of P
Phosphorus mineralization and immobilization are similar to those of N in that both processes
occur simultaneously in soils.
134
Organic P
inorganic P (H2PO4- and HPO42-)
The initial source of soil organic P are plant and animal residues which are degraded by
microorganisms to produce other organic compounds and release inorganic P.
R-PO42- + H2O
HPO42- + ROH
Mineralization is affected by physical and chemical factors. Phosphorus mineralization is very

sensitive to pH. An increase in soil pH results in rate of P mineralization exceeding that of N.
Apart from soil pH, the other factors affecting P mineralization are soil cultivation, soil moisture,
soil temperature, P fertilization, cultural practices and nature of added organic matter. The extent
of mineralization or immobilization depends largely on C/P ratio of organic residue. If the C/P
ratio is high or wide the concentration of P may be less than that needed for nutrition of the
organisms carrying out decomposition. Under this condition, the greater part of the P released
will be immobilized. If the ratio is narrow or low, excess P would be produced as inorganic
phosphate which would be available for plant uptake, immobilization by microbes or fixation by
oxides. Generally, the amount of P from mineralization is low.
P Immobilization
Inorganic P can be immobilized to organic P by microorganisms. The quantity of fertilizer P
immobilized varies widely, with values of 25 to 100% of applied fertilizer P. On some soils,
continued fertilizer P applications can increase the organic P content and subsequently P
mineralization.
Inorganic P compounds
135
Inorganic P compounds found in spoils are to a large extent insoluble in the soil solution. these
compounds ranges from relatively more soluble mono and dicalcium phosphate which are
present in low concentration to the relatively more insoluble hydroxyl and flour apatite. The
inorganic P compounds commonly found in soils are:
Compound
Formula
Strengite
FePO4.2H2O
Veriscite
AlPO4.2H2O
Ca Compounds
Fluor apatite
[3Ca3 (PO4)2] CaF2
Carbonate apatite
[3Ca3 (PO4)2] CaCO3
Hydroxy apatite
[3Ca3 (PO4)2] Ca(OH)2
Oxy apatite
[3Ca3 (PO4)2] CaO
Tri- calcium phosphate
Ca3 (PO4)2
Di-calcium phosphate
Ca HPO4. 2H2O
Mono- calcium phosphate
Ca (H2PO4)2 H2O
Iron and aluminum phosphate tends to accumulate in acid soils whereas calcium phosphate
predominates in neutral or alkaline soils.
Reaction of added P fertilizers
When phosphorus fertilizers are added to the soil, only part of it may be readily soluble in water.
The soluble part will first of all dissolve in the soil water, and reactions of the phosphate
constituents and other compounds may remove the phosphate from the solution phase and render
it less soluble. This phenomenon is called phosphorus fixation or retention. Phosphorous could
be fixed or retained by:
136
1.
2.
3.
4.
Hydrous oxide of Fe and Al

Fe, Mn, and Al ions in the soil solution
Soil carbonates
Alumino-silicate minerals
3.3.3 Potassium
Potassium (K) is present in relatively large quantities in most soils, averaging about 1.9%. Most
of these K are rigidly held as part of the primary mineral or fixed in forms that are only
moderately available to plants. Potassium in soils originate from the slow weathering of Kbearing minerals such as feldspars, microcline (KAlSi3O8) and muscovite (KAl3Si2O10 (OH)12).
The ease of weathering of these minerals depends on their properties and environment. Soils rich
in clay are generally rich in K. clays may have greater than 4% total K, whereas, sandy, organic
and highly weathered soils are generally low in K. The low affinity of organic matter for K is
responsible for the very low concentration of K in organic soils. Potassium may be low in
tropical soils due to its origin, high rainfall, and continuous high temperature. Potassium
deficiency may arise in tropical soils after a continuous cultivation of virgin soils. There are three
fractions of K in soils:
1. K as a structural element of soil minerals
2. K adsorbed in exchangeable form to soil colloids such as clay minerals and organic
matter
3. K present in the soil solution
Potassium released by weathering of minerals is dissolved in soil solution where it is taken up by
plant roots or adsorbed by soil colloids.
Equilibrium is set up between adsorbed K and soil solution K. The K level in soil solution
resulting from this equilibrium depends much on the selectivity of the adsorption sites.
Adsorption sites are specific to K ions. Concentration of K in soil solution controls K diffusion
rate towards plant roots and therefore its uptake.
137
Fig. 1. Interrelationships of various forms of soil K. (Source: Sparks and Huang, 1985).
Fate of K-fertilizer added to the soil
Potassium fertilizer added to the soil can react in one of the following ways when released or
added to the soil
1.
2.
3.
4.
Uptake by plant
Immobilization by microorganisms
Loss in drainage, leaching, or erosion
Fixation by clay minerals
Potassium Fixation
Potassium fixation does occur to the same extent in all soils. It reaches its maximum however, in
soils high in 2:1 clays and with large amounts of illite. Fixation of K is the result of reentrapment of K+ between the layers of 2:1 clays. The 1:1 type minerals such as kaolinite do not
fix K. Potassium ions are sufficiently small to enter the silica sheets where they are held very
firmly by electrostatic forces. The NH4+ ion has nearly same ionic radius as the K + ion and is
subject to similar fixation. Cations like Ca 2+ and Na+ have larger ionic radii than K + and do not
138
move into the interlayer positions of clays. The K + and NH4+ ions fit in between the crystal units
of theses expanding clays and become an integral part of the crystal. Potassium in this form
cannot be easily replaced by exchange method, hence it is referred to as non-exchangeable K. A
lot of K can be conserved in non-exchangeable forms if the soil is made up of 2:1 clay minerals.
Experiments have shown that non-exchangeable form can supply the crop with K without any
addition of fertilizers. Although soils differ greatly in the rate at which non-exchangeable K is
released. Factors such as the nature of soil colloids, liming, air-drying of soils, presence of Al3+
and the manner of K fertilization can affect the rate of K fixation in soils.
3.3.4 Calcium and Magnesium
Calcium and magnesium contents in soil vary widely. Calcium is absorbed by plants as Ca2+ from
the soil solution. This is usually supplied to the roots surface by mass flow and root interception.
Magnesium is also absorbed by plant roots as Mg 2+ which is supplied to the roots by mass flow
and diffusion. Although the Ca concentration of the soil solution is about 10 times greater than
that of K+, its uptake is usually lower than that of K+. The capacity of plants for Ca uptake is
limited because it can be absorbed only by young root tips in which the cell walls of the
endodermis are still unsuberized. Both Ca2+ and Mg2+ occurs as exchangeable and solution Ca2+
and Mg2+, respectively.
Calcium and magnesium are dominant exchangeable cations in most soils. In savanna soils, only
few deficiencies have been reported and this is with legumes- groundnut. In most top soils,
exchangeable Ca exceeds exchangeable Mg, and wide range of exchangeable Ca:Mg ratio has
been reported. Calcium is applied to the soil mainly as incidental component of many soil
fertilizers such as SSP, CAN, and through liming, as in quick lime and dolomite. Magnesium
139
also gets into the soil in liming material with dolomite. Magnesium deficiency is usually
corrected by the application of MgSO4.
3.4 Nutrient cycling in agroecosystems
At the end of a plants growth cycle, part of the nutrients taken up by the plants is returned back
to the soil as plant residues. The plant material serves as substrates for the microbial population
that carry out the decomposition. The end product of this decomposition serves as simple and
complex forms of nutrients for plant. These interrelated series of biogeochemical processes is
described by the process of nutrient cycling in the soil. Nutrient cycling in the soil is the
movements and exchange of nutrients elements (both in organic and inorganic forms) between
the soil system and plant growing on it. Microorganisms are central to the biogeochemical
cycling of nutrients in the soil. Through the microbial mediated inter conversion of different
forms of nitrogen, potassium, sulphur, and phosphorus, interlinked with the carbon cycle, the
turnover and supply of nutrients essential for plant and crop growth is ensured. The degradation
of organic matter by microbes controls the release of plant nutrients, it is also important for the
maintenance of soil structure and sustainability of soil quality for plant growth. During the
process of nutrient cycling, some elements are lost from the cycle. The process of microbial
respiration and methanogenesis is responsible for significant losses of carbon to the atmosphere.
Denitrification is the major way through which nitrogen is lost from the biogeochemical cycle.
Some elements are also lost from cycling by been held in forms that are unavailable to plant.
This is common in Phosphorus, which could be held by Fe and Al oxides in forms that does not
allow for continuous cycling. Although all microbial activities in the soil contribute to the
cycling of nutrients, the two most important processes in nutrient cycling are nitrification and
denitrification. This is because nitrogen is the most limiting factor in plant growth and
140
development, and both processes dictates how nitrogen is lost and returned to the soil.
Nitrification involves the microbial oxidation of reduced form of nitrogen (NH 4+) to nitrate.
Nitrification is central to the nitrogen cycle where it plays the important role of linking the most
reduced and the most oxidized forms of nitrogen. In denitrification, nitrate is sequentially
reduced to nitrite, nitric oxide, nitrous oxide, and nitrogen gas, which is eventually lost to the
atmosphere. Denitrification is also an important part of the nitrogen cycle because it is the chief
route through which nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere. It is an important means of fertilizer
losses, and also a major source of pollutants in the form of nitrous and nitric oxides. Both
processes illustrate the way in which different nutrient cycles are inter-connected. The cycling of
nutrients in the soil can be well represented by the cycles of nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and
carbon. Nutrient cycling can be assessed by measuring the following indicators:
1. Fertility Indicators: such as mineral nitrogen, potentially mineralizable nitrogen, soil
nitrate, soil test phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, calcium, magnesium, boron, and zinc
2. Organic Matter Indicators: such as C:N ratio, decomposition, microbial biomass carbon,
particulate organic matter, soil enzymes, soil organic matter, total organic carbon and
total organic matter
3. Soil Reaction Indicators: e.g. soil pH
The soil acts as a "switching yard" for the global cycles of carbon, water, and nutrients. Essential
elements such as Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and many other nutrients are stored,
transformed, and cycled through soil.
Conclusion
141
The functions of the soil in nutrient cycling include storage, moderation of nutrient release, and
the cycling of nutrients and other elements. During the biogeochemical processes involved in this
cycling, nutrient can be transformed into plant available forms, held in the soil, or even lost to air
or water. The transformation and cycling of nutrients in the soil is controlled by soil organisms.
The microbial process of decomposition liberates carbon and nutrients from the complex
material making up life forms-putting them back into biological circulation so they are available
to plants and other organisms. This process also degrades compounds in soil that would be
pollutants if they entered ground or surface water. Almost all soil organisms are involved in the
stepwise process of decomposition. Each organism derives its own required energy or nutrient
by participating in the process. The end product is usually the transformation compounds into
simpler ones. The portion of residue added to the soil that is not broken down is transformed into
the highly complex organic compounds called humic substances. Humic substances can persist in
soil for centuries and are important to soil structure and nutrient storage.
Summary
The two most limiting factors in crop production are water and nutrients. The availability of
nutrients to growing plants is determined by a number of inter-related reactions within the soil
system. The concept of soil nutrient dynamics describes the various transformations which
nutrient elements undergo in the soil system. This concept is important because it can be
managed for proper better fertilization and a profitable agricultural production. The chemical
compounds required by living organisms for their catabolic and anabolic reactions are termed
nutrients. Through many years of research, some of these chemical elements have been
established to be essential for normal plant growth. These chemical elements are referred to as
essential mineral element (or mineral nutrient). Currently, only eighteen elements have been
142
established as essential for plant growth. Plants show deficiency symptoms characteristic of each
element when they are in short supply. Nutrient elements exist in different forms in the soil.
Generally, these forms can be divided into: Insoluble or complex forms and simple or more
soluble forms. Nutrient elements are readily available to plants in the simple form. The simple
and available form of nutrient is referred to as the intensity factor. While the insoluble and
comples form is the quantity factor. The ratio of quantity to intensity factor expresses the relative
ability of soil reserve to buffer changes in the soil solution, and it is termed the capacity factor.
The larger the capacity factor the greater the ability of the soil to buffer soil solution elements.
Elements like N, P, and S exist in complex forms in organic matter or inorganic form in the soil.
Nutrients held in complex forms are released into the simple forms which are taken up by plants
or microorganisms after decomposition of soil organic matter. The availability of these nutrients
depends on the rate of mineralization and decomposition. Plants and microorganisms take
nutrients from the soil in simple available forms. The nutrients in these forms are subjected to
leaching. Nutrients in complex forms undergo various processes of simplification before they are
converted to available forms. The simple forms of elements in the soil could be taken up by
plants, lost from the soil through drainage, immobilized by microorganisms, held my negatively
charged soil colloids, or strongly held in un-exchangeable forms (fixed) by oxides.
The dynamics of nutrient element transformation in soils provides the basis for sound
management of soil and fertilizer to ensure adequate nutrient availability to plants. Nutrient
elements undergo an array of reactions that determines or influences their availability to plants.
The cycle of nitrogen in the soil plant- atmosphere system involves the transformation of N
between inorganic and organic forms through the process of mineralization. Mineralization is the
143
conversion of organic N to inorganic N.
It involves two reactions: ammonification and
nitrification. One of the fates of ammonium released during ammonification is fixation.

Ammonium is fixed and rendered unavailable by clay minerals such as illite and vermiculite.
Nitrification is the process by which the NH 4+ released during mineralization of organic N is
converted to NO3-. Nitrate produced during nitrification is subjected to any of the following:
uptake by microorganisms, uptake by plants, loss in drainage/leaching, and denitrification (loss
in gaseous forms)
Decrease in soil solution P due to plant absorption is buffered by both inorganic and organic P
fractions in the soil. Reactions/processes that resupply P into solution includes the congruent
dissolution of primary and secondary P minerals which resupply H 2PO4-/HPO42-, desorption of
adsorbed P from surfaces of clay colloids, and the digestion of plant residues containing P by soil
microorganisms. The concentration of P in the soil solution can also be increased by the
application of water soluble fertilizer P which readily dissolves. Phosphorus is a problem in soil
fertility because the P level of soils is low, the P compounds found in soils are mostly unavailable
for plant uptake because they are insoluble, and because when soluble P is added to the soil they
are fixed or immobilized by hydrous oxides of Fe and Al.
Potassium (K) is present in relatively large quantities in most soils. Most K in soils are rigidly
held as part of the primary mineral or fixed in forms that are only moderately available to plants.
Potassium fertilizer added to the soil can react in one of the following ways when released or
added to the soil: uptake by plant; immobilization by microorganisms; loss in drainage, leaching,
or erosion; and fixation by clay minerals
At the end of a plants growth cycle, part of the nutrients taken up by the plants is returned back
to the soil as plant residues. Nutrient cycling in the soil is the movements and exchange of
144
nutrients elements (both in organic and inorganic forms) between the soil system and plant
growing on it. Although all microbial activities in the soil contribute to the cycling of nutrients,
the two most important processes in nutrient cycling are nitrification and denitrification. This is
because nitrogen is the most limiting factor in plant growth and development, and both processes
dictates how nitrogen is lost and returned to the soil.
Nutrient cycling can be assessed by measuring some key indicators. These include fertility
Indicators, organic Matter Indicators, and soil Reaction Indicators.
Tutor marked assignment
What do you understand by the term essentiality of nutrient?
Mention the various ways by which N,P, and K can be held in unavailable forms in the soils
Why is potassium deficient in organic soils?
Explain the terms: intensity factor, quantity factor, and capacity factor
How does the capacity factor of a soil affect crop production?
Explain ammonium and phosphorus fixation in soils.
How can nutrient cycling in the soil be measured?
References/further reading
1. Amacher, M.C. Miller, B.J. (1988). Soil Fertility Levels in: Soil Survey, United States
Department of Agriculture.
2. Atwell B.J. et. al, 1999. Plants in Action: Adaptive in Nature, Performance in Cultivation.
Macmillan Education Australia Pty Ltd.
http://plantsinaction.science.uq.edu.au/edition1?q=content/16-2-soil-plant-nutrient-relations
3. Kanwar J.S.(Ed.), (1976). Soil Fertility Theory and Practices. ICAR, N.D.
4. Marschener, P. (ed) (2012). Marschners Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants (3rd Edn).
Academic Press. London, UK.
145
5. Sparks, D.L., and Huang, P.M. (1985). Physical chemistry of soil potassium. In Potassium in
Agriculture (R.E. Munson, ed.), pp. 201276. Am. Soc. Agron., Madison, WI.
6. Tisdale S.L., Nelson W.L., Beaton J.D., and Havlin J.L., 1995. Soil Fertility and Fertilizers.
Macmillan Publishing Co.
146

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SLM 506: Integrated Soil Management (2 Units)

UNIT 1 Acid soils

Understand the concept of soil acidity

Understand the characteristics of acid soils

Explain the importance of soil acidity to crop production

Understand how acid soils can be reclaimed and managed

3.0 Main component

Figure 1 pH range of different soil types

2FeS2 + 7H2O + 71/2O2

NO3- + 2H+ + H2O

Another important agricultural process contributing to soil acidification is the dissolution of

[Al(H2O)6]3+ + H2O [Al(OH)(H2O)5]2+ + H3O+ . (1)

Figure 4 Influence of pH on nutrient availability. (http://onpasture.com/)

3. 4 Classification of soil acidity

3.4.2 Exchangeable acidity. This represents the amount of H+ that is exchanged by an

3.5 Measurement of soil acidity

3.6.3 Types of liming materials

colorimetric measurement is affected by temperature and nature and concentration of soluble

7.0 References/further reading

UNIT 2 Salt affected soils

3.1 Causes of soil alkalinity

Understand the concept of soil salinity

Differentiate between the different types of salt affected soils.

Understand how salt affected soils can be reclaimed and managed

3.0 Main component

HCO3- + OH- (2)

H2CO3 + OH- . (3)

H2CO3 + CO2 (4)

3.2 Characteristics of salt affected soils

Phosphorus is also another deficient nutrient in alkaline soils.

3.3 Measurement of salinity and sodicity

ESP = exchangeable sodium, cmolc/kg

Cation exchange capacity, cmolc/kg

Figure 3 Determination of salinity levels in the field through measurement of electrical

3.4 Types of salt affected soils

3.4.1 Saline soils

3.4.2 Saline-sodic soils

3.4.3 Sodic soils

3.5.1 Reclamation of saline soils

3.5.2 Reclamation of saline sodic soils

CaCO3 + Na2SO4 + CO2

CaCO3 + Na2SO4 .. (2)

3.6 Management of reclaimed soils

6.0 Tutor marked assignment

Differentiate between the types of soil salinity.

7.0 References/further readings

UNIT 3 Wetland soils

6.0 Tutor marked assignment

Define wetlands and explain related concepts and regulations

Explain management of wetland soils

3.0 Main component

Figure 1. Small (a), Medium (b) and Large (c) Wetlands

at least periodically, the land supports hydrophytes;

the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil;

Organic soils (histosols) (Fig 2)

Aquic moisture regime

Reducing soil conditions

Gleyed soils (gray colors)

High organic matter in surface horizon